Load Cycles

Indicates the anticipated number of applications of this load on the system for load cases using the
Expansion (EXP) or Fatigue (FAT) stress types. The software uses this value to determine the allowable
stress from the fatigue curve for the material or the cyclic reduction factor for an Expansion case. For
static cases, the software calculates stresses at full range. For dynamic cases, the software calculates
stresses at half range, which is the amplitude of the full stress range.
For load cases with an Expansion (EXP) stress type, you can enter a value of 1 in the Load Cycles field
(for B31.1 jobs) to indicate that the stress range is caused by noncyclic movements. In this situation, the
software replaces the allowable stress range value (Sa) with a special noncyclic allowable calculation, as
per the B31.1 code standard. The software continues to calculate the displacement stress range (Se) as
defined by the applicable piping code.

Output Status
Controls the disposition of the load case results. The available options are Keep or Suppress.
Use Keep when the load case is producing results that you want to review. The default for all new
cases (except for HGR load cases) is Keep.
Use Suppress for artificial cases such as the preliminary hanger cases, or intermediate construction
cases. Load cases used for hanger design, that is, the weight load case and hanger travel cases
designated with the stress type HGR, must be designated as Suppress.

For example, a wind only load case could be designated as Suppress because it was built only to be
used in subsequent combinations and has no value as a standalone load case. For all load cases created
under previous versions of CAESAR II, all load cases except the HGR cases are converted as Keep.

Output Type
Designates the type of results available for load cases that have a Keep status. Use this field to help
minimize clutter on the output and to ensure that only meaningful results are retained. The available
options are:
Disp/Force/Stress
Provides displacements, restraint loads, global and local forces, and stresses. This is a good choice for
operating cases where you are designing to a code which does a code check on operating stresses,
because the load case is of interest for interference checking (displacements) and restraint loads at one
operating extreme (forces).

Disp/Force
Provides displacements restraint loads, global and local forces. This is a good choice for OPE cases
where you are designing for those codes which do not do a code check on OPE stresses.
Disp/Stress
Provides displacements and stresses only.
Force/Stress
Provides restraint loads, global and local forces, and stresses. This is a good choice for the Sustained
(cold) case, because the load case would be of interest for restraint loads at one operating extreme
(forces), and code compliance (stresses). FR combination loads cases developed under previous
versions of CAESAR II are converted with this force/stress type.
Disp
Provides displacements only.
Force
Provides restraint loads, global, and local forces only.
Stress
Provides stresses only. This is a good choice for a sustained plus occasional load case (with Abs
combination method), because this is an artificial construct used for code stress checking purposes. ST
combination load cases developed under previous versions of CAESAR II are converted with this stress
type.
Combination Method
Specifies the combination method to use for combination cases only. Load cases to combine are
designated as L1, L2, and so on. Select the combination method from the list.
Load case results are multiplied by any associated scale factors before performing the combination and
comparison.
The available methods are:
Algebraic
Indicates a signed algebraic combination of displacement and force level. This method combines the
displacement vectors and the force vectors algebraically and then calculates the stresses from the
combined forces. Displacements are the algebraic combination of the displacement vectors. Forces are
the algebraic combination of the force vectors. Stresses are not combined. Stresses are calculated from
the algebraically combined forces. The Algebraic method would typically be used to calculate EXP code
stresses.
The obsolete CAESAR II combination methods DS and FR used an Algebraic combination method.
Therefore, load cases built in previous versions of CAESAR II using the DS and FR methods are
converted to the Algebraic method. Also, new combination cases automatically default to this method,
unless you change them.
Algebraic combinations can be built only from basic load cases. Basic load cases are non-combination
load cases or other load cases built using the Algebraic combination method.
Scalar
Indicates a signed combination of displacement, force, and stress level. This method combines the
displacement vectors, force vectors, and stress scalars. Displacements are the algebraic combination of
the displacement vectors. Forces are the algebraic combination of the force vectors. Stresses are the
scalar combination of the stress scalars.
The combination of displacements and forces are the same for ALG and Scalar methods. The
combinations of stress levels are different between ALG and Scalar methods because the stresses are
calculated from the combined forces in the ALG method and summed in the Scalar method.
For example:
Load Case 1: bending stress = 100 psi, due to X-moment Load Case 2: bending stress - 100 psi, due to
Z-moment
Algebraic (vectorial) sum = square root of (100*100 + 100*100) = 141.4 psi Scalar sum = 100 + 100 = 200
psi
Scalar is typically used to sum (SUS + OCC) code stresses.
The obsolete CAESAR II combination methods ST used a Scalar combination method. Therefore, load
cases built in previous versions of CAESAR II using the ST method are converted to the Scalar method.
SRSS
Indicates a combination of the square root of the sum of the squares of quantities, such as the
displacements of the forces or the stresses. Displacements are the square root of the sum of the squares
of the displacements of all cases included in the combination. Forces are the square root of the sum of
the squares of the forces of all cases included in the combination. Stresses are the square root of the
sum of the squares of the stresses of all cases included in the combination. This method is typically used
to combine seismic directional components.
ABS
Indicates a combination of the absolute values of quantities, such as the displacements, the forces, or the
stresses. Displacements are the sum of the absolute value of the displacements of all cases included in
the combination. Forces are the sum of the absolute value of the forces of all cases included in the
combination. Stresses are the sum of the absolute value of the stresses of all cases included in the
combination. This method is typically used to combine SUS cases with OCC cases for occasional stress
code check.
For flange checks that use the ABS load case combination method (specified in CAESAR II piping input),
the software uses the following calculated (local) values:
The axial force and torsion, which is the absolute sum of these values from all load cases included the
combination.
The bending moment, which is the sum of resultant bending moments from all load cases included in
the combination.
The flange pressure, which is the maximum pressure defined in the load cases included in the
combination.

MAX
Indicates a combination that reports the maximum displacement, the maximum force, and the maximum
stress value of the cases combined. This method retains the original sign. Displacements are the
displacements having the maximum absolute values of all the load cases included in the combination.
Forces are the forces having the maximum absolute values of all the load cases included in the
combination. Stresses are the stresses having the maximum absolute values of all the load cases
included in the combination. This method is typically used to report the greatest restraint loads from
among a selected set of load cases.
For flange checks that use the MAX load case combination method (specified in CAESAR II piping input),
the software uses the following calculated (local) values:
The axial force and torsion, which is the maximum magnitude of these values from all load cases
included the combination.
The bending moment, which is the maximum resultant bending moment from all load cases included
in the combination.

The flange pressure, which is the maximum pressure defined in the load cases included in the
combination.

MIN
Indicates a combination that reports the minimum displacement, the minimum force, and the minimum
stress value of the cases combined. This method retains the original sign. Displacements are the
displacements having the minimum absolute values of all the load cases included in the combination.
Forces are the forces having the minimum absolute values of all the load cases included in the
combination. Stresses are the stresses having the minimum absolute values of all the load cases
included in the combination.

SIGNMAX
Indicates a combination that reports the maximum displacement, the maximum force, and the maximum
stress value of the cases combined. The sign is considered in the comparison. Displacements are the
maximum signed values of all the displacements from each case included in the combination. Forces are
the maximum signed values of all the forces from each case included in the combination. Stresses are
the maximum signed values of all the stresses from each case included in the combination. This method
is typically used in conjunction with SignMin to report the envelope of restrain loads from among a
selected set of load cases.

SIGNMIN
Indicates a combination that reports the minimum displacement, the minimum force, and the minimum
stress value of the cases combined. The sign is considered in the comparison. Displacements are the
minimum signed values of all the displacements from each case included in the combination. Forces are
the minimum signed values of all the forces from each case included in the combination. Stresses are the
minimum signed values of all the stresses from each case included in the combination. This method is
typically used in conjunction with SignMax to report the envelope of restraint loads from among a
selected set of load cases.

Liberal Stress Allowable

Indicates whether or not to use liberal stress allowable. Conservative formulation of the
allowable expansion stress range for many codes in CAESAR II is calculated from:

f ( 1.25 Sc + .25 Sh )
When select this option, the difference between Sh and Sl, provided Sh > Sl, is added to the term
inside the parenthesis. That is:

SA(Liberal) = f[ 1.25 Sc + .25 Sh + ( Sh - Sl) ]

The liberal expression is only used when there is at least one sustained stress case in the load set.
If there is more than one sustained stress case in a single problem, then the largest of Sl,
considering all of the sustained cases, for any single element end is chosen to subtract from Sh.
Because the sustained stress varies from one pipe to another, the allowable expansion stress also
varies.

By default, CAESAR II uses the liberal stress allowable setting in the configuration file in its
computation of the expansion stress allowable. New models are created using this configuration
setting. If you do not want to use this default setting for calculating the expansion, clear this
check box.

Perhaps it would be of some benefit to review the meaning of the term “Liberal allowable stress
range”. First of all, this is not a term that is used by the ASME B31 Pressure Piping Codes.
Caesar II (C2) uses the term as a sort of “short-hand” for referring to the increase in thermal
(displacement) allowable stress range that is allowed in B31.1 [paragraph 102.3.2(D)] and B31.3
[paragraph 302.3.5(d)]. In these paragraphs, the B31 Codes allow the positive difference between
the calculated combined longitudinal stresses (due to weight, bending and longitudinal pressure)
and the maximum allowable stress, Sh, to be added to the term “0.25 Sh” (the second term) in
the equation for calculating the maximum allowable stress range, SA. The B31 Codes say that it
“MAY” be added into the “0.25Sh” term, thereby making it optional. If the analyst elects to
ignore the additional allowable stress range the decision (all other things being equal) would be
judged conservative. If the analyst elect to employ this additional allowable stress range, the
resulting allowable stress range is sometimes termed “liberal”. It is, of course, all semantics. The
Code allows the additional allowable stress range for a very good reason. The concept
underlying this rule is very well described in the famous book by S.W. Spielvogle (Piping Stress
Calculations Simplified, Fifth Edition, 1955). Spielvogle explains that the B31 rules intend for
the analyst to be able to use the entire range of stress from the material yield point at the
operating (hot) temperature to the material yield point at the ambient (cold) temperature (less a
factor of safety). Since Sh (neglecting the possibility of creep) is set at 2/3 Sy for both the hot
and cold conditions, we can calculate the hot yield stress as Sh*1.5 and we can calculate the cold
yield stress as Sc*1.5. Taken together the total allowable stress range for the combined loadings
of weight (bending), longitudinal pressure (tension) and thermal expansion (displacement) would
be (1.5*Sc) + (1.5*Sh), or 1.5(Sc + Sh). This range of allowable stress has been reduced slightly
to allow for the vagaries of material and for other “real world” inaccuracies. The Code
philosophy would then permit the total allowable stress range (after the factor of safety is
applied) for all the combined loading described above to be 1.25(Sc + Sh) (if ,in this discussion,
we neglect the stress range reduction factor ,”f”, for simplicity). But the Code uses 1.0Sh for the
sustained loadings of weight and longitudinal pressure and this leaves 1.25*Sc + 0.25*Sh for the
allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range (but you wondered where that came
from). Because the Code intends for the entire strength of the material (from hot yield to cold
yield) to be used (except for the “adjustment” made for vagaries), it follows that the rule in the
paragraphs cited above allows the analyst to put the unused (difference between 5/4/2019
CHARLIE's :: Liberal Allowable Stress Range https://charliestory.tistory.com/41 2/3 calculated
sustained longitudinal stresses and the allowable 1.0*Sh) portion to use in increasing the
allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range. You will recognize that the “excess”
sustained case allowable stress will vary across the system being analyzed and that the variation
will directly reflect how well supported the system is (bending stresses will have the greater
effect). This variation in “excess” sustained case allowable stress from node to node in the model
will (when the “liberal” option is used) result in the allowable stress range, Sa, being different at
every node when the Code compliance report is viewed. So, one might ask, why would an
analyst opt to not use the “liberal” allowable stress range for comparison to calculated expansion
(displacement) stress range? This is an engineering judgment. For example, if the sustained
stresses were calculated as 80 or 90 percent of Sh and the system were operated in the material’s
creep range, the designer might want to take the conservative decision to not use the “liberal”
allowable stress range when evaluating thermal (displacement) stress ranges. Another example
might be offered as a case when the system is in severe cyclic service (see B31.3 paragraph
300.2 for the definition) and the designer is looking for a longer fatigue life. Going the
“conservative” route might also appeal to the designer (or owner) if the system would be
operating within the pressure/temperature variations described in paragraph 302.2.4 in B31.3 or
paragraph 102.2.4 in B31.1. If we have some degree of uncertainty, we employ an additional
measure of conservatism.

The stress RANGE is calculated as the algebraic difference between the value at MAXIMUM
metal temperature and that at MINIMUM metal temperature for the cycle under analysis. You
must calculate the full thermal displacement stress RANGE and compare that to the Code
maximum allowable displacement stress RANGE (see B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d)). That is to
say (in the case that you cite), the calculated full displacement stress RANGE is the SUM of the
displacement stress that results from the thermal excursion from the installed temperature (say 21
degrees C) down to -140 degrees C ADDED TO the displacement stress that results from the
thermal excursion from the installed temperature (say 21 degrees C) up to 50 degrees C. Each of
these is a "zero to peak" stress and the RANGE (the sum of the two) is a "peak to peak stress
RANGE". According to B31.3 paragraph 319.3.1(a), the value of this sum (the "peak to peak
stress RANGE") must be less than the value of the Code maximum allowable displacement
stress RANGE s calculated in accordance with B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d).

The equation from see B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d) is of the form:

Sa f * ((1.25 * Sc) + (0.25 * Sh)

Sa is the calculated maximum allowable stress RANGE

Sc is the cold allowable stress at temperature from App. A
Sh is the hot allowable stress at temperature from App. A
So, where does this equation for maximum allowable stress RANGE come from?

The stress RANGE concept was introduced into the B31 Pressure Piping Code in the early
1950's. The concept underlying this rule is very well described in the famous book by S.W.
Spielvogle (Piping Stress Calculations Simplified, Fifth Edition, 1955). When you read
Spielvogle's explanation please understand that in the original form in which this concept was
introduced into the Code allowed Sc and Sh to be either 1/4 of the tensile strength of the material
or 5/8 of the yield strength of the material (whichever is smaller). In the modern B31.3 the Code
allows Sc and Sh to be either 1/3 of the tensile strength of the material or 2/3 of the yield strength
of the material (whichever is smaller).

Spielvogle explains that the B31 rules intend for the piping engineer (analyst) to be able to use
the entire range of stress from the material yield point at the operating (hot) temperature to the
material yield point at the ambient (or coldest) temperature (less a factor of safety). Since Sh
(neglecting the possibility of creep) is set at 2/3 Sy for both the hot and cold conditions, we can
calculate the hot yield stress as Sh*1.5 and we can calculate the cold yield stress as Sc*1.5.
Taken together the total allowable stress range for the combined SUSTAINED loadings of
weight (bending), longitudinal pressure (tension) AND thermal expansion (displacement) would
be (1.5*Sc) + (1.5*Sh), or 1.5(Sc + Sh). This range of allowable stress has been reduced slightly
to allow for the vagaries of material and for other "real world" inaccuracies. The Code
philosophy would then permit the total allowable stress range (after the factor of safety is
applied) for all the combined loading described above to be 1.25(Sc + Sh) (if ,in this discussion,
we neglect the stress range reduction factor ,"f", for simplicity). However the Code uses 1.0Sh
for the sustained loadings of weight and longitudinal pressure (so we then must subtract this
from the maximum allowable stress range for thermal displacement alone) and this leaves
1.25*Sc + 0.25*Sh for the allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range alone.

Because the Code intends for the entire strength of the material (from hot yield to cold yield) to
be used for the total loading (except for the "adjustment" made for vagaries), it follows that the
rule in the Code paragraphs cited above allows the analyst to put the unused (difference between
calculated sustained longitudinal stresses and the allowable 1.0*Sh) portion to use in increasing
the allowable thermal expansion (displacement) stress range (this is sometimes referred to as the
"liberal allowable stress RANGE) . You will recognize that the "excess" sustained case allowable
stress will vary across the system being analyzed and that the variation will directly reflect how
well supported the system is (bending stresses will have the greater effect). This variation in
"excess" sustained case allowable stress from node to node in the model will (when the "liberal"
option is used) result in the allowable stress range, Sa, being different at every node when the
Code compliance report is viewed.

The concept of allowable stress RANGE addresses the piping at its coldest and at its hottest so
the maximum allowable stress RANGE can only be compared to the calculated stress RANGE
(peak to peak) from the RANGE from its coldest to its hottest. However, there should be really
very few of these full RANGE temperature excursions in the life of the system - perhaps only
one. All the other RANGES of temperature excursions (e.g., ambient to operating and operating
to ambient) will be "partial cycles" and the Code describes the method of addressing these in
B31.3 paragraph 302.3.5(d), equation (1d). Remember we are addressing many cycles as this is a
fatigue based approach. This method of addressing thermal displacement stress RANGE (peak
to peak) differs significantly from the way "sustained" stresses are addressed. The stresses due to
sustained weight and pressure (Sustained Stresses) are zero to peak.

Again, the Code allows the "peak to peak" stress to be nearly as high as 1.25(Sc + Sh), but no
higher. If you just look at the zero to peak stress of only one of the two constituents that one
constituent still "usually" cannot exceed 0.66 of the yield strength of the material at temperature
(I hedge there because under occasional loadings we can take it up to 0.80 of the yield strength).
So, if the "half" of the "peak to peak" thermal displacement stress (as you say from ambient to -
140 degrees C) exceeds the yield strength of the material you have a problem. We know that
when we apply these concepts to cycling piping systems (especially to hot pipes) there may be a
little plastic deformation in the first few cycles and then the system will "shake down" to purely
elastic behavior. As long as we do not see continuous plastic deformations (yielding of the
material) in opposite directions at the hottest condition and the coldest condition of each cycle
(ratcheting) the system will "relax" into a sustaining level of stress ("completely shaken down")
where subsequent temperature excursions will not result in additional plastic deformation at
either temperature extreme throughout its cycle life. So if you calculate that the ambient to -140
degrees C temperature excursion will exceed 100 percent of the yield strength of the material
you had better find a design solution to that problem.