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Section 4 - Basic Pilot Testing and Contamination PDF
Section 4 - Basic Pilot Testing and Contamination PDF
testing and
contamination
section 4
basic pilot testing & contamination
Section 4
contents
introduction ..........................................................................................................................1
filtration........................................................................................................................18
introduction
Pilot testing of drilling fluids is testing performed on proportionately
small-scale samples. It is an essential part of drilling fluid testing and
treating. Pilot testing minimises the risk of sending a fluid downhole that
may be incompatible with the formations to be drilled or that may
be ineffective under downhole conditions. Pilot testing is generally
concentrated on the physical properties such as rheology and fluid loss;
however, it is important that chemical properties are also evaluated.
Most chemical reactions require heat, mixing and time to drive the
reaction. Therefore, it is necessary to have a means for heating and
agitating pilot test samples. Problems such as carbonates and
bicarbonates are not readily detectable and require a complete mud
analysis and a pilot test series with heat aging to determine proper
treatment. Without heat aging, it is easy to over treat the contaminant
and create an even more severe problem. Ideally a portable roller oven
should be available at the rig site if extensive pilot testing is required.
Section 4
A pilot test sample should be representative of the fluid being used. Pilot
testing is thus based on the fact that 1g/350 cm3 of the sample is equivalent
to 1 lb/bbl (42gal) of the actual mud system.
ƒ temperature effects
ƒ drilling uncured cement
ƒ drilling anhydrite
ƒ encountering salt/saltwater flows
ƒ acid gas (CO2, H2S) intrusions
ƒ water on water-based mud contamination in oil-based mud
ƒ weight up/dilution
ƒ changing fluid loss properties
ƒ changing alkalinity/pH
ƒ treating carbonate/bicarbonate contamination
ƒ reducing hardness
ƒ adjusting MBT - clay content of the mud
ƒ changing oil/water ratio of oil muds
ƒ increasing electrical stability of oil muds
03 basic pilot testing & contamination
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BARITE 42 gallons
100 lbs
(1.0 barrel)
100 lb
100 lb/bbl
42 gal
100.0 G
100 g
100 lb/bbl
350 cm3
Section 4
Pilot test design requires calculating amounts of materials to put into
the test samples. In pilot tests, grams are equivalent to pounds and
350 cm3 is equivalent to one 42 gal oilfield barrel. Material balance
equations are used for pilot test design. For example, to weight the
15 lb/gal mud to 16 lb/gal without increasing the mud volume, one must
calculate how much 15 lb/gal mud to dump and how much barite to
add to increase density. For simpler pilot tests, such as adding only a few
lb/bbl treatment, it is not necessary to account for material balance.
Note: For liquid additives, volumes (gallons, cans, drums, bulk bags)
must be converted into weights (pounds, grams, millilitres) for
pilot testing.
Rig site pilot tests have distinct practical advantages over sending a
mud into the laboratory or having a laboratory mud prepared for pilot
testing. Rig site testing allows actual material and mud to be used,
05 basic pilot testing & contamination
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For every pilot test (single or series) a control sample must be run in
parallel with the test sample. A control sample is the base mud which
has not been treated, but which is taken through all the mixing,
heating, rolling, etc. processes. The control is used to aid interpretation
of results. Data is compared between the control and test sample to
sort out the effects due to treatment versus mechanical effects (mixing,
rolling or time of exposure).
For example, a mud engineer has an oil mud with a low electrical
stability (ES). He pilot tests a sample with 2 lb/bbl (2 g/350 cm3 )
additional emulsifier and shears it on the mixer for 10 minutes. The ES
is much higher than before. He also has run a control sample on the
mixer for 10 minutes, but without the additional emulsifier, and
obtained almost the same higher ES. Was the emulsifier responsible
for the improved ES? No, in this case the shearing gave the
improvement. Results of pilot testing should be thoroughly reviewed
basic pilot testing & contamination 06
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before drawing conclusions. Often, one pilot test will lead to another one
or two tests before the answer is satisfactorily clear.
rheological properties
plastic viscosity
Plastic viscosity is proportional to rate of shear, thus largely reflects the
resistance to flow due to mechanical friction of the particles.
ƒ Drilled solids
ƒ Rapid penetration rates with inadequate drilling solids control
and extended drilling with a PDC bit produce more drilled solids
particles per unit of volume
ƒ Surface additions
ƒ Oil additions to water muds; water additions to oil muds; asphalt
additions to water or oil muds. Lost circulation materials; weighting
materials, (e.g. graded calcium carbonate, barite, ilmenite, iron
carbonate, galena, etc.)
b) Cross reference
ƒ Dilution
ƒ Employment of mechanical solids removal devices
ƒ Surfactants (Water or oil wetting agents)
07 basic pilot testing & contamination
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yield point
Yield Point is a function of the concentration of mud solids and their
surface charges and potentials which affect interparticle forces.
b) Cross References
ƒ Filtrate analysis
ƒ Methylene blue determination (CEC)
ƒ pH
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retort analysis
Determine percent by volume of oil, water and solids. Compare results
with solids and average specific gravity of solids graphs.
b) Cross reference
ƒ Dilution.
ƒ Employment of mechanical solids removal devices (e.g., decanting
centrifuges) and/or reduction of screen size openings of shale
shakers and mud cleaners.
09 basic pilot testing & contamination
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Section 4
filtrate analysis
Generally, the results from the filtrate analysis will confirm the departure
from normal of the values of yield point and gel strengths from rheological
tests.
Sour gases (i.e. hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide), are generally
found together, although rarely in one to one proportions. When
carbon dioxide is the major component of the intrusive gas, it will mask
the hydrogen sulphide. The reverse, however, is not true.
All salt water flows bring some calcium, magnesium, sodium and chloride
ions into the mud. High concentrations of magnesium chloride in water
are not uncommon in North Sea drilling. Water flows in other areas
have shown high concentrations of calcium chloride.
Cements are made from limestone and clay or shale. If the clay or shale
does not contain enough iron and aluminium oxides, these materials
are added to the cement. The finely ground raw material, either wet or
dry processed, is fired in a rotary kiln and the carbon dioxide is driven off.
The resultant “clinker” is finely ground and mixed with small amounts of
gypsum. This is the basic “common cement”. Cement can be considered
a contaminant, especially if it is entrained in a water base mud before it
has hardened or set. As much as 2% borax may be found in some cements.
Borax has an extreme viscosifying effect on some polymers, especially the
guar family.
11 basic pilot testing & contamination
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alkalinity
Most contaminants with the exception of cement will lower the pH and/
or alkalinity.
Virtually all water base muds perform better on the alkaline side of
neutral. In addition, corrosion is retarded by an alkaline environment.
The exception is when aluminium drill pipe is being used in which case
the pH is controlled below 10 to prevent attack of the metal by hydroxyl
ions.
Section 4
Pm (Pmud) is the test to determine the amount of alkalinity present
from soluble caustic soda and insoluble lime present in the mud.
Lime reacts with sodium bicarbonate to give caustic soda and a precipitate
of limestone (CaCO3).
The product soda ash reacts with lime also to give limestone:
ion analysis
a) Chloride - Cl-
b) Sulphate - SO4 - -
Muds treated with chemical thinner and dispersant can tolerate high
sulphates. Barium carbonate can be used to convert the soluble sulphate
to an insoluble precipitate of barium sulphate if enough calcium is
available to react with the excess carbonate of the reaction. Epm of
sulphate x 0.0346 equals the lb/bbl of chemical treatment by barium
carbonate.
The Hach Meter is preferred to the test tube estimation for determining
sulphate value even though dilution of the filtrate sample is necessary.
Section 4
waters. They are common in make-up water whether it be from
the sea, producing wells, rivers, or stock ponds. The solubility of
calcium is 600 - 800 ppm when derived from gypsum and anhydrite.
Most water based muds can tolerate 200 - 400 ppm of hardness.
Filtration control is affected by the calcium flocculating the clays
and/or polymers in the drilling fluid. Magnesium reacts generally
the same with polymers. Exceptions exist however with certain
high quality PAC materials tolerating magnesium but not working
very well with calcium in excess of 1,000 ppm. Calcium will affect
the thinning performance of lignite also although it does not
inhibit the thinning ability of ferrochrome lignosulphonate.
Forms CaCO3 (limestone). About 0.2 lb/bbl for every 200 ppm of calcium
Polyphosphates
Section 4
Sodium Bicarbonate - NaHCO3
e) Sulphides - S--
17 basic pilot testing & contamination
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This is one of the most overlooked tests in the field but its significance
related to viscosity, filtration, filter cake quality, high temperature
gelation, and drilling rate is very important. Sampling and testing the
cuttings using the same technique will produce an insight as to effect of
the borehole on the drilling fluid. The following table is a guide for clay
content of four mud types.
basic pilot testing & contamination 18
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Recommended Bentonite Content
(lb/bbl)
filtration
The rate of loss through a cake is dependent upon particle size
distribution in the mud and the incorporation of droplets of water and/
or oil in the openings between the solids. The openings are controlled
by the filtration control agents. The basic filtration control agent of
many water base muds is bentonite (whether it is to be as little as 3 - 4
lb/bbl in low solids non-dispersed muds, or as much as 25 - 35 lb/bbl
in seawater dispersed muds).
19 basic pilot testing & contamination
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In some areas the chemical nature of the filtrate, rather than the amount, is
more important as related to shale stability. Importance is also attached to
productivity of porous zones as affected by mud filtrates.
Increase in : Volume
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulphates
Chlorides
Increase in : Chlorides
Calcium
Increase in : Sulphates
Calcium
basic pilot testing & contamination 20
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ƒ Contaminants are often found in bulk products, such as barites and
clays, due to carelessness in transportation and handling.
ƒ Drilled solids, especially sand, can increase the filtrate. Some shales
will reduce the filter loss.
Polyphosphates 185° F
Starch 250° F
Fermentation-resistant starch 265° F
CMC 275° F
PAC 280° F
Xanthan gum 280° F
Ferrochrome lignosulphonate 350° F
Certain lignite thinners + 400° F
Various high Temperature + 400° F
polymers (e.g. polyacrylates)
21 basic pilot testing & contamination
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static aging
This test is an effort to duplicate the effect of temperature on the mud
left in the hole during a trip for a new bit, a logging run, running casing,
or any other extended period of time when the pumps are idle.
The standard cells are normally pressured to 500 psi, or less, and that, in
essence, is where part of the test loses its credibility with oil muds. Tests
have shown that pressure increases do not affect the viscosity of water
based muds. Oil based muds become thinner at higher temperature but
more viscous at higher pressures. Thus, the pressure partially offsets the
effect of the higher temperature.
Section 4
Suspension in several water based muds is generally related to the
amount and type of commercial clays used. Excessive drilled solids,
bentonite, alkalinity, and temperature can form cement. Some
suspension as well as temperature stability regarding fluidity can
be achieved with large amounts (15 - 30 ppb) of thinner (lignite) or
leonardite (brown coal). Both are aids to filtration control as well as
suspension in hot holes. More modern fluids however rely solely on
polymers for suspension with bentonite added only in high temperature
applications to provide desired filter cake characteristics/fluid loss
control.