Advanced Sciences

REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
Dr. N. SENTHIL KUMAR
Department of Structural & Geotechnical Engineering,

School of Civil & Chemical Engineering SCALE,
VIT University, Vellore - 632014,
TAMIL NADU, INDIA
+91-416-2202265 n.senthilkumar@vit.ac.in N Senthil Kumar Vit

+91 9003378135 dr.n.senthil.kumar.india@gmail.com Sarveshwaran Senthil kumar
Dr. NSK (Tamil Nadu, INDIA) REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN VIT FALL 2019-20 1 / 37
1 BEHAVIOUR OF CONC. UNDER UNIAXIAL COMP. 3
Behaviour of concrete under uniaxial compression 3
Influence of Size of Test Specimen 5
Stress - Strain Curves 12
2 CREEP OF CONCRETE 19
Time-Dependent Behaviour under Sustained Loading 19
3 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN CONCRETE 24

Shrinkage 24
Temperature Effects 30
4 REINFORCING STEEL 34
Stress-Strain Curves 34
5 References 37
Books 37
*
BEHAVIOUR OF CONC. UNDER UNIAXIAL COMP.
Behaviour of concrete under uniaxial compression
Referred from [2]
The strength of concrete under uniaxial compression is

determined by loading ”standard test cubes” (150 mm size) to
failure in a compression testing machine, as per IS 516.
The test specimens are generally tested 28 days after casting
(and continuous curing).
The loading is strain-controlled and generally applied at a uniform
strain rate of 0.001 mm/mm per minute in a standard test.
The maximum stress attained during the loading process is
referred to as the cube strength of concrete.
the cube strength is subject to variability; its characteristic
(5-percentile) and mean values are denoted by fck and fcm
respectively.
Behaviour of concrete under uniaxial compression
The mean strength of the concrete fcm (as obtained from 28-day
compression tests) has to be significantly greater than the 5
percentile characteristic strength fck that is specified by the
designer.
Influence of Size of Test Specimen
Referred from [2]
It has been observed that the height/width ratio and the

cross-sectional dimensions of the test specimen have a
pronounced effect on the compressive strength (maximum stress
level) obtained from the uniaxial compression test.
These effects are illustrated in Fig. 1 for cylinder specimens.
The standard test cylinder has a diameter of 150 mm and a

height-diameter ratio equal to 2.0.
With reference to this ’standard’, it is seen that, maintaining same
diameter of 150 mm, the strength increases by about 80 percent
as the height/diameter ratio is reduced from 2.0 to 0.5 [Fig.
1(a)]; also, maintaining the same height/diameter ratio of 2.0, the
strength drops by about 17 percent as the diameter is increased
from 150 mm to 900 mm [Fig. 1(b)].
Although the real reasons for this behaviour are not known with
certainty, some plausible explanations that have been proposed
are discussed below.
Firstly, a proper measure of uniaxial compressive stress can be

obtained (in terms of load divided by cross-sectional area) only if
the stress is uniformly distributed across the cross-section of the
longitudinally loaded test specimen.
Such a state of stress can be expected only at some distance
away from the top and bottom surfaces where the loading is
applied (St. Venant’s principle) - which is possible only if the
height/width ratio of the specimen is sufficiently large.
Referred from [1]
“ The stresses and strains in a body at points that are

sufficiently remote from points of application of load de-
pends only on the static resultant of the loads and not on
the distribution of loads.
S T. V ENANT ’ S PRINCIPLE
i.e. sufficiently far away from the point of load application, the
distribution of normal stress is uniform.
Secondly, uniaxial compression implies that the specimen is not

subject to lateral loading or lateral restraint.
However, in practice, lateral restraint, known as platen restraint,
is bound to manifest owing to the friction between the end
surfaces of the concrete specimen and the adjacent steel platens
of the testing machine.
This introduces radial (inward) shear forces at the top and
bottom surfaces, resulting in restraint against free Lateral
displacements.
The effect of this lateral restraint is to enhance the compressive

strength (maximum stress prior to failure) in the longitudinal
direction; this effect dies down with increasing distance from the
platen restraint.
Thus, the value of the compressive strength descends on the
height/width ratio of the specimen; the greater this ratio, the
Less the strength, because the less is the beneficial influence of
the lateral restraint at the (weakest) section, located near the
mid-height of the specimen.
Figure 1: Influence of (a) height/diameter ratio and (b) diameter on cylinder

strength
Stress - Strain Curves
Figure 2: Typical stress-strain curves of concrete in compression
Typical stress-strain curves of concrete (of various grades),

obtained from standard uniaxial compression tests, are shown in
Fig. 2.
The curves are somewhat linear in the very initial phase of
loading; the non-linearity begins to gain significance when the
stress level exceeds about one-third to one-half of the maximum.
The maximum stress is reached at a strain approximately equal
to 0.002; beyond this point, an increase in strain is accompanied
by a decrease in stress.
For the usual range of concrete strength, the strain at failure is in
the range of 0.003 to 0.005.
“ The higher the concrete grade, the steeper is the

initial portion of the stress-strain curve, the sharper the
peak of the curve and the less the failure strain. For low
strength concrete the curve has a relatively flat top, and
a high failure strain.
[2]
When the stress level reaches 70 − 90 percent of the maximum,

internal cracks are initiated in the mortar throughout the concrete
mass, roughly parallel to the direction of the applied loading [Ref.
Fig. 4].
The concrete tends to expand laterally, and longitudinal cracks
become visible when the lateral strain (due to the Poisson effect)
exceeds the limiting tensile strain of concrete (0.0001 − 0.0002).
The cracks generally occur at the aggregate-mortar interface.
As a result of the associated larger lateral extensions, the
apparent Poisson’s ratio increases sharply [Ref. Fig. 5].
Referred from [1]

Poisson effect and Poisson’s ratio µ
dtran
µ=− (1)
daxial
tran is transverse strain (negative for axial tension (stretching), positive

for axial compression)
axial is axial strain (positive for axial tension, negative for axial
compression).
µ for some materials:
Rubber = 0.50
Steel = 0.30
Concrete = 0.15
Referred from [2]
The descending branch of the stress-strain curve can be fully

traced only if the strain-controlled application of the load is
properly achieved.
For this, the testing machine must be sufficiently rigid (i.e., it must
have a very high value of load per unit deformation); otherwise,
the concrete is likely to fail abruptly, (sometimes explosively)
almost immediately after the maximum stress is reached.
The fall in stress with increasing strain is a phenomenon which is
not clearly understood; it is associated, with extensive
micro-cracking in the mortar, and is sometimes called softening
of concrete [Ref. Fig. 6].
“ Experimental studies [Ref. Fig. 6, 7] have also

confirmed that the stress-strain relation for the compres-
sion zone of a reinforced concrete flexural member is
nearly identical to that obtained for uniaxial compression.
For the purpose of design of reinforced concrete flexu-
ral members, various simplified stress-strain curves have
been adopted by different codes.
[2]
CREEP OF CONCRETE
Time-Dependent Behaviour under Sustained Loading
Referred from [2]
When concrete is subject to sustained compressive loading, its

deformation keeps increasing with time, even though the stress
level is not altered.
The time-dependent component of the total strain is termed
creep.
The time-dependent behaviour of the total strain in concrete
(considering both ’instantaneous’ strain and creep strain) is
depicted in Fig. 3.
CREEP OF CONCRETE
Figure 3: Typical strain-time curve for concrete in uniaxial compression
CREEP OF CONCRETE
The instantaneous strain is that which is assumed to occur

’instantaneously’ on application of the loading.
This may have both ’elastic’ and ’inelastic’ components,
depending on the stress level [Fig. 1]
In practice, as the stress level under service loads is relatively low,
the inelastic component is negligible.
If the stress is maintained at a constant level, the strain will
continue to increase with time (as indicated by the solid line in the
curve in Fig. 3), although at a progressively decreasing rate.
CREEP OF CONCRETE
The increase in strain at any time is termed the creep strain.

This is sometimes expressed in terms of the creep coefficient
(C), defined as the ratio of the creep strain at time ’t’ to the
instantaneous strain (’initial elastic strain’).
The maximum value of Cu ,is called the ultimate creep coefficient (
designated as θ by the Code); its value is found to vary widely in
the range 1.3 to 4.2
CREEP OF CONCRETE
If the sustained load is removed at any time, the strain follows the
curve shown by the dashed line in Fig. 3.
There is an instantaneous recovery of strain by an amount equal
to the elastic strain (to the extent permitted by the prevailing
modulus of elasticity) due to the load removed at this age.
This is followed by a gradual decrease in strain, which is termed
as creep recovery.
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinks in the hardened state due to loss of moisture by

evaporation; the consequent reduction in volume is termed drying
shrinkage (often, simply shrinkage).
Like creep, shrinkage introduces time-dependent strains in
concrete Fig. 4.
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
Shrinkage and creep are not independent phenomena.

However, for convenience, it is normal practice to treat their effects
as separate, independent and additive.
All the factors related to constituent material properties,
composition of mix, curing and environmental conditions, member
size and age that affect creep also affect shrinkage.
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
However, unlike creep, shrinkage strains are independent of the

stress conditions in the concrete.
Also, shrinkage is reversible to a great extent, i.e., alternating dry
and wet conditions will cause alternating volume changes in
concrete.
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
Figure 4: Typical variation of shrinkage with time
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
When shrinkage is restrained, as it often is in concrete structures,

tensile stresses develop, and, if excessive, may lead to cracking.
Similarly, a differential shrinkage, due to a moisture or thermal
gradient, or due to a differential restraint to shrinkage (caused, for
example, by unsymmetrically placed reinforcement in a beam) will
result in internal stresses, curvature and deflections.
Shrinkage, like creep, also leads to a loss of prestress in
prestressed concrete structures.
CONCRETE
Shrinkage
“ Since the primary cause of shrinkage is moisture

loss from the cement paste phase of the concrete, it can
be minimized by keeping the unit water content in the
mix as low as possible and the total aggregate content
as high as possible.
[2]
CONCRETE
Temperature Effects
Concrete expands with a temperature rise and contracts as the

temperature drops; thermal contraction, in fact, produces effects
similar to shrinkage.
CONCRETE
Temperature Effects
As a consequence of seasonal variations in temperature, internal

stresses are induced in structures (which are statically
indeterminate), owing to restrictions in free movements.
In order to limit the development of temperature stresses in
reinforced concrete buildings with large plan dimensions, it is
desirable to provide suitable expansion joints at appropriate
locations - particularly where there are marked changes in plan
dimensions
CONCRETE
Temperature Effects
Temperature stresses also develop on account of differential

temperature (thermal gradient), as in roof slabs (particularly of
air-conditioned rooms) exposed to the sun, or in chimneys which
release hot gases.
In the design of many structures (such as reinforced concrete
chimneys and cooling towers), ’temperature loads’ need to be
specially considered in the design.
CONCRETE
Temperature Effects
In general, it is good design practice to provide some nominal

reinforcement (close to the surface) in concrete at locations
where cracks can potentially develop, due to the effects of
temperature and shrinkage.
This is particularly desirable in the case of large exposed surface
of concrete (such as web faces of large-size beams) which are
otherwise unreinforced.
REINFORCING STEEL
Stress-Strain Curves
Figure 5: Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing steels
REINFORCING STEEL
Figure 6: Effect of cold-working on mild steel bars
REINFORCING STEEL
Figure 7: Definition of yield strength - high strength steel
References
Books
[1] N. Senthil Kumar.
Reinforced concrete design.
Class slides-VIT-Vellore, 2019.
[2] Unnikrishna Pillai. S and Devdas Menon.
Reinforced Concrete Design.
TATA McGraw-Hill Publishing company Ltd, 2011.

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REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Dr. N. SENTHIL KUMAR

Department of Structural & Geotechnical Engineering,

+91-416-2202265 n.senthilkumar@vit.ac.in N Senthil Kumar Vit

3 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN CONCRETE 24

Referred from [2]

The strength of concrete under uniaxial compression is

Referred from [2]

It has been observed that the height/width ratio and the

The standard test cylinder has a diameter of 150 mm and a

Firstly, a proper measure of uniaxial compressive stress can be

Referred from [1]

“ The stresses and strains in a body at points that are

Secondly, uniaxial compression implies that the specimen is not

The effect of this lateral restraint is to enhance the compressive

Figure 1: Influence of (a) height/diameter ratio and (b) diameter on cylinder

Figure 2: Typical stress-strain curves of concrete in compression

Typical stress-strain curves of concrete (of various grades),

“ The higher the concrete grade, the steeper is the

When the stress level reaches 70 − 90 percent of the maximum,

Referred from [1]

tran is transverse strain (negative for axial tension (stretching), positive

Referred from [2]

The descending branch of the stress-strain curve can be fully

“ Experimental studies [Ref. Fig. 6, 7] have also

Referred from [2]

When concrete is subject to sustained compressive loading, its

Figure 3: Typical strain-time curve for concrete in uniaxial compression

The instantaneous strain is that which is assumed to occur

The increase in strain at any time is termed the creep strain.

Concrete shrinks in the hardened state due to loss of moisture by

Shrinkage and creep are not independent phenomena.

However, unlike creep, shrinkage strains are independent of the

Figure 4: Typical variation of shrinkage with time

When shrinkage is restrained, as it often is in concrete structures,

“ Since the primary cause of shrinkage is moisture

Concrete expands with a temperature rise and contracts as the

As a consequence of seasonal variations in temperature, internal

Temperature stresses also develop on account of differential

In general, it is good design practice to provide some nominal

Figure 5: Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcing steels

Figure 6: Effect of cold-working on mild steel bars

Figure 7: Definition of yield strength - high strength steel

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tran is transverse strain (negative for axial tension (stretching), positive