76

CHAPTER 4

THEORETICAL APPROACH FOR CHAIN

ELONGATION AND FATIGUE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, motorcycle traction force, power available at wheels,

chain force calculation based on vehicle specification, force on links due to
meshing with sprockets, bush shrinkage, pin bush deflection, modification of
bush profile, theoretical elongation evaluation of chain under various
conditions are discussed.

4.2 MOTORCYCLE TRACTION LOAD

From the motorcycle specification shown in Table 3.4 discussed in

section 3.6, the traction effort and the power on rear drive wheel are evaluated
as discussed hereunder.

4.2.1 Traction and Tractive Effort

The force available at the contact between drive wheel tyres and road
is known as ‘Tractive effort”. The ability of the drive wheels to transmit this
effort without slipping is known as ‘Traction’. The tractive effort is given by the
Equation (4.1) (Giri 2006).
 77

F Tw Te G (4.1)
t
rt rt
where Te - mean engine torque, Nm

Tw - Torque at drive wheels, Nm

G - overall gear ratio

rt - radius of tyre, m
η - overall transmission efficiency
Ft - Traction force in N

Engine torque is related by the Equation (4.2).

Pe (4.2)
2nT
c e

60000

where Pe - engine power in kW

nc - rpm of crankshaft.

Using Equations (4.1) and (4.2), and selecting the values from Tables
3.4 and A2.3, the tractive effort is found. The results are shown in Table 4.1.

In this work, motorcycles running on level roads are only considered.

Here, the roll resistance and air drag (Fenton 1996) are calculated using the
Equations (4.3) and (4.4).

Rolling resistance Rr=kr*wm (4.3)

 78

where kr - rolling constant

wm - total weight of motorcycle, N
2 (4.4)
Air drag resistance Ra= 1 c aAV

2d
where Cd - air drag coefficient

ρa - air density kg/m3

- 2
Af projected frontal area m
V - velocity of motorcycle m/s.

Table 4.1 Traction force under maximum engine power condition

Description Gear I Gear II Gear III Gear IV

Over all gear ratio 37.47216 20.03553 14.1737 10.96802

Traction Force N 817.8811 437.3027 309.3605 239.392

Assuming total weight of the vehicle to be 264 kg (motorcycle

weight 104kg plus two persons weight 160 kg) and rolling coefficient of 0.015,
rolling resistance is calculated, which is 3.96N. Similarly, air drag resistance
when motorcycle moves from first to top gear are calculated. Total resistance
acting on motorcycle is evaluated as shown in Table 4.2.
 79

Table 4.2 Motorcycle propulsion resistance

Motorcycle Motorcycle Air resistance Rolling Total

speed in m/s speed in km/hr N resistance N resistance N

6.388459 22.99845 6.121862 3.96 10.08186

11.94824 43.01368 21.41408 3.96 25.37408
16.88968 60.80286 42.78921 3.96 46.74921
21.82612 78.57405 71.45696 3.96 75.41696

A plot is made for the tractive effort and motorcycle speed at all four
gears, which is shown in Figure 4.1.
N

1000
800 1st gear
Traction effort in

600
400 2nd gear 3rd gear
Top gear
200
Road resistance
0

0 20 40 60 80 100
-200
Road speed in km/hr

Figure 4.1 Traction force

4.2.2 Power at Wheels Under Full Throttle

Motorcycle performance is based on acceleration, ability to go up a

slope, top speed, fuel economy, noise level and durability. Transmission gearing
is designed to provide maximum acceleration at low speed. The power required
to drive an automobile increases as the cube of the speed i.e. it
 80

takes eight times the power to double the speed (Giri 2006). When the power
available matches the power required to push the vehicle, the speed becomes
constant. Excess power is required for acceleration and climbing. Maximum
speed is reached when there is no excess power (Giri 2006). Based on the
tractive effort and speed, the power available at the wheels is plotted as shown
in Figure 4.2.

6
1st gear 2nd gear 3rd gear 4th gear
Power at wheel in kW 5
4
-20
3 Power required by vehicle on level road

1
Normal gear part throttle
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
Road speed in km/hr

Figure 4.2 Power at drive wheel

4.3 CHAIN FORCES IN TIGHT SPAN

Based on the power at drive wheel, it is found that under full throttle
condition maximum tractive force is developed and this would cause more
force to act on transmission chain. Hence, in this present investigation, forces
on chain are calculated for motorcycle of brand B, model 1 for maximum
power condition. Here, vehicle acceleration is classified into two stages. In
stage one, vehicle starts under first gear and during this stage, maximum torque
is required to accelerate with pay load and the acceleration of vehicle
nd rd
continuous through 2 , 3 till it reaches considerable speed. In stage two,
vehicle is further accelerated in top gear by giving more throttles, till vehicle
attains maximum steady speed overcoming all resistances. Typical
 81

values of acceleration of motorcycle (ART 2008) of the same capacity used in

this work, moving from rest on a dry surface are shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3 Motorcycle acceleration values

Speed in km/hr 20-40 40-60 60-80

Gear 2nd 3rd 4th 2nd 3rd 4th 2nd 3rd 4th
Time in sec 3.72 4.34 6.03 - 4.82 5.91 - - 10.25

In stage one, motorcycle operates mostly under maximum torque

condition and in stage two it operates under maximum power condition. Hence,
in this research work, for calculation of chain force, maximum torque condition
of engine is taken for stage one and maximum power condition is taken for
stage two. Also, efficiency of primary reduction and gear box reduction, which
normally varies from 95% to 96%, is not considered in the present study so that
it accounts for maximum force acting on chain. Therefore, without considering
the said efficiency, using engine and transmission specification from Table 3.4,
chain forces are calculated and the values are shown in Tables 4.4 and 4.5.

The calculated values are slightly higher than those that would have
been obtained if efficiency were considered. Moreover, motorcycles are not
normally operated at full throttle but mostly operated at partial throttle and
therefore force acting on chain components will be less than the forces
calculated in this work. Usually failure modes are analyzed at higher load than
at the prevailing load, which is better on design point of view. It is found that
chain forces at maximum torque condition are 7% higher than the forces at
maximum power condition.
 82

In this theoretical evaluation work, it is assumed steady state

condition and hence chain forces are taken under maximum power condition
under full throttle with the assumption that motorcycle runs at maximum speed
continuously with zero acceleration. However, to study the effect of speed
variation from stalled position to different acceleration and braking, chain
forces and speeds are taken both from maximum power and maximum torque
conditions under full throttle.

Table 4.4 Force on chain under maximum engine power condition

Description I Gear II Gear III Gear IV Gear

Drive sprocket speed rpm 615 1151 1627 2103

Driven sprocket speed rpm 200 374 529 684
Driven sprocket torque Nm 262 140 99 77
Force on chain at max power N 3242 1733 1226 949

Table 4.5 Force on chain under maximum engine torque condition

Description I Gear II Gear III Gear IV Gear

Drive sprocket speed rpm 410 767 1085 1402

Driven sprocket speed rpm 133 250 352 456
Driven sprocket torque Nm 358 150 106 82
Force on chain at max torque N 3472 1856 1313 1016

Also, in the evaluation of fatigue of rollers, maximum speed

condition is chosen, since roller fatigue failure mostly occurs at high speeds. In
the case of link plate fatigue failure evaluation, it is done at lower speeds under
maximum torque condition of engine.
 83

In the present investigation, in all theoretical evaluations except

drive cycles, chain force and speed values are taken from Table 4.4, whereas
for drive cycle modes three and five their values are taken from Table 4.5. In
th
the case of drive cycles one, two and four, in which duration of running in 4
gear (top gear) is longer, force and speed values are taken from Table 4.4 for
st rd
top gear and for 1 to 3 gears, their values are taken from Table 4.5.

As already discussed in section 3.10, forces acting on the tight span

of chains do not contribute to wear since there is nil or negligible relative
movement between pin and bush. Hence, forces acting on chain links, which
are in mesh with drive and driven sprockets that contribute for wear, are
evaluated. The details of calculation are discussed in section 4.5.2.

4.4 PARAMETERS OF ROLLER CHAIN SPROCKETS

The basic data for a roller chain sprocket are number of teeth, chain
pitch, roller diameter and roller width, height of roller link plates. Thickness of
link plates is considered in case of multiple strand chains.

4.4.1 Tooth Form

The theoretical tooth form is generated from the path of the chain
roller as it moves from the chain pitch line of the tight strand into the pitch
circle of the sprocket. The layout of the tooth form in terms of the chain pitch P,

number of teeth N and roller diameter D r, is shown in Figure 4.3 (Naji and
Marshek 1984).
 84

S
M c

0
90 900 E T
B
F A J H
a
V y e
e R
b
o
x 180
W N o
360
N

Figure 4.3 Standard roller chain sprocket tooth profile

The radius R of the seating curve and radius F of the topping curve
include the necessary clearance allowances between the sprocket and the
engaging rollers. Critical dimensions of drive and driven sprockets, which
influence chain performance are considered and evaluations of those
dimensions are carried out in this section. They are pressure angles for both
new and worn out condition of sprockets and average pressure angle, pitch
circle diameter, outer diameter of sprockets. The values of these parameters are
calculated using Equations (4.5) to (4.11), (Naji and Marshek 1984), which are
discussed hereunder.

4.4.2 Motorcycle Drive Sprocket

Substituting the values for pitch, number of teeth and roller diameter
which are given below in Equations (4.5) to (4.11), the relevant parameters of
drive sprocket are evaluated.

P - Pitch 12.7 mm
N - Number of teeth 13
Dr - Roller diameter 8.5
 85

Seating curve diameter Ds = 1.005 Dr + 0.003 (4.5)

= 1.005(8.5) + 0.003
= 8.545 mm

R = Ds/2= 0.5025 Dr + 0.0015 (4.6)

= 0.5025 (8.5) +0.0015 = 4.273 mm

P
Pitch circle diameter = (4.7)
180
sin
N

= 12.7
= 53.067 mm
180
sin
13

Approximate outside diameter of sprocket

180 180 59.145mm

P 0.6 cot 12.70 0.6 cot
N 13
(4.8)

Pressure angle for a new chain

xab 35 120 35 120 25.77 (4.9)
N 13
Minimum pressure angle is

xab B 17 64 17 64 12.077 (4.10)

N 13
 86
Average pressure angle

26 92 26 92 18.923 (4.11)

N 13

The calculated values are shown in Table 4.6.

4.4.3 Motorcycle driven sprocket

Similarly using Equations (4.5) to (4.11), pitch circle diameter,

outside diameter, pressure angles for new and worn out sprockets and average
pressure angles for driven sprocket are found as shown in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Design parameters of sprockets

No. of Outer Pitch Pressure Minimum Average

Description diam diam angle for pressure pressure
teeth mm mm
new chain angle angle
Drive 13 59.145 53.067 0 0 0
25.77 12.077 18.923
sprocket
Driven 40 168.98 161.867 320 15.40 23.70
sprocket

4.5 CHAIN LINK FORCE EVALUATION

4.5.1 Critical Angle of Chain Pin

The total elongation of chain is due to cumulative wear of pin and

bush and in this work, wear of bush is not considered as already reported in
section 3.8. The total permitted elongation is 2% of chain length and therefore
it is 0.254 mm per pitch. Considering this depth as chordal depth, as shown in
 87

Figure 4.4 and using trigonometric principles, the angle which is called critical
angle, is arrived.

4.51 0.254

Ψ=54.90

Figure 4.4 Critical angle of chain pin wear depth

4.5.2 Chain meshing force with sprockets

As already discussed in the previous chapter in section 3.10, chain

link force will vary on both the drive and driven sprocket teeth and the average
value of force is calculated that causes wear of pins. The forces on links are
evaluated using Equations (4.12) (Eldiwany and Marshek 1984).

t1 t0 sin
sin()
2
t t1 sin = sin
2
t
0
sin() sin()
t tn 1 sin
n
sin()
n
tn = sin (4.12)
t
0

sin()

where t0 is the force acting on link just before entering drive sprocket i.e. force
acting on tight span. t1 is the force acting on link 1 and t n is the force acting on
th
n link. Ф is the average pressure angle and α is the articulation
 88

angle (articulation angle = 360/numberof teeth). Substituting the values of t0,

ф and α (t0 =949 N, ф=18.90, α=27.690 in top gear) in the above Equation
(4.12) force acting on first link, while meshing drive sprocket teeth, becomes t 1
= 423 N. Similarly, forces acting on other links are calculated and average value
is taken for chain wear calculation. The average force acting on chain links in
drive sprocket, which contribute for critical angle wear is 686.07 N in top gear.
It may be noted that only two links contribute for critical angle of movement in
drive sprocket. Hence, average force on two links are taken.

By adopting the same procedure, force acting on links at driven

sprocket is calculated by substituting t0 =949 N, ф =23.70, α=90. The force

acting on first chain link while meshing with driven sprocket teeth is given by

t1 =706 N. Similarly, forces acting on other links are calculated and average
value is taken for chain wear calculation. The average force acting on chain
links in driven sprocket, which contribute for critical angle wear, is 513.07 N in
top gear. It may noted that unlike drive sprocket, the articulation movement that
contribute for critical angle movement is six links. Hence, average of forces on
six links are taken. For other gear ratios, the forces are calculated and shown in
Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Average force on chain links in mesh with sprockets

I gear II gear III gear IV gear

Description Max Max Max Max Max Max Max Max
Power Torque Power Torque Power Torque Power Torque
Force in tight 3242 3472 1733 1856 1226 1313 949 1016
span N
Average
force on drive 2343 2510 1252 1341 886 949 686 734
sprocket N
Average
force on 1752 1877 936 1003 662 709 513 549
driven
sprocket N
 89

4.5.3 Shrinkage Calculation

Chain bushes are assembled with inner link plates with interference
fit and this causes shrinkage of bushes at the ends due to elastic deformation.
The shrinkage causes pin bush contact at the shrunk portion during initial usage
of chains, which lead to quicker elongation. This phenomenon normally occurs
during running in period. If the shrunk depth is more, then elongation will be
more due to less pin bush contact and the corresponding distance travelled by
motorcycle during this period will be less. This leads to reduction in total life of
chain. The shrinkage depth can be reduced by reducing the interference
between pin and bush. But the reduction in interference can be done to certain
extent only beyond which it will cause bush rotation inside the roller link plate
and may lead to fatigue failure. Bearing this problem in mind, it is proposed to
modify the bush profile so that the pin bush contacts at the ends are eliminated
during initial stages. This leads to better pin bush contacts, which lead to lower
chain elongation.

Chain bushes are made either by curling operation or by forming

operation. In curled bushes, there is a closing seam and the circularity does not
match with that of solid bushes, which are mostly made from seamless steel
tubes. Also, during heat treatment, bushes get distorted due to thin wall
thickness and opens slightly due to expansion. On the other hand, plates are
punched and holes are shaved. During assembly of bushes with inner link
plates, because of distortion and seam opening, curled bushes may not
assemble properly as that of solid bushes. This causes non uniform shrinkage of
bushes that lead to improper contact of pins with bushes which cause non
uniform wear compare with seamless tube bushes.
 90

However, due to cost constraints and that pin bush contact occurs
only in limited area due to articulation, curled bushes are still used in
automotive chain manufacturing. Non uniform pin bush contact is little
complicated and hence in this study uniform pin bush contact is assumed in all

chain links starting from 1st to nth links. Also, in this research work, the
shrinkage of bush is assumed to be uniform in all theoretical evaluations. The
above assumptions do not influence performance comparisons of existing
motorcycle chain and modified chain, since whatever the error that occur due to
non uniform shrinkage will be present in both the cases and hence get nullified.
Shrinkage value (Reshetov 1978) for existing chain bush as shown in Figure
4.5 is calculated using Equations (4.13) and (4.14).

P E (b 2 a 2 )(c 2 b 2 ) (4.13)
1 1 1 1

4b 3 (c 2 a 2 )
1 1 1

2
where, P-contact pressure in N/mm due to interference, E-Young’s modulus in
N/mm2, a1 - inner radius of bush in mm , b1 - outer radius of bush in mm, c1 -
outer radius of plate in mm, and -interference between bush and plate in
mm.

Shrinkage of bush ( a1 ) Pa
1
2b 21
(4.14)
E b a
2 2

1 1

Substituting the value a1 = 2.275, b1 =3.15, c1 = 5.85, =0.05 and

E=2.12E05, shrinkage of bush at the ends is 0.0153 mm for nominal
interference value of 0.05 mm.
 91

4.5.4 Modified Bush

In the case of modified chain, bushes are designed with 45 0 entry

0
chamfer and 1 taper for a depth of 2mm as shown in Figure 4.5 may be easily

caulked during assembly due to 450 entry chamfer provided and they do not
rotate in service. Hence, nominal interference between bush and plate can be
reduced to 0.035 mm. The reduction in interference causes shrinkage of 0.0106
mm. Unlike in the existing bush, this shrinkage does not cause pins to have
initial contact at the shrunk portion due to taper profile provided in inner wall
of bushes. It is observed that without profile modification, the effect of change
in interference on chain elongation is not appreciable as discussed in section
5.8.

Figure 4.5 a) modified and b) existing motorcycle bush

As already discussed in section 3.5, bushes are mostly made by bush

curling operation and the raw material will be in the form of strips (Berents et
al 1989), which are made by rolling. In the case of profile bush, the taper can
be provided by rolling or by profile extrusion in the inner side of strip, which is
rolled into coil form. However, there will be a slight cost
 92

difference while making profiled strip and it may not be appreciable. Hence,
the modified bush may be feasible to manufacture and easy to assemble and
caulked in chain assembly.

4.5.5 Pin Deflection

Maximum net power of engine is 5.5 kW at 7500 rpm. Gear over all
ratios is 10.97:1. Hence, speed of rear sprocket or rear wheel of motorcycle is
683 rpm and the torque is 76.80 Nm. Pitch circle diameter of rear sprocket is
161.86 mm and hence force on chain is 949 N. Pin bending due to the above
transmission load is calculated in two stages and they are (i) initial contact at
the shrunk portion of bush and (ii) after initial wear. Due to shrinkage of bush,
initial contact will be a point load ‘F’ in existing chain as shown in Figure 4.6.

F F

a
l

Figure 4.6 Chain pin load during initial run

Deflection at the shrunk portion of bush is calculated (Shigley and

Mische 2003) using Equation (4.15)

yx Fx ( x 2 3a 2 3la) (4.15)
6EI
 93

where, F = (Chain force / 2) = 474.5 N, ‘a’ distance between load centres of

inner and outer link plates - 1.6 mm, l - distance between load centres of outer
5 2
link plates - 13 mm, E - Youngs modulus - 2.12 10 N/mm , I - Moment of
innertia of pin.

After initial wear of shrunk portion, pin bush load will be uniformly
distributed instead of point loading as shown in Figure 4.7.
w
Error!

a a
l

Figure 4.7 Load distribution on chain pin after initial run

Using singularity function (Hamrock et al 1999), Equation (4.16) is

derived for uniformly distributed load as shown in Figure 4.7.

y wb 3 4 4
{4l /2 x l/b[ x a x a b ]
24lEI (4.16)
3 2 2 3 3
x[b 6ba 4b a 4a 2l ]}

where, w = uniformly distributed chain load / b, ‘a’ - distance between load

centres of outer link and inner link plates = 1.6, l - distance between load
centres of outer plates - 13, b = (l-2a) = 9.8, I - Moment of inertia of pin, E -
5 2
Youngs modulus - 2.12 10 N/mm .
 94

In the case of existing chain using Equation (4.15), deflection at x =

-3
1.6 (at the shrunk portion of bush) is -1.5 10 mm and maximum deflection (y

max) = -3.7 10-3 mm, curve1 Figure 4.8.

x 10 -3
1
0
Deflection in 10 -3 mm

-1

-2
-3
Curve1
-4
-5

-6
Curve 2
-7

-8 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Pin length in mm

Figure 4.8 Pin deflections of existing and modified chains

After initial wear, uniformly distributed conditions exists and using

Equation (4.16), the deflection of pin at x = 1.6 (from outer plate reaction load
-3
to inner plate) is found to be -3 10 mm and maximum deflection is ymax = -7.8

10-3 mm, curve 2 in Figure 4.8. Similarly, elastic deflection in the case of
modified chain pin is evaluated and the deflection is found to be same as that of
standard chain pin deflection after running in period curve 2. In the case of
-3
modified bush chain, the maximum deflection is ymax = -7.8 10 mm as shown
in Figure 4.8.

4.5.6 Bush Deflection

The deflections of existing motorcycle chain bushes and modified

bushes are same since load acting on both the cases are same through inner link
plates which are equidistant. By using the Equation (4.16) the deflections
 95

of both existing motorcycle bush and modified bush are calculated and found
that the maximum deflection is 1.1 micrometer as shown in Figure 4.9.

x 10 -3
mm 0
-0.2
Deflection 10 -3 in

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1

-1.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Bush length in mm

Figure 4.9 Bush deflections of existing and modified chains

Also, it is observed that the deflection curve is same for both the
cases. However, in the case of chain with modified bush, contact between pin
and bush is better than the regular chain bush due to profile in inside wall of the
bush. Due to this theoretical elongation of chains with the modified bush is
better than that of regular motorcycle chain during initial run-in period.
Similarly, pin and bush deflections at various loads are evaluated for both
modified and regular motorcycle chains and the results are discussed in the
section 5.2.

4.6 CHAIN ELONGATION EVALUATION

In two wheelers, chains are subjected to different loads and speed

conditions and consequently exposed to random load cycle. In this research
work, motorcycle chain with the existing design is theoretically evaluated for
elongation and compared with the field result. Theoretical evaluation is carried
out under constant load and constant speed conditions. However,
 96

chains which are used in motorcycles are subjected to variable load and that it
cannot be controlled since it purely depends on behaviour of drivers and the
nature of road conditions.

Due to different riding conditions and different nature of drivers,

there is no repeated pattern of loading. Therefore, it is difficult to simulate the
same conditions as experienced in the field. In low gears, chains are subjected
to higher forces and since wear is directly proportional to force acting on
chains, it will elongate faster compared with the chain subjected to low torque
in top gears. In order to study the effect of chain running from rest to top speed,
five fixed drive cycles are assumed as shown in Appendix 4 and the elongation
of chain is found using the wear model Equation (4.17) in each case. In the
theoretical evaluation of chain pin wear, yield value (Norton 2003) is taken as

1400 N/mm2 and any further increase in hardness will not change the value
drastically. The theoretical chain elongation is calculated using MATLAB
software as shown in the flow chart Figure 4.10.

4.6.1 List of Assumptions in Theoretical Evaluation

In theoretical evaluations it is assumed that bushes and plate

punched holes are having perfect circularity and the shrinkage
of bush is uniform.

Also, in chain assembly there is no twist and pitch variation.

There is no misalignment of chain and sprockets in

motorcycles.

The effect of pin bush surface finish is not considered and

assumed to be same in all theoretical elongation evaluation
comparisons.
 97

Start

Input values of Chain components

dimension, Young’s modulus, interference,
yield strength, no of teeth of sprockets,
power and speed of engine, gear ratios

Calculate bush shrinkage, Torque and force

on chain and average force on chain links
that are in mesh with sprockets

Calculate chain elongation and distance

covered by motorcycle

Plot the results

Stop

Figure 4.10 Flow chart for chain evaluation using MATLAB software

Only pin wear is considered and bush wear is not considered in

all theoretical evaluation as already highlighted in section 3.8.

All motorcycle chains are lubricated with wax base grease as

discussed in section 3.5 and the amount or quantity of grease is
same for all chains.
 98

Effect of wear or deformation of sprocket tooth due to

excessive load is not considered.

The effect of dimensional accuracy level and geometrical

accuracy level of chain components are not considered and
assumed to be same in all theoretical evaluation.

Influence of only one variable is considered at a time among

the following variables already mentioned in section 3.7 viz.
load acting on chains, bearing area, yield strength based on
hardness, sliding distance and lubrication.

The effect of roller wear and roller impact on sprocket tooth is

not considered in the theoretical investigation.

Load distribution on bush through rollers from sprocket teeth is

assumed to be uniform. Skew in chain assembly and
misalignment of sprockets lead to non uniform load
distribution.
rd
Since all motorcycles chains are preloaded to 1/3 of breaking
load which is around 6000 N, the effect of extension of pitch of
plates and possible enlargement of holes due to excessive load
is not considered since maximum transmission load acting on
chain is 3472 N which acts for a short duration and is within
the preload value.

4.6.2 Theoretical Elongation Performance Evaluation of Motorcycle

Chain

In the case of existing chain, due to shrinkage of bush and elastic

bending of pin, contact area between pin and bush will be less during initial
running in period and hence wear will be higher, even though chains run with
 99

lubrication done by manufacturers before packing. Pin wear is calculated based

on Archard’s adhesive wear model (Collins 2003). Initial wear is calculated up
to the shrinkage value of bush, beyond which, the contacts between pin and
bush increases to a maximum value. During initial wear period, adhesive wear
model is taken and later due to entrapment of worn out particles from bushes as
well as from pins to the grease, the wear characteristics will change.

The following assumptions are made for evaluating the chain

performance. Total elongation percentage is divided into four stages as already
mentioned in section 3.8 and they are 1) Initial run 2) elongation upto 1% plus
initial run percentage 3) upto 2% and 4) upto 2.8%. During initial running in
-6
period, the coefficient of wear K is taken as 3 10 . After running in period, due
to worn out particles that might get mixed with grease lubricant, coefficient K is
-5 -5
taken as 4.2 10 in stage two. Wear coefficient K value is taken as 9 10 in
stage three after 1% of chain elongation since more worn out particles would be
-5
present in the grease. Finally, after 2% elongation, K value is taken as 1.5 10
in stage four, since grease would have lost its properties due to large quantities
of worn out particles and the wear system would be almost like abrasive wear
condition.

Since, pin on disk wear method will not represent the similar
conditions of transmission chain with initial lubricated condition; it will be
difficult to find the wear coefficients in laboratory. Hence, the above four wear
coefficients are assumed as intermediate values of wear coefficients which are
taken from various test results reported by different researchers (Table 4.8)
(Collins 2003). It is to be noted that in all theoretical evaluations, the above
assumptions are maintained same in order to study the effect of influence of
one variable on chain elongation on comparison basis. The
 100

equation for abrasive wear conditions is similar to that of adhesive wear

except change in wear coefficient.

Table 4.8 Archard’s wear coefficient

Condition Similar metal Dissimilar metal

Un-lubricated 5 10-3 2 10-4
Poor lubrication 2 10-4 2 10-4
Average lubrication 2 10-5 2 10-5
Excellent lubrication -6 -7 -6 -7
2 10 to 10 2 10 to 10

Based on the above assumptions, wear rate is calculated using

Equation (4.17) and the number of cycles the chain would have rotated is also
calculated. From this, the number of cycles of wheel rotation and the
corresponding distance the vehicle would have travelled is also calculated as

Adhesive wear: dadh = K w L (4.17)

9s y A

where, K - Archard’s wear constant, sy - yield stress of material of mating

surfaces N/mm2, w - normal load N, A - apparent contact area mm 2, and L -
sliding distance mm. The results of evaluation are discussed in section 5.3.

4.6.3 Theoretical Elongation Performance Evaluation of Motorcycle

Chain with Modified Chain

Theoretical chain elongation for modified bush chain is evaluated in

the same fashion as that of regular motorcycle chain by adopting the same
conditions as done above. In the case of existing chain, due to shrinkage of
 101

bush and elastic bending of pin, contact area between pin and bush will be less
during initial running in period whereas in the case of modified chain this
phenomenon is eliminated due to profile in bush and less interference adopted
due to bush riveting. It is to be noted that bush riveting neither permits rotation
of bush nor lateral movements. All parameters like Archard’s wear coefficient,
yield stress of pins, articulation distance etc are maintained same as that of
regular motorcycle chain. Only, one parameter that differs from the existing
chain is bush profile in modified chain as already discussed. Since, assumed
values are same for both the cases, the influence of errors in assumed values do
not affect the results which are compared. The effect of circularity of bush for
standard and modified chain is not considered as already discussed in section
4.6.1.

4.6.4 Theoretical Elongation Performance Evaluation of Motorcycle

Chain with Modified Chain with Increased Grease Content

In this case, due to entry chamfer provided in the bush, the wax base
0
grease upon heating to around 120 C would melt and easily flow into the pin
bush clearance avoiding possible air pockets during chain lubrication in the
manufacturing stage or in service. Hence, it is assumed that the lubrication may
be better due to increased penetration of grease in the case of modified bush
chain. In order to find out the elongation trend due to this phenomenon, which
has to be verified by conducting practical test, it is assumed that if there could
be 10 to 20% improvement due to increased grease content, it will be beneficial
for chain life improvement. As a step to understand the improvement in
penetration of grease, by assuming 20% improvement in lubrication, theoretical
chain elongation is made and compared with existing motorcycle chain. The
results are discussed in section 5.5.1.
 102

4.6.5 Theoretical Elongation Performance Evaluation of Motorcycle

Chain with Higher Pin Bearing Area Using Next Higher Pitch
Standard Chain

Any improvement in bearing area keeping the relative hardness of

pin and bush same will definitely improve the wear characteristics of chain.
However, in the existing chain, neither pin diameter nor its length can be
increased due to chain standard’s restriction and possible reduction in fatigue
due to larger hole in plates as already discussed in section 3.10.3. One possible
method of increasing pin bearing area is, using stepped pin and stepped bushes
to avoid fatigue failure. But, due to tedious manufacturing and assembly
process, stepped pin and stepped bushes are not used for motorcycle chains.
However, chain with higher pitch viz. 15.875 mm is chosen for comparison
study. In the case higher pitch chain, chain weight per metre length is higher
than that of existing motorcycle chain. Hence, the load effect due to centrifugal
force is considered for both the chains using Equations (4.18) and (4.19).
However, the Archard’s wear coefficient, hardness parameters, chain
transmission load etc are maintained same for both the cases.

Centrifugal force is calculated using the model

F c = wc v 2 (4.18)
g
where wc is chain weight N per metre length, v chain velocity m/s and g
2
acceleration due to gravity in m/s .

Chain tension due to sag

Fs=kf wc ac (4.19)

where kf =6, ac - center distance in m and wc - chain weight in N/m.

 103

Total tension in driving side of chain=driving force+ Fc+ Fs

(Reshetov 1978). The results of the evaluation are discussed in section 5.6.

4.6.6 Theoretical Elongation Performance Evaluation of Motorcycle

Chain Under Fluctuating Loads

Theoretical chain elongation under steady load condition may be

easier to evaluate for performance comparison. Any change in design or
dimensional or surface characteristics can be compared easily for performance
level. However, it will not closely agree with chains that are used in field due to
fluctuation in loads. Simulating exact conditions for theoretical evaluation will
be arduous task. In order to study the effect of fluctuating load, ‘n’ number of
fixed drive cycles may be assumed keeping all other variables constant except
chain forces. It requires lot of computing time. Hence, to understand the effect
of fluctuation in speeds, five drive cycles are assumed as shown in Appendix 4
to study the characteristics of elongation on existing chains and the results are
discussed in section 5.7.

4.6.7 Elongation Performance of Field Chain

To study existing chain performance in field, initially about 25

motorcycles of brand B of 100cc category is chosen, which are being used in
the local city and are being serviced in a service centre. Of the 25 motorcycle
chosen, only 16 motorcycle reading could be taken properly. In the other
remaining nine vehicles, results were discarded due to faulty meter and/or
could not track proper service records. Here, the chain elongation is found by
measuring chain at every 10 pitches using vernier scale and the difference in
elongation value is noted from the initial nominal value of 127 mm for 10
pitches and the percentage elongation is calculated. The corresponding distance
travelled as indicated by odometers is noted and the
 104

results are tabulated as shown in Appendix 5. Also, a plot is made and the
results are discussed in section 5.4.

4.6.8 Chromized Pins

Presently chain manufacturers in India are doing chromizing

diffusion heat treatment (Davies et al 1983) on timing chain pins, which are
used in four wheeler engines. The hardness achievable is 1200 HV and above
and due to this, there is a marked improvement in timing chain life. The coating
thickness is low, which is around 5 to 10 micrometers. However, the effect of
surface stress in the case of motorcycle drive chain is compared with surface
stress of timing chain using Hertz contact stress model Equations (4.20) and
(4.21). The results are discussed in section 5.9.1.
2 (4.20)
Hertz contact stress p max 2 f / b l N/mm
c

bc (4.21)
(4 f c (1 ^ 2) /( Elc (1/ d 1/ d1)))

where f is the force on chain link N, lc chain pin length mm, E young’s modulus
N/mm2, d chain pin diameter mm, d1 bush inner diameter mm and µ is
Poisson’s ratio (Collins 2003).

4.6.9 Theoretical Evaluation of Motorcycle Chain with Different Pin-

Bush Interference

Keeping all parameters of existing chain constant, the chain

elongation performance of existing motorcycle chain is carried out and
compared to find the effect of interference values of 0.02 minimum, 0.05
nominal and 0.08 maximum. Results are plotted and discussed in section
5.8. In the present analysis, it is found that pin, bush interference with link
plates is sufficient and there is no pin, bush rotation in link plates. However,
 105

at minimum interference value there is a possibility of bush rotation within the

plate hole that may cause failure of chain. Hence, it is not advisable to use very
low interference.

4.6.10 Theoretical Evaluation of Motorcycle Chain with Different Pin

Hardness

In order to find the effects of hardness of pins, a comparative study is

2 2
made with four different hardness levels (800 N/mm , 1000 N/mm , 1200
2 2
N/mm and 1400 N/mm equivalent yield values) keeping all parameters
unchanged and the results are plotted and discussed in section 5.9.

4.7 MODAL ANALYSIS

Modal analysis is used to determine the vibration characteristics

(natural frequencies and mode shapes) of a structure or a machine component
while it is being designed. The natural frequencies and mode shapes are
important parameters in the design of a structure for dynamic load
consideration. They are also required for a spectrum analysis or a mode
superposition harmonic or transient analysis. Modal analysis in the ANSYS is a
linear analysis. Any nonlinearity, such as plasticity and contact (gap) elements,
are ignored even if they are defined. Several mode extraction methods are used
in ANSYS modal analysis. The various methods to determine the mode shapes
are as follows:

Block Lanczos (default) Method

Subspace Method
Power Dynamics Method
Reduced Method
Unsymmetrical Method
Damped Method
 106

4.7.1 Procedure for Modal Analysis

1. Build the model.

2. Apply loads and obtain the solution.
3. Expand the modes.
4. Review the results.

4.7.2 Build the Model

Only linear behavior is valid in a modal analysis. If nonlinear

elements are specified, they are treated as linear. Material
properties can be linear, isotropic or orthotropic, and constant
or temperature-dependent. It is a must to define both Young’s
modulus (EX) (and stiffness in some form) and density (DENS)
(or mass in some form) for a modal analysis. Nonlinear
properties are ignored. Modal chain parts are shown in Figures
4.11 and 4.12.

Bush Roller Pin

Roller link plate Pin link plate

Figure 4.11 Models of bush, roller, pin, roller link plate and pin link plate
 107

Roller link assembly Pin link assembly

Chain assembly

Figure 4.12 Models of roller and pin link subassembly and chain
assembly

4.7.3 Apply Loads and Obtain Solution

In this step, to define the analysis type and options, apply loads,
specify load step options and begin the finite element solution for the natural
frequencies.

4.7.4 Mode Extraction Method

4.7.4.1 Block Lanczos method (default)

The Block Lanczos method is used for large symmetric eigen value
problems. It is used to achieve a faster convergence rate. The Block Lanczos
method uses the sparse matrix solver.

4.7.4.2 Subspace method

The subspace method is used for large symmetric eigen value

problems. Several solution controls are available to control the subspace
iteration process. For a modal analysis with a large number of constraint
equations, use the subspace method with the frontal solver.
 108

4.7.4.3 Power dynamics method

The Power Dynamics method is used for very large models (100,000
+ DOFs) and is especially useful to obtain a solution for the first several modes
to learn how the model will behave.

4.7.4.4 Reduced (House holder) method

The reduced method is faster than the subspace method because it

uses reduced (condensed) system matrices to calculate the solution. However, it
is less accurate because the reduced mass matrix is approximate.

4.7.4.5 Unsymmetric method

The unsymmetric method is used for problems with un-symmetric

matrices, such as fluid-structure interaction problems.

4.7.4.6 Damped method

The damped method is used for problems where damping cannot be

ignored, such as bearing problems.

4.7.4.7 QR damped method

The QR damped method is faster and achieves better calculation

efficiency than the damped method. It uses the reduced modal damped matrix
to calculate complex damped frequencies in modal coordinates.
 109

4.8 HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Harmonic response analysis is a technique used to determine the

steady-state response of a linear structure to loads that vary sinusoidally
(harmonically) with time. The idea is to calculate the structure's response at
several frequencies and obtain a display of some response quantity (usually
displacements) versus frequency. "Peak" responses are then identified and
stresses reviewed at those peak frequencies. This analysis technique calculates
only the steady-state, forced vibrations of a structure. The transient vibrations,
which occur at the beginning of the excitation, are not accounted for in a
harmonic response analysis. Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained
cyclic response (a harmonic response) in a structural system. Harmonic
response analysis gives the ability to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of
the structures, thus enabling to verify whether or not the designs will
successfully overcome resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of
vibrations.

Harmonic response analysis is a linear analysis. Any nonlinearity,

such as plasticity and contact (gap) elements, will be ignored, even if they are
defined. However, they have unsymmetric system matrices such as those
encountered in a fluid-structure interaction problem. Harmonic analysis can
also be performed on a pre stressed structure, such as a violin string (assuming
the harmonic stresses are much smaller than the pretension stress).

A harmonic analysis, by definition, assumes that any applied load

varies harmonically (sinusoidally) with time. To completely specify a harmonic
load, three pieces of information are usually required: the amplitude, the phase
angle, and the forcing frequency range.
 110

The amplitude is the maximum value of the load.

The phase angle is a measure of the time, by which, the load
lags (or leads) a frame of reference.
The forcing frequency range is the frequency range of the
harmonic load (in cycles/time).

4.8.1 Steps in Harmonic Analysis

Step 1: Create the model

Step 2: Selected the element type and material properties
Step 3: Meshing
Step 4: Apply the Boundary conditions
Step 5: Set the frequency range and number of sub steps to be
extracted
Step 6: Solve and obtain the solution
Step 7: Plot the graph, Frequency Vs Deflection.

4.8.2 Three Solution Methods

Three harmonic response analysis methods are available. They are

Full Method, Reduced Method, Mode Superposition Method (A fourth,
relatively expensive method is to do a transient dynamic analysis with the
harmonic loads specified as time-history loading functions).

4.8.3 Full Method

The full method is the easiest of the three methods. It uses the full
system matrices to calculate the harmonic response (no matrix reduction). The
 111

matrices may be symmetric or unsymmetric. The advantages of the full method

are:

It is easy to use, because it provides freedom for choosing

master degrees of freedom or mode shapes.
It uses full matrices, so no mass matrix approximation is
involved.
It allows unsymmetric matrices, which are typical of such
applications as acoustics and bearing problems.
It calculates all displacements and stresses in a single pass.
It accepts all types of loads: nodal forces imposed (nonzero)

displacements, and element loads (pressures and temperatures).

4.8.4 Reduced Method

The reduced method enables to condense the problem size by using

master degrees of freedom and reduced matrices. After the displacements at the
master DOF have been calculated, the solution can be expanded to the original
full DOF set. The advantages of this method are:

It is faster and less expensive compared to the full method

when using the frontal solver.
Pre-stressing effects can be included.

4.8.5 Mode Superposition Method

The mode superposition method sums factored mode shapes

(eigenvectors) from a modal analysis to calculate the structure's response. Its
advantages are:
 112

It is faster and less expensive than either the reduced or the full
method for many problems.
Element loads applied in the preceding modal analysis can be
applied in the harmonic response analysis.
It allows solutions to be clustered about the structure's natural
frequencies. This results in a smoother, more accurate tracing
of the response curve.
Pre-stressing effects can be included.

All three methods are subject to certain common restrictions:

All loads must be sinusoidally time-varying.

All loads must have the same frequency.
No nonlinearities are permitted.
Transient effects are not calculated.

4.8.6 Build the Model

Only linear behavior is valid in a harmonic response analysis.

Nonlinear elements, if any, will be treated as linear elements.
Both Young’s modulus (EX) and density (DENS) must be
defined. Material properties may be linear, isotropic or
orthotropic, and constant or temperature-dependent. Nonlinear
material properties, if any, are ignored.

4.9 FATIGUE EVALUATION

Roller braking is mainly due to impact of rollers with sprocket tooth

flank especially at high speeds. Roller fatigue strength is calculated based on
the following Equation (4.22), (Shigley et al 2004).
 113
1.5 0.8 1.5
p

H2 746K1 N1 / n1 Kw (4.22)
25.4

where p, pitch -12.7 mm, N 1, number of teeth of smaller sprocket -13, n 1,

sprocket speed in rpm-2103, K1, constant-17. Chain power transmission

capacity is found at different speed of smaller sprockets using the Equation
(4.22) and a plot is made as shown in Figure 4.13. The trend of the curve is
similar to the tent curve discussed in section 1.8.3. From the trend of curve, it is
clear that horse power capacity of roller decreases as the speed of drive
sprocket increases due to dynamic load effect.

25
20
Power kW

15

10

0 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

600

Drive sprocket rpm

Figure 4.13 Tent curve for roller

Chain fatigue failure mostly occurs in link plates and is due to

repeated tensile cyclic loading. Fatigue value of link plates are calculated as per
the Equation (4.23), (Shigley et al 2004).

3 0.07 p
1.08 0.9 p 25.4
H 1 0.003N n Kw (4.23)
1 1

25.4
 114

where p, pitch 12.7 mm, N1, no of teeth of smaller sprocket -13, n1, sprocket
speed in rpm-2103. The plate power transmission capacity is found by
evaluating fatigue strength of both link plates, outer as well as inner, and
plotted as shown in Figure 4.14. It is observed from the figure that the trend of
the curve is similar to tent curve discussed in section 1.8.3. Also from the plot,
it is observed that the chain plate may not fail since the chain operates mostly

between 1200 to 1800 rpm in 3rd and top gear.

8
7
Power kW

2 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

600

Drive sprocket rpm

Figure 4.14 Tent curve for plate

For excessive wear or galling, the limiting transmission speed is

given by the Equation (4.24), (Collins 2003).

1.59 log( p / 25.4) 1.873

n 82.5 (4.24)
1
( p / 25.4) N F / 4459
1000 1.0278 1 1.323
7.95

where p- pitch 12.7 mm, Nl - no of teeth of smaller sprocket -13, n 1 - speed of

smaller sprocket in rpm, F- Chain force -949 N in top gear. Substituting the
values, galling limit speed of smaller sprocket is given by 8356 rpm. But the
 115

maximum speed of small sprocket is 2103 rpm. Hence, the chain is safe under
galling condition.
4.9.1 Fatigue Analysis Using ANSYS

Fatigue is the phenomenon leading to failure under repeated or

fluctuating stresses having a maximum value less than the tensile strength of
the material. Fatigue strength is the maximum stress that can be sustained for a
specified number of cycles without failure. The main factors that contribute to
fatigue failures include: number of load cycles experienced, range of stress
experienced in each load cycle, mean stress experienced in each load cycle,
presence of local stress concentrations.

The input is an S-N curve, the output is in the form of a table of

alternating stress intensities (listed in decreasing order) with corresponding
pairs of event/loadings, as well as cycles used, cycles allowed, and partial
usage factor. Following that, the cumulative usage factor is shown for that
particular location. This information is repeated for all locations. The output
shows the contributing pairs of events and loadings for any given alternating
stress-intensity range. This information can help isolate the transients
(events/loadings) causing the most fatigue damage.

Failure due to dynamic loading – repetitive or fluctuating stress

lower than yield strength is called as “Fatigue”. Nearly 90% of all service
failures are due to fatigue. The stress is usually cycled between a maximum
tensile stress and a maximum compressive stress (reversing). The latter is
considered a negative tensile stress, is given an algebraic minus sign, and
therefore is known as the minimum stress.

As already discussed, the fatigue failure in motorcycle chains is

rarely reported due to selection of higher factor of safety and lower operating
 116

stress level, which is mostly due to partial throttling in normal driving

conditions in cities. Even in highways, full throttling conditions may exist for a
short duration, which may not cause appreciable damage to chains by fatigue.
However, to understand the number of cycles that chain components would
withstand at different stress levels and also to know the endurance stress of
components the fatigue analysis has been carried out. The following flow chart
(Figure 4.15) indicates the various steps involved in fatigue analysis of a roller
chain drive using ANSYS 7.0.

Select element type and Analysis type

Enter material properties

Apply load and displacements

Plot the stress results

Enter the fatigue properties

Enter the S-N data, Stress Locations

Calculate Fatigue

Plot fatigue results

Figure 4.15 Flow chart for fatigue analysis

4.9.2 Factors Considered in Fatigue Analysis

4.9.2.1 Stress Ratio

 117

It is the algebraic ratio of two specified stress value in a stress cycle.

Two commonly used stress ratios are the ratio, A s, of the alternating stress
amplitude to the mean stress (A s = Pa / Pm) and the ratio, Rs, of the minimum
stress to the maximum stress (Rs = Pmin / Pmax). If the stresses are fully
reversed, the stress ratio Rs becomes -1, if the stresses are partially reversed; R s
becomes a negative number less than 0. If the stress is cycled between two
tensile stresses, the stress ratio R becomes a positive number less than 1.

4.9.2.2 Applied stresses

It is described by three parameters. The mean stress, Pm, is the

algebraic average of the maximum and minimum stresses in one cycle, Pm =
(Pmax+ Pmin)/2. In the completely reversed cycle test, the mean stress is zero.
The range of stress, Pr, is the algebraic difference between the maximum and
minimum stresses in one cycle, Pr = Pmax– Pmin. The stress amplitude, Pa, is one
half the range of stress, Pa = Pr/2= (Pmax-Pmin)/2. During a fatigue test, the
stress cycle usually is maintained constant so that the applied stress conditions
can be written as Pm Pa, where Pm is the static or mean stress, and Pa is the
alternating stress, which is equal to half the stress range.

4.9.2.3 Stress - concentration factor

Stress is concentrated in a component by structural discontinuities,

such as notches, holes, or scratches, which act as stress raisers. The stress-

concentration factor Kt, is the ratio of the tested area stress in the region of the
notch (or other stress concentrators like holes, scratches, etc.) to the

corresponding nominal stress. The fatigue notch factor, Kf, is the ratio of the
fatigue strength of a smooth (unnotched) specimen to the fatigue strength of a
 118

notched specimen at the same number of cycles. Fatigue notch sensitivity, for a
material is determined by comparing the fatigue notch factor, K f, and the stress-
concentration factor, Kt, shape and size factors.

4.9.2.4 S-N curve

The results of fatigue test usually are plotted as maximum stress,

minimum stress, or stress amplitude to number of cycles, N, to failure using a
logarithmic scale for the number of cycles. Stress is plotted on either a linear or
a logarithmic scale. The resulting plot of the data is an S-N curve. The number
of cycles of stress that a metal can endure before failures increases with
decreasing stress. Below that limiting stress, known as the fatigue limit or
endurance limit, the material can endure an infinite number of cycles without
failure.

4.9.3 Natural Frequency

Natural frequency of chain components are calculated using the

Equation (4.25).

fn 1 ks
2 m (4.25)

where ks - stiffness - N/m

m - mass - kg

The calculated values for chain components are shown in Table 4.9.
 119

Table 4.9 Natural frequency of chain components

Description Natural frequency (Hz)

Pin 43575
Bush 131852
Roller 316425
Outer link plate 44199
Inner link plate 40222

4.10 SUMMARY

Motorcycle traction and power at wheels are calculated, which is

useful to understand motorcycle characteristics under full and partial throttle
conditions. Normally motorcycle operates under partial throttle condition. In
this work, chain link forces are evaluated under maximum power and maximum
torque condition and these values are used to for chain performance study. Also,
as discussed in section 4.5.3, shrinkage effect of bush is targeted and modified
profile is made. With the help of various models that are used on various design
applications of mechanical engineering, chain performances on elongation and
fatigue have been carried out in this work. Also, field performance of chains in
particular brand of motorcycles, which is selected in this study, is carried out to
validate the theoretical output. In addition to the above, theoretical evaluations
of chain elongation due to other factors mentioned in the objective, analytical
estimation of plate and roller fatigue are discussed. All the above studies are in
line with the objective mentioned in section 3.2. Results of all theoretical
evaluations are discussed in the next chapter.