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Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
!"#$%&" #!
The design of AL-Malyiah Intersection Overpass will consider all the loads
that are expected to be applied to the bridge during its service life. Such
loads may vary based on the following
Detailed below are a brief history of the AASHTO design loads and a
discussion of various loading condition based on the classes listed above.
An overview of the principal design methods used by designers is also
provided.
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Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | ,
The H and HS design trucks still represent the core standard in use today
in the United States and those nations adhering to AASHTO standard (like
Yemen). In 1975, however, the U.S. federal government upgraded the
allowable gross weight for trucks from 73,280 Ib (33,240kg) to 80,000Ib
(36,288kg). This meant that the heaviest design vehicle was now 8000Ib
(3629kg) less than the allowable truck weight (i.e.,80,000 Ib allowable
minus 72,000 Ib design vehicle). Some states responded by upgrading the
standard AASHTO 1944 circa design vehicles from a 72,000 Ib (32,659kg)
weight to a 90,000 Ib (40,824kg) weight.
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Permanent loads, as the name would imply, are those loads which always
remain and act on a bridge throughout its life. Although the term dead
load is often used synonymously with permanent loads, there are
distinctions which need to be made. For this discussion, permanent loads
are divided into the following categories.
x
The dead load on a superstructure is the aggregate weight of all
superstructure elements (i.e., those elements above the bearings). This
would include, but not be limited to the deck, wearing surface, stay-in-
place forms, sidewalks and railing, parapets, primary members, secondary
members, signing and utilities. The abbreviation DL is used to reference
dead load.
x x
Basically, this load covers the bridge furnishings that include possible
insulation layer, protective layers, roadway surfacing, and sidewalk build
up, railing, barrier, lighting, etc. The weights of these items may be
determined taking into account possible repairs, for example additional
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
x
Pressures due to earth are also considered permanent loads. While these
loads primarily affect substructure element, they have the potential of
impacting superstructure elements as well at points where these two
components interface (e.g., at the abutment back wall).
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Temporary loads are those loads which are placed on a bridge for only a
short period of time. Just as dead loads are the principal permanent
loading condition, live loads represent the major temporary loading
condition. There are, however, several other classes of temporary loads
which I will consider. Discussed below are the major forms of temporary
loading.
x
The term live load means a load that moves along the length of a span.
Therefore, a person walking along the bridge can be considered live load.
Obviously, however, a highway bridge has to be designed to withstand
more than pedestrian loading. To give designer the ability to accurately
model the live load on a structure, hypothetical design vehicle based on
truck loading were developed.
Although the automobile (car) is the most common vehicular live load on
most bridges, the truck causes the critical load effects. In a sense, cars are
felt very little by the bridge. More precisely, the load effects of the car
traffic compared to the effect of truck traffic are negligible.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | /
The introduction of five new truck classes was made in 1944. These
classes have the following designations and gross vehicle weights:
*, 1,2
The figure below illustrates the design truck and its associated geometry.
O
. The truck is
then moved along the length of the span to determine the point of
maximum moment. It is important to stress that the H and HS trucks do
not represent an actual truck being used to transport goods and
materials. The load specification in the code must be regarded as an
abstraction; it serves to simulate the realistically occurring live loads as a
suitable upper bound, valid for the structure as a whole as well as for
individual structural parts. In other words, they intend to simplify the
analysis effort in a conservative manner to simulate the greatest stresses
caused by actual trucks.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | 4
A
& 6
^Y 100,000 N for Moment
^Y 144,722 N for Shear
A
Figure (2.1) loading to be used for the design of AL-Malyiah Intersection Overpass
a.Y HS25 Truck loading
b.Y HS25 Lane loading
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
From the figure we see that the HS truck have a variable spacing between
the two rear axles. This distance between axles, varying from (4.27 to
9.140m), is used to create a live lading situation which will induce
maximum moment in a span. For simply supported bridges, this value will
be the 4.27 m minimum. In continuous spans, however, the distance
between axles is varied to position the axles at adjacent supports in such
a fashion as to create the maximum negative moment.
Replacing the train of trucks in the 1935 circa design code are lane-loading
configurations which approximate a 40.000Ib (18.144kg) truck followed by
a train of 30.000 Ib (13.608kg) trucks. To model this, a uniform distributed
load is used combined with a concentrated force. This force varies for
moment and shear computations as shown in figure 1. Where truck
loading generally governs for short, simple span, lane loading typically
holds for long and continuous span bridge. Like truck loading, the
concentrated load is moved along the span to determine the point of
maximum moment.
For simple span bridge and for determining maximum positive moment in
continuous spans, only one concentrated load is used in conjunction with
the uniform load. To determine maximum negative moment in
continuous spans, however, two concentrated loads are used.
A reduction in the live load intensity is permitted for bridges with three or
more lanes that have maximum stress caused by fully loading each lane. A
90 percent reduction of three lane structure and 75 percent reduction for
bridge with four or more lanes is allowed (AASHTO 3.12). This reduction is
permitted given the rarity of the situation where simultaneously loading
in multiple occurs.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
It must be emphasized that the live loads given by the AASHTO are valid
up to certain span lengths only, up to 500 ft, where in AL-Malyiah
Intersection Overpass, the span will not exceed 150 ft (45 m) which
emphasizes that AASHTO loads are valid for this project.
The fact is that the loads prescribed by the AASHTO were determined
with span lengths in mind which are current at the time when the codes
were drafted and which since then may have been outdated by
subsequent evolution of the bridge construction techniques.
-8
2
Earthquake loading is a product of Ô
which are dependent on
the geographic location of the bridge. In general, there are three major
natural forces with which the bridge engineer must be concerned:
ëY Seismic forces
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
ëY Wind forces
ëY Thermal forces
Like the vehicle live loads discussed above, seismic, and wind are
temporary loads on a structure which act for a short duration, while
thermal forces fall in another grouping to be discussed later.
Superstructure elements, though, are affected by seismic forces in many
ways. We can, then, offer the following general overview concerning
earthquake loading.
The seismic analysis of highway bridges has become an involved task over
the years. Beginning with the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and
continuing with more recently, the1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the
seismic design code has undergone extensive revisions, and expansion.
Because of the complex nature of seismic activity (and the lake of any
concrete methodology) the design provisions ,as set forth in codes like the
AASHTO specifications, are at best, a simplification of the actual physical
effects of an earthquake , and at worst , an approximation of what will
happen . As is the case with vehicular loading, the forces caused by
seismic activity are described as an idealization of those actually exerted.
This may lead to one of the following types of analysis to determine the
elastic forces and displacements:
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
Based on the SPC and the number of spans, one of two different analysis
methods is chosen to calculate the loading on the bridge due to
earthquake forces. The two methods of analysis used are:
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
In general, regular bridge in areas of low seismic activity utilize the less
involved single-mode analysis method , while irregular bridges in high
seismic risk locations require the multimode spectral analysis approach.
The former can be performed using conventional hand calculation
methods, but the latter demands more rigorous computer-aided
solutions.
x
Like earthquake loading, wind loading offers a complicated set of loading
conditions which must be idealized in order to provide a workable design.
Although the problem of modeling of wind forces is a dynamic one, with
winds acting over a given time interval, these forces can be approximated
as a static load being uniformly distributed over the exposed region of a
bridge.
The exposed region of the bridge is taken as the aggregate surface areas
of all elements (both superstructure and substructure) as seen in
elevation (i.e. perpendicular to the longitudinal axis). The loading on a
bridge due to wind forces is specified by AASHTO based on an assumed
wind velocity of 160 kilometer per hour.
For the usual girder and slab bridges having maximum span length of 125
ft (38 m), the following wind loading may be used.
Where in our case the span will not exceed 150 ft (45 m), therefore the
following wind loads can be used.
l
6
l
5
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
This force is applied (1.8 m) above the top of deck surface. The effect of
longitudinal forces on the superstructure is inconsequential. Substructure
elements, however, are affected more significantly. In general, the more
stiff or rigid the structure, the more sever the effects of the longitudinal
forces will be
,& 2
6
C = 1.33 v2/(gr)
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | ,
Rather than actual force, the value C above is percentage, similar to the 5
percent for longitudinal force, which is applied to the live load on the
structure. The percentage, multiplied by the live load, yields the force to
be applied 1.8 m over the deck surface. Unlike longitudinal force, though,
centrifugal forces are computed using truck loading rather than lane
loading. One standard design truck is placed in each design traffic lane
such that maximum stresses in the bridge are generated.
6
In order to account for the dynamic effects of the sudden loading of a
vehicle onto a structure, an impact factor is used as multiplier for certain
structural elements. For basic dynamics, we know that a load move across
a member introduces larger stresses than one statically placed on it.
While actual modeling of this effect can be complex affair, the impact
factor allows for a conservative idealization of the problem. AASHTO
defines the impact factor as follow (AASHTO 3.8.2).
I = 15.24/(L+38)
/& 6
It is possible that during the erection of a structure, various members
come under loading conditions which are induced by construction
equipment or other types of loads. In situations where this is foreseen
during the design process, these loads should be taken into account and
the amount of load will depend mainly on the method of construction.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
6&
Creep is the deformation of concrete caused by loads sustained over a
period of time. When a concrete member is initially loaded, it undergoes
an instantaneous strain and related deformation. If the load is sustained
over a period of time (as a deck resting on a concrete girder), a creep
strain, roughly 1.5 to 3 times and the magnitude of the instantaneous
strain will be induced.
Another factor which affects creep is the percent of humidity on the day
the concrete was poured, the cross sectional dimensions, the cement
amount, water-cement ratio, cement type, and the aggregate content and
its modulus of elasticity. The less the moisture present, the more the
creep in concrete. Therefore, lower humidity percent value lead to more
excessive creep deformation which is the case in Sana͛a ; humidity values
will be checked from relative authority.
With respect to highway bridges, creep can cause changes in the physical
length of concrete members. This deformation can lead to problems with
bearing alignment and superstructure stability. The ACI Code instructs
designers to make a ͞realistic assessment͟ of the effects of creep. This
assessment is taken into account when computing the ultimate strength
of concrete element.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | /
possible with the mechanical axis of the element i.e. the line through the
center of gravity.
62
Although creep is related to shrinkage, the two types of deformation are
separate phenomena. Shrinkage is the natural which is not related to
loading of a member. When shrinkage takes place, the concrete volume
generally decreases (shrinks). This is usually caused by a moisture loss
while drying. Therefore, like creep, shrinkage is sensitive to the humidity
condition of the air. In general, concrete will shrink or contract when
there is
Y Loss of moisture
Y Hardeneing
Shrinkage will thus be taking place at the same time as the effects of
creep are being to be noticed. Reinforcement is added perpendicular to
the main reinforcement to account for tensile stresses induced by
shrinkage. Another way of limiting the effect of shrinkage is to make sure
that concrete is properly poured. " 2 9
2 6 2 61 6 6
: 6; :
; 2. The concrete
should then be kept moist during curing, allowing for a slow cure that will
minimize contraction of the concrete. To be sure, there is no way of
completely eliminate shrinkage, but proper attention will limit its effect.
6
The downward movement of a footing, approach pavement, or structure
due to deformation and/or changes in the soil properties is known as
settlement, settlement can be initiated by a number of factors which
include, but are not limited to
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e | 4
With regard with the latter item above, the shrinkage and swelling of soil
due to seasonal variations in moisture can lead to settlement problems.
Therefore, it is important that footing be located at the depth that is
unaffected by these functions.
6"
6
The effects of thermal forces on a structure are significant and should not
be underestimated. In general, thermal forces are caused by fluctuations
in temperature (i.e. from hot to cold or cold to hot). AASHTO provides
recommended temperature ranges for the design of concrete structures
AASHTO 3.16
"
& 6 6 6 2
&
1.6½C 7.2½C
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
Like the adverse effect which result from uneven settlement, structures
can suffer from uneven temperature distribution. This means that, if one
side of the structure is continuously exposed to the sun while the other
side is shaded, the differential in temperature can cause high thermal
forces. These forces generally have the most impact on bearings and deck
joints.
A related, and more sever, problem for concrete is when there are
repeated sudden changes in temperature. Numerous such cycles cause
the concrete to repeatedly expand and contract, further increasing
temperature stresses.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :
Sana͛a University
Faculty Of Engineering
PROGRESS REREPORT Nō 2 Department of Civil Engineering
|
AL-Malyiah Intersection Design January 2009 ñ
ñ
Design of Prestressed Concrete Overpass
FINAL YEAR PROJECT x x
P a g e |
6
ëY AASHTO, (1996) Standard Specification For Highway Bridge Design,
16th edition, AASHTO, Washington, DC.
ëY Demetrios E. Tonias, P.E. 1994 . ͞Design, Rehabilitation, and
Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridge.
ëY Paul E. Mondorf 2006, ͞Concrete Bridges͟.
ëY Richard M. Baker, Jay A. Puckett 2007. ͞ Design of Highway Bridge
an LRFD Approach͟.
Dr. Eng. :
Dr.Eng. :