BATTERY

Battery basics
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smartphones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that
when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When
a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within,
allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy
to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current
to flow out of the battery to perform work. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred
to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to additionally include
devices composed of a single cell.

Types of batteries

 Aluminium-ion battery
 Flow battery
 Vanadium redox battery
 Zinc–bromine battery
 Zinc–cerium battery
 Lead–acid battery
 Deep cycle battery
 VRLA battery
 AGM battery
 Gel battery
 Glass battery
 Lithium air battery
 Lithium-ion battery
 Lithium ion lithium cobalt oxide battery (ICR)
 Lithium ion manganese oxide battery (IMR)
 Lithium ion polymer battery
 Lithium iron phosphate battery
 Lithium–sulfur battery
 Lithium–titanate battery
 Thin film lithium-ion battery
 Magnesium-ion battery
 Molten salt battery
 Nickel–cadmium battery
 Nickel–cadmium battery vented cell type
 Nickel hydrogen battery
 Nickel–iron battery
 Nickel metal hydride battery
  Low self-discharge ni-mh battery
 Nickel–zinc battery
 Organic radical battery
 Polymer-based battery
 Polysulfide bromide battery
 Potassium-ion battery
 Rechargeable alkaline battery
 Rechargeable fuel battery
 Silicon air battery
 Silver-zinc battery
 Silver calcium battery
 Sodium-ion battery

Easily available batteries-

 Lithium-ion batteries
 Lead acid batteries
 Lithium ion polymer
 Nickel cadmium batteries

Comparison between batteries

Fig no
 LEAD ACID BATTERY
The lead-acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté and is the
oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low
energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a
relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, makes it
attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter
motors.
As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead-acid batteries are widely
used even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy
densities. Large-format lead-acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies
in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems.

Fig no

Electrochemistry

Disc In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (pbso
4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water.
The discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back
into the cell at the positive plate in the external circuit.

Fig no
Negative plate reaction

Pb(s) + HSO−
4(aq) → pbso
4(s) + H+
(aq) + 2e− Release of two conducting electrons gives lead electrode a net negative charge

• As electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels
sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged
electrode from the solution which limits further reactions unless charge is allowed to flow out
of electrode.

Positive plate reaction

Pbo
2(s) + HSO−
4(aq) + 3H+
(aq) + 2e− → pbso
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)

The total reaction can be written as

Pb(s) + pbo
2(s) + 2H
2SO
4(aq) → 2pbso
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)

The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can
produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-
hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). For a 2 volts cell,
this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice gives
only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other
constituent parts.

Charging

Fig no
Fully recharged: Lead anode, Lead oxide cathode and sulfuric acid electrolyte .In the fully
charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate lead dioxide, with the
electrolyte of concentrated sulfuric acid.Overcharging with high
charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, which is lost to
the cell. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allow the electrolyte level to be inspected
and topped up with any water that has been lost. Due to the freezing-point depression of the
electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the
electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter weather when discharged.

Ion motion

During discharge, H+
produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and then is consumed into
the positive plates, while HSO−4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during
charge. This motion can be by electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or
by diffusion through the medium, or by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the density
is greater when the sulfuric acid concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate
by convection. Therefore, a liquid-medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge
more efficiently than an otherwise similar gel cell.

Measuring the charge level

Fig.no

A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure of its state of
charge. Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one
major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge
by merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the
battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating
balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the specific gravity was
regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much
longer the boat could remain submerged. The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used
to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the
state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health
of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed. Note that
neither technique gives any indication of charge capacity, only charge level. Charge capacity
of any rechargeable battery will decline with age and usage, meaning that it may no longer be
fit for purpose even when nominally fully charged. Other tests, usually involving current drain,
are used to determine the residual charge capacity of a battery.

Battery parameters

Sr no parameter Specification

1 voltage 12V

2 No of batteries 4

3 Specific energy 33-42Wh/kg

4 Energy density 60-110Wh/J

5 Specific power 180W/kg

6 Charge discharge efficiency 50-95%

7 Cycle durability 500-800cycles

8 Charge temperature Min,-35-45 C

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of mechanical energy into electrical
energy and is done by an electric generator .In normal motoring mode, most electric motors
operate through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and winding currents
to generate force within the motor. In certain applications, such as in the transportation industry
with traction motors, electric motors can operate in both motoring and generating or braking
modes to also produce electrical energy from mechanical energy Found in applications as
diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household appliances, power
tools, and disk drives, electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as
from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as from
the power grid, inverters or generators. Small motors may be found in electric watches.
General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide
convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The largest of electric motors are used for ship
propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100
megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal
construction, application, type of motion output, and so on. Electric motors are used to produce
linear or rotary force (torque), and should be distinguished from devices such as magnetic
solenoids and loudspeakers that convert electricity into motion but do not generate usable
mechanical powers, which are respectively referred to as actuators and transducers.

Types of motors

There are various types of motors available according to their working principle, supply ,and
operating conditions they are classified below.

Fig no-
Comparison between motors-

Fig no

BLDC MOTOR

Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically

commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors powered by DC electricity
via an inverter/switching power supply which produces an AC/bi-directional electric current to
drive each phase of the motor via a closed loop controller. The controller times commutation
(hence rpm) and creates current waveforms (hence torque). In this context alternating current
does not imply but does include a sinusoidal waveform, with minimal restriction on waveform;
it must be periodic, and its frequency will determine motor rpm, and the waveform does effect
how smooth the generated torque is as well as the motors efficiency at transforming electrical
to mechanical energy. In a well design PMSM the air gap magnetic flux is spatial sinusoidal
and the phase commutation currents are sinusoidal, ninety degrees out of phase. The motor
structural elements of a brushless motor system is typically permanent magnet synchronous
motor, but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor. In a brushless DC
motor, two coils are energized at a time with equal and opposite polarities: one pushes the rotor
away from it while the other attracts the rotor towards it. This increases the overall torque
capacity of the motor and Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder determine which two coils
have to be energized to achieve this strategy.A typical controller contains 3 bi-directional
outputs (i.e., frequency controlled three phase output), which are controlled by a logic circuit.
Simple controllers employ comparators to determine when the output phase should be
advanced, while more advanced controllers employ a microcontroller to manage acceleration,
control speed and fine-tune efficiency.

Fig no

Bldc motor controller

While BLDC motors are mechanically relatively simple, they do require sophisticated control
electronics and regulated power supplies. The designer is faced with the challenge of dealing
with a three-phase high-power system that demands precise control to run efficiently.
 fig no

Figure shows a typical arrangement for driving a BLDC motor with Hall-effect sensors. (The
control of a sensorless BLDC motor using back EMF measurement will be covered in a future
article.) This system shows the three coils of the motor arranged in a “Y” formation, a
Microchip PIC18F2431 microcontroller, an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) driver,
and a three-phase inverter comprising six IGBTs (metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) can also be used for the high-power switching). The output from the
microcontroller (mirrored by the IGBT driver) comprises pulse width modulated (PWM)
signals that determine the average voltage and average current to the coils (and hence motor
speed and torque). The motor uses three Hall-effect sensors (A, B, and C) to indicate rotor
position. The rotor itself uses two pairs of permanent magnets to generate the magnetic flux.
The system employs a six-step commutation sequence for each electrical revolution. Because
the motor has two pairs of magnets, two electrical revolutions are required to spin the motor
once. A pair of Hall-effect sensors determines when the microcontroller energizes a coil. In
this example, sensors H1 and H2 determine the switching of coil U. When H2 detects a N
magnet pole, coil U is positively energized; when H1 detects a N magnet pole, coil U is
switched open; when H2 detects a S magnet pole coil U is switched negative, and finally, when
H1 detects a S magnet pole, coil U is again switched open. Similarly, sensors H2 and H3
determine the energizing of coil V, with H1 and H3 looking after coil W. At each step, two
phases are on with one phase feeding current to the motor, and the other providing a current
return path. The other phase is open. The microcontroller controls which two of the switches
in the three-phase inverter must be closed to positively or negatively energize the two active
coils. For example, switching Q1 in Figure 3 positively energizes coil A and switching Q2
negatively energizes coil B to provide the return path. Coil C remains open.
Motor parameter

Sr no Parameter value

1 wattage 3000watt

2 power 4hp st 3000rpm

3 Voltage 48volts

4 Min Current 50A

5 Rated current 60A

6 Rated torque 15Nm

7 Peak torque 21Nm

8 Breakdown voltage 50V

9 Rated RPM 3500RPM

10 No.of poles 4

Table no
 Motor connection

Battery bank

Manual
input
Motor controller BLDC motor drive

Fig no

Motor dimensions
Sr no parameter Value

1 Outer diameter 220mm

2 Height 170mm

3 Shaft diameter 21mm

4 Weight 14kg

5 Ball bearings 2nos

Fig no

6 Hall sensors 8nos

Table no