FUNDAMENTALS OF

FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 9 External Flow
Past Bodies

1
MAIN TOPICS
 General
G l Ch
Characteristics
i i off External
E l Flow
Fl
 Boundary Layer Characteristics
 Drag
 Lift

2
Introduction
 Objects are completely surrounded by the fluid and the
flows are termed external flows.
flows.
 Examples include the flow of air around airplane,
automobiles, and fallingg snowflakes, or the flow of water
around submarines and fish.
 External flows involving air are often termed
aerodynamics in response to the important external flows
produced when an object such as an airplane flies through
the atmosphere.

3
Application
 Design of cars and trucks – to decrease the fuel
consumption and improve the handling characteristics.
 Improve ships,
ships, whether they are surface vessels
((surrounded by
y air and water)) or submersible vessels.
 Design of building – consider the various wind effects

4
Approaches to External Flows 1/2
 Two approaches are used to obtain information of external flows:
 Theoretical (analytical and numerical) approaches:
approaches: Because of
th complexities
the l iti off the
th governing
i equations
ti andd the
th complexities
l iti
of the geometry of the objects involved, the amount of
information obtained from purely theoretical methods is limited.
limited
With current and anticipated advancements in the area of
computational fluid mechanics, computer predication of forces
and complicated flow patterns will become more readily
available.
 Experimental approaches:
approaches: Much information is obtained.
obtained.

5
Approaches to External Flows 2/2
Fl
Flow visualization
i li ti

(a) Flow past a full

full--sized streamlined
vehicle in the GM aerodynamics
laboratory wind tunnel, and 18- 18-ft
by 34-
34-ft test section facility driven
by a 4000-
4000-hp, 43-
43-ftft--diameter fan.
(b) Surface flow on a model vehicle as
indicated by tufts attached to the
surface.
surface

6
General Characteristics
 A body immersed in a moving fluid experiences a resultant force
due to the interacting between the body and the fluid surrounding:
 The
Th body
b d isi stationary
t ti andd the
th fluid
fl id flows
fl pastt the
th body
b d with
ith
velocity U.
 The fluid far from the body is stationary and the body moves
through the fluid with velocity U.
 For a given-
given-shaped object
object, the characteristics of the flow depend
very strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, speed,
and fluid pproperties.
p

7
Categories of Bodies
 The
Th structure off an externall flow
fl andd the
h ease withi h which
hi h the
h flow
fl
can be described and analyzed often depend on the nature of the
bodyy in the flow.
 Three general categories of bodies include (a) two
two--dimensional
objects, (b) axisymmetric bodies,
bodies, and (c) three
three--dimensional bodies.

 Another
A th classification
l ifi ti off body
b d shape
h can be
b made
d depending
d di on
whether the body is streamlined or blunt.
blunt.

8
Lift and Drag Concepts 1/3
 The interaction between the body and the
fluid:
Stresses
S
Stresses-
-wall
ll shear stresses,w ,due
h stresses, d to
viscous effects.
Normal
N l stresses,
t due
d tot the
th pressure p.
 Both w and p vary in magnitude and
direction along the surface.
surface
 The detailed distribution of w and p is
difficult to obtain.
obtain
 However, only the integrated or resultant
effects of these distributions are needed.
9
Forces Acting on Element 1/2
 The forces acting on a fluid element may be classified as body
forces and surface forces; surface forces include normal forces and
tangential (shear) forces
forces.
   Surface forces acting on a fluid
F  FS  FB element can be described in terms
   of normal and shear stresses.
stresses
 Fsx i  Fsy j  Fsz k
  
 Fbx i  Fby j  Fbz k

Fn F1 F2

 n  lim  1  lim  2  lim
t  0 A t  0 A t  0 A
10
Forces Acting on Element 2/2
    
Fsx   xx  yx  zx xyz
 x y z 
  xy  yy  zy 
Fsy     xyz
 x y z 
  xz  yz  zz 
Fsz     xyz
 x y z 
Fbx  g xxyz
Fby  g yxyz
Fbz  g zxyz Equation of Motion
 xx   p   xx
 yy   p   yy
 zz   p   zz
11
Lift and Drag Concepts 2/3
 The resultant force on the object in the downstream direction ((by
by the fluid)
fluid) is
termed the DRAG
DRAG,, and the resultant force normal to the upstream velocity is
termed the LIFT
LIFT,, both of which are surface forces
forces.. L


Drag  D  e x   n dA  e x    p   e rr r   r e dA

  p    cos     sin dA

D
 rr r

Lift  L  e     dA  e    p   e
y n y rr r   r e dA

   p   sin      cosdA
rr r
n
 
e x  e r  cos      cos  , e x  e  cos     sin 
2 
 
e y  e r  cos     sin  , e y  e r  cos 
2 

12
Lift and Drag Concepts 3/3
 Without detailed information concerning the
shear stress and pressure distributions on a
body,, the drag and the lift are difficult to
body
obtain by integration.
integration.
 A widely used alternative is to define
dimensionless lift and drag coefficients and
determine their approximate values by means
of either a simplified analysis, some
numerical technique, or an appropriate
experiment.
experiment
i t.
L D
Lift coefficient C L  1 Drag coefficient CD 
1
U 2 A U 2 A
2 2 13
Characteristic pressure
Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 1/2

 For a given-
given-shaped object, the characteristics of the flow depend
very strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, speed,
and fluid properties.
properties
 According to dimensional analysis arguments, the character of flow
should depend on the various dimensionless parameters.
parameters For typical
external flows the most important of these parameters are the
Reynolds number, the Mach number, and for the flow with a free
surface, the Froude number.

14
Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 2/2

 For the present, we consider how the external flow and its
associated lift and drag vary as a function of Reynolds number.
 For
F mostt external
t l flows,
fl the
th characteristic
h t i ti length
l th off objects
bj t are on
the order of 0.10m~10m. Typical upstream velocities are on the
order of 00.01m/s
01m/s~100m/s
100m/s. The resulting Reynolds number range is
approximately 10~109.
 Re>100. The flows are dominated byy inertial effects.
 Re<1. The flows are dominated by viscous effects.

15
Flow Past an Flat Plate 1/4
 With Re ≒ 0.1, the viscous effects are relatively strong and the
plate affects the uniform upstream flow far ahead, above, below, and
behind the plate.
plate In low Reynolds number flows,
flows, the viscous effects
are felt far from the object in all directions.
directions.

Within the boundary layer, the viscous

force is comparable to the inertial
forces.

16
Flow Past an Flat Plate 2/4
 With Re = 10, the region in which
viscous effects are important become
smaller
ll in
i allll directions
di ti exceptt
downstream. One does not need to
travel very far ahead,
ahead above,
above or below
the plate to reach areas in which the
viscous effects of the plate are not felt.
felt
The streamlines are displaced from
their original uniform upstream
conditions, but the displacement is not
as ggreat as for the Re=0.1 situation.
17
Flow Past an Flat Plate 3/4
 With Re = 107 , the flow is dominated by inertial effects and the viscous
effects are negligible everywhere “except in a region very close to the
plate and in the relatively thin wake region behind the plate.”
plate.”

 Since the fluid must stick to the solid surface,

surface, there is a thin boundary layer
region of thickness <<  next to the plate in which the fluid velocity changes
f
from U to zero on the
h plate.
plate
l .
 The thickness of boundary layer increases in the direction of flow, starting
from zero at the forward or leading g edge
g of the pplate.
plate.
18
Flow Past an Flat Plate 4/4
 The flow within the boundary layer may be laminar or turbulent
depending on various parameters involved.
 The
Th streamline
t li off the
th flow
fl outside
t id off the
th boundary
b d layer
l i nearly
is l
parallel to the plate.
plate. -> no viscous effects.
effects.
 The existence of the plate has very little effect on the streamline
outside of the boundary layer – either ahead, above, and below the
p
plate.

19
Flow Past an Circular Cylinder 1/4
 When Re≒
Re≒ 0.10.1,, the viscous effects are important several diameters in
any direction from the cylinder. A somewhat surprising characteristic
of this flow is that the streamlines are essentially symmetric about the
center of the cylinder-
cylinder-the streamline pattern is the same in front of the
cylinder
y as it is behind the cylinder.
y

Stokes’ flow

20
Flow Past an Circular Cylinder 2/4
 As Reynolds
y number is increased ((Re =50),
), the region
g ahead of the cylinder
y in
which viscous effect are important becomes smaller, with the viscous region
extending only a short distance ahead of the cylinder.
 The flow separates from the body at the separation point.
point.
 With the increase in Reynolds number,
number, the fluid inertia becomes more important
and at the some on the body, denoted the separation location, the fluid’s inertia is
such that it cannot follow the curved path around to the rear of the body.
body.
Some of the fluid is actually flowing upstream,
against the direction of the upstream flow.
flow

21
Flow Past an Circular Cylinder 4/4
 With larger
l Reynolds
R ld numbers (R 105),
b (Re=10 ) th
the area affected
ff t d by
b the
th viscous
i forces
f
is forced farther downstream until it involve only a boundary layer (δ(δ<<D
<<D)) on the
front portion of the cylinder and an irregular, unsteady wake region that extends
far downstream of the cylinder.
cylinder
 The velocity gradients within the boundary layer and wake regions are much
larger than those in the remainder of the flow field. -> Shear stress is a product of
fl id viscosity
fluid i it andd the
th velocity
l it gradient,
di t so viscosity
i it effects
ff t are confined
fi d tot the
th
boundary layer and wake regions.
regions.

22
Prior to Prandtl
 Theoretical hydrodynamics evolved from Euler’s equation of
motion for a inviscid (nonviscous)
nonviscous) fluid. (published by Leonhard
Euler in 1755)
Contradicted many experimental observations. (NO DRAG in
the equation) Practicing engineers developed their own empirical
art of hydraulics.

  V    
 (V  )V   g z  p    w  u w  v w  w w 
V
g  p   
 t  z  t x y z 
 Mathematical description of a viscous fluid by Navier
Navier--Stokes
equations, developed by Navier,1827, and independently (extended)
by Stokes, 1845.
Mathematical difficulties in solving these equations.
equations. 23
Boundary Layer Concepts
 Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl,
Prandtl, a German aerodynamicist, in 1904.
Many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into
t regions,
two i one close
l to
t solid
lid boundaries,
b d i the th other
th coveringi the
th
rest of flow.
flow.
Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary (the
boundary layer)
layer) is the effect of viscosity important.
In the region outside of the boundary layer,
layer the effect of viscosity
is negligible and the fluid may be treated as inviscid.
 The boundary layer concept permitted the solution of viscous flow
problems that would have been impossible through application of
the Navier-
Navier-Stokes to the complete flow field.
24
Boundary Layer Characteristics
 The flow past an object can be treated as a combination of viscous
flow in the boundary layer and inviscid flow elsewhere.
 Inside
I id the
th boundary
b d layer
l th friction
the f i ti is
i significant
i ifi t andd across the th
width of which the velocity increases rapidly from zero (at the
surface) to the value inviscid flow theory predicts.
predicts
 Outside the boundary layer the velocity gradients normal to the flow
are relativelyy small,, and the fluids acts as if it were inviscid
inviscid,, even
though the viscosity is not zero.

25
Boundary Layer on Solid Surface
 Inviscid flow (1st order eq.) -> No drag -> Unrealistic
 By Pradtl in 1904:
 The no-
no-slip condition requires that the velocity everywhere on
the surface of the object be zero.
 There
Th will ill always
l b a thin
be hi boundary
b d layer,
l in
i which
hi h friction
f i i isi
significant and across the width of the layer the velocity
increases rapidly from zero (at the surface) to the value inviscid
flow theory predicts.
predicts.
 Outside of the boundary layer,
layer, the velocity gradients normal to
the flow are relative small, and the fluid acts as if it were inviscid,
even though the viscosity is not zero.
26
Boundary Layer on Solid Surface
 Consider the flow over a flat plate as shown, the boundary layer is
laminar for a short distance downstream from the leading edge;
transition occurs over a region of the plate rather than at a single line
across the plate.

27
Boundary Layer on Solid Surface
 The
Th transition
i i regioni extends d downstream
d to the
h location
l i where
h the h
boundary layer flow becomes completely turbulent.
 For a finite length plate,
plate, it is clear that the plate length,
length , can be
used as the characteristic length, with the Reynolds number as
Re=U  /ν.
 For the infinitely long flat plate we use x, the coordinate distance
along the plate from the leading edge, as the characteristic length
and define the Reynolds number as Rex=Ux/ =Ux/ν
Ux/ν.
Ux/ ν
ν.
 For any fluid or upstream velocity the Reynolds number will be
sufficientlyy large
g for boundary y layer
y type
yp flow if the pplate is longg
enough.

28
Boundary Layer Thickness

 Standard Boundary layer thickness

 Boundaryy layer
y displacement
p thickness
 Boundary layer momentum thickness

29
Standard Boundary Layer Thickness
 The standard boundary layer thickness is the distance from the plate
at which the fluid velocity is within some arbitrary value of the
upstream velocity.
velocity

y = δ where u=0
u 0.99
99 U

b
boundary
d llayer thi
thickness
k

30
Boundary Layer Displacement
Thickness
 The boundary layer retards the fluid, so that the mass flux and
momentum flux are both less than they would be in the absence of
the boundary layer.
layer.
 The displacement distance is the distance the plate would be moved
so that the loss of mass flux (due to reduction in uniform flow area)
is equivalent to the loss the boundary layer causes.

The loss of mass flow rate due to the

boundary layer
 * Uw  0  U  u wdy


 u
  *  0  1  dy


 U
31
Boundary Layer Momentum
Thickness
 The momentum thickness is the distance the plate would
be moved so that the loss of momentum flux is equivalent
to the loss the boundary layer actually causes.

The loss of momentum due to the boundary layer


wU    wu( U  u )dy
2
0

 u u
 1  dy
0 U U 
32
How to Solve Boundary Layer

How To Solve Boundary Layer

 By Blasius (called Blasius solution)
solution)
Limited to laminar boundary layer only,
only, and for a flat
plate only (without a pressure gradient).
gradient
gradient)).
)
 Momentum integral equation
Used to obtain approximate information on boundary
layer growth for the general case ( laminar or turbulent
boundary layers, with or without a pressure gradient).
gradient).

33
 P
Prandtl/Blasius
d l/Bl i Solution
S l i
Prandtle used boundary layer concept and imposed
approximation (valid for large Reynolds number flows)
to simplify the governing Navier-
Navier-Stokes equations. H.
Blasius (1883-
(1883-1970), one of Prandtl’s students, solved
th
these simplified
i lifi d equations.
ti

34
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 1/10
 The
Th details
d il off viscous
i incompressible
i ibl flow
fl past any object
bj can be
b
obtained by solving the governing Navier-
Navier-Stokes equation.
 For steady,
steady two dimensional laminar flow with negligible
gravitational effects, these equations reduce to the following
u u 1 p   2u  2u 
u v     2  2 
x y  x  x y 
v v 1 p  2v 2v 
u v     2  2 
x y  y  x y 
No analytical solution
 In addition, the conservation of mass
u v
 0
x y 35
 Prandtl/Blasius Solution 2/10
 Assumptions for simplification
1. Since the boundary layer is thin, it is expected that the component of velocity (v)
normal to the plate is much smaller than stream-
stream-wise velocity component and that the
rate of change of any parameter across the boundary layer should be much greater than
th t along
that l th
the flflow di
direction.
ti  
u  v, 
2. Zero pressure gradient. (Note potential flow and constant velocity) y x
3. Within the boundary layer, the viscous force is comparable to the inertial forces.

Nondimensionalization
u v x y
u~  , v~  , ~ x  ,~ y
U V L  u u  2u
u v  2
 U  u~ v~  U   x y y
  ~  ~ 0 -   1, -  V  U
 VL  x y  VL  L
u v
 U 2   ~ u~ ~ u~    2  ~p      2u~  2u~ 
2
 U 2 
 0
  1 x y
  u ~  v ~     ~    ~ 2  ~ 2 , -     1     
 L   x y   UL  x   L  x y   L  L Re
p
0
    ~ v~ ~ v~  ~
p         2 v~  2 v~ 
2 2 2
y
  u ~  v ~    ~       ~ 2  ~ 2 
 L   x y  y  L    L  x y 
36
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 3/10
Second order partial
G
Governing
i equations
i diff
differential
ti l equations
ti

u u  2u u v
u v  2  0
x y y x y

Boundary conditions
y  0, u  0, v0
u
y  , u  U, 0
y
Solution ? …… are extremely difficult to obtain.

37
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 4/10
 Blasius reduced the partial differential equations to an
ordinary differential equation…
The velocity profile
profile, u/U,
u/U should be similar for all values of x.
x Thus the
velocity profile is of the dimensionless form
Is an unknown function to be determined.
u
 g   where  
 
y y
x
U U
The boundary
Th b d layer
l thickness
hi k grows as the
h square root off x andd inversely
i l
proportional to the square root of U. That is
1
 x  2
~ 
U
38
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 5/10
S t a dimensionless
Set di i l similarity
i il it variable
i bl
y y
 
 x
U
Th velocity
The l i component
x 
f    , u  Uf  , dy 
u
d , d   dx
U U 2x
u  
 Uf    Uf  
x x 2x
 
u  x U x U x
y

v    dyd   Uf   d   f  

 d   f    f  0
0
x 0
2x U 2x U 0 2x U
U x
  f    f  0  1 U  f    f   where f 0  0
2x U 2 x
39
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 6/10
x 
u  Uf  , dy  d , d   dx,
U 2x
u   u 
 Uf    Uf   ,  Uf    Uf  
U
x x 2x y y x
 2u 1 U
 Uf   U
, v   f    f   where f 0  0
y 2
x 2 x
u u  2u
u v  2
x y y
   1 U
Uf   Uf      f    f  Uf   U  Uf   U
 2x  2 x x x
 f   f     f    f   f    2 f  
2 f    f   f    0

40
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 7/10
d3 f d2 f Nonlinear third-
Nonlinear, third-order
2 3f  2 f ' ' '  ff ' '  0 ordinary differential equation
d d 2

With boundary conditions

f = f’ = 0 att η = 0 f   
u
f’ →1 at η →∞ U
Solution ? No analytical solution !
Easy to integrate to obtain numerical solution

Blasius solved it using a power series expansion about

η = 0 …Blasius solution
41
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 8/10

Numerical solution of
d3 f d2 f
2 3 f  2 f ' ' '  ff ' '  0
d d 2

42
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 9/10

Numerical solution of

d3 f d2 f
2 3f  2 f ' ' '  ff ' '  0
d d 2

Blasius boundary layer profile: (a

(a) boundary layer profile in dimensionless
form using the similarity variable η. (b
(b) similar boundary layer profiles at
different locations along the flat plate. 43
Prandtl/Blasius Solution 10/10
 From Table 9.1. We see that at η = 5.0 , u/U=0.992, f=3.283
=3.283..

 5 5 .0 5 .0 * 1 .721
    
x U x U / x Re x x Re x
 
x x
 0.664  u
   1  dy   1  f 
*
d    f 0
 Re x  Ux /  0
U 0
U U
x Re x 
x
5  3.283  1.72, *
 1.72

U x Ux

u  0. 332  U 2

Shear stress  w   |y 0  0.332U 2 

3

y x Rex
HW: derive momentum thickness and shear stress formulas. 44
 HW Solution
 Revised Table 9.1.
 u u  x x 5
η f’’ f’ f 1  dy  0 f  1  f   f  1  f  d
5

U 0
d 
0 U U  U
0 0 3321
0.3321 0 0
x x 
f  1  f  d  f  1  f   0   ff d 
5 5

U 
5
1 0.3230 0.3298 0.1656 
0 
U  0 
2
3
0.2668
0 1614
0.1614
0.6298
0 8460
0.8460
0.6500
1 3968
1.3968

x 
U 
f  1  f   0   2 f d   
5 5

0 
x
U

f  1  f   0  2 f  0
5 5

x x
4 0.0642 0.9555 2.3057   f 51  f 5  2 f 5  f 0  3.28331  0.9915  20.0159  0.3321
U U
5 0.0159 0.9915 3.2833
x
 0.660
6 0.0024 0.9990 4.2796 U
Infinity 0 1.000 Infinity

u  0. 332  U 2

Shear stress  w   |y 0  0.332U 2 

3

y x Rex
u 
 Uf    Uf    Uf 0
U U U
   0.332 U 45

y y 0
y  0 x   0 x x
 M
Momentum Integral
I l Equation
E i
Used to obtain approximate
information on boundary layer growth
How To Solve Boundary Layer
1. By Blasius (called Blasius solution)
only, and for a flat plate only (without a pressure gradient).
Limited to laminar boundary layer only, gradient).
2. Momentum integral equation
Used to obtain approximate information on boundary layer growth for the general case ( laminar or
turbulent boundary layers, with or without a pressure gradient).
gradient).
46
Momentum Integral Equation 1/12
 Consider incompressible, steady, two
two--dimensional flow
over a solid surface.

 ( x )?

47
Momentum Integral Equation 2/12
 Assume that the pressure is constant throughout the flow field.
 X-component of the momentum equation to the steady flow of fluid
within
ithi this
thi control
t l volume
l

 
     
 F  t V V dV  A n  VV dA
   
 Fx    VV  ndA    VV  ndA
(1) ( 2)

For a plate of width b

F x   D  
plate
 w dA  b 
plate
 w dy
where D is the drag that the fluid exerts on the object.
object. 48
Momentum Integral Equation 3/12
 Since
Si the
h plate
l is i solid
lid andd the
h upper surface
f off the
h controll volume
l
is a streamline, there is no flow through these
 area. Thus

V n  0
 D    U  U dA   u 2dA
(1) ( 2)
 h ???
 D  U bh  b  u dy
2
d 2
0

 The conservation of mass Drag on a flat plate is related to

 momentum deficit within the
Uh   udy boundary layer
0


UhUb  b  Uudy
0
49
Momentum Integral Equation 4/12

D  b  u( U  u )dy A balance between shear drag and a
0 decrease in the momentum of the fluid

 As x increases,  increases and the drag

increases.
 The thickening of the boundary layer is
necessary to overcome the drag of the viscous
shear stress on the plate.
plate. (This is contrary to
horizontal fully developed pipe flow in which
the momentum of the fluid remains constant
and the shear force is overcome by the
pressure gradient along the pipe.)
pipe.)
50
Momentum Integral Equation 5/12
 By T. von Karman (1881-
(1881-1963)

D  b  u ( U  u )dy
0

 u u D  bU  2

 1  dy Valid for laminar or turbulent flows

0 U U 

dD 2 d
dD
 bU dD   w bdx   b w
dx dx dx
2 d Momentum integral equation for the
 w  U boundary layer flow on a flat plate
d
dx 51
Momentum Integral Equation 6/12
If we knew the detailed velocityy pprofile in the boundaryy layer
y (i.e.,
( ,
the Blasius solution), we could evaluate either the drag force or the
shear stress.
What if we don’t know u=u(x)??? With an assumed velocity
profile in the boundary layer to obtain reasonable, approximate
boundary layer result.
result. The accuracy of the result depends on
how closely the shape of the assumed velocity profile
approximates
pp the actual p
profile.
profile.
at y  0, u 0
 g Y 
u y
0  Y 1 Y  at y , u U
U  B.C.
BC
u at y , u / y  0
1 Y 1
U
g(0)  0 and
d g(1)  1
52
Momentum Integral Equation 7/12
g(Y) ? g(Y)=Y (Example 9.4)
For a given g(Y), the drag can be determined
D  ρb  u U  u  dy  ρbU δ  g Y 1  g Y dY  ρbU 2 δ C1
δ 1
2
0 0

1 1
If g Y   Y , D  ρbU δ  Y 1  Y dY  ρbU 2 δ   
1
2
0
 2 3
C1   g(Y )1  g(Y )dY
1

du U dg U
 w   | y 0  |Y 0  C2
dy  dY 
dg Y 
C2  |Y 0
dY 53
Momentum Integral Equation 8/12
d
dD dδ U dδ 
 ρbU
bU 2 C1  b wall  b C2   ρU
U C1  C2
dx dx  dx 
C2
d  dx
UC1
Integrating… from =0 at x=0 to give

2 C 2 x  2C2 / C1
  
UC1 x Rex

C1C2 3 / 2 
w  U
2 x
C1 and C2 must be determined
54
Momentum Integral Equation 9/12
 Several assumed velocity profiles and the resulting value
of 
Typical approximate boundary layer profiles
used in the momentum integral equation.

55
Momentum Integral Equation 10/12
 The more closely the assumed shape approximates the actual (i.e.,
Blasius) profile, the more accurate the final results.
results.
 For
F any assumed d profile
fil shape,
h the
th functional
f ti l dependence
d d off  andd
w on the physical parameters ,, U, and x is the same. Only the
constants are different
different.. That is,
is

1/ 2
 x   Re x 1/ 2
1/ 2
 U 3 
 ~   w ~    constant
 U   x


 x

56
Momentum Integral Equation 11/12
 Defining dimensionless local friction coefficient

w 2C1C2
cf   cf 
1 Re x
U 2
2
C1C2 3 / 2 
w  U
2 x

w 0.644
cf  
1 R x
Re (Blasius solution)
U 2
2
57
Momentum Integral Equation 12/12
 For a flat plate of length  and width b, the net friction drag Df and
frictional drag coefficient CDf are defined as

1 2 Df 1 L 8C1C 2


Df  C Df  U b  b   w dx C Df  1  c f dx 
2 0
U 2 b  0 Re 
2

c f  2C1C 2 / Ux
U Re   U / 
Df 1 L 1.328
C Df 
1

 U 2 b  0

c f dx 
Re 
2
0.644
cf 
Re x (Blasius solution)
58
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent 1/5

 Above analytical results agree quite well with experimental results

up to a point where the boundary layer flow becomes turbulent,
which will occur for any free stream velocity and any fluid provided
the plate is long enough.
enough.
 The parameter that governs the transition to turbulent flow is the
Reynolds numbers – in this case, the Reynolds number based on the
distance from the leading edge of the plate,
plate, Rex=Ux/
=Ux/.
 The value of the Reynolds number at the transition location is a
rather complex function of various parameters involved, including
the roughness of the surface, the curvature of the surface, and some
measure of the disturbances in the flow outside the boundary layer.
layer.

59
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent 2/5

 On a flat plate with a sharp leading edge in a typical air-

air-stream, the
transition takes place at a distance x from the leading edge given by
=2××105 to 3×
Rexcr=2 3×106. Rexcr=5 =5××105 is used.
used
 The actual transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer flow
may occur over a region of the plate,
plate not a specific single location.
location
 Typical, the transition begins at random location on the plate in the
vicinityy of Rex= Rexcr
 The complex process of transition from laminar to turbulent flow
involves the instabilityy of the flow filed.

60
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent 3/5

 Small disturbances imposed on the boundary layer will either grow

or decay, depending on where the disturbance is introduced into the
flow..
flow
 If the disturbances occur at a location with Rex<Rexcr , they will die
out,, and the boundary layer will return to laminar flow at that
out
location.
 If the disturbances occur at a location with Rex>Rexcr , theyy will
grow and transform the boundary layer flow downstream of this
location into turbulence.

The boundary layer on a flat plate will become turbulent

if the plate is long enough -> large Reynolds number .
61
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent 4/5

Transition process

Turbulent spots and the transition from laminar

to turbulent boundary layer flow on a flat plate.
plate
Flow from left to right 62
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent 5/5

 Transition from laminar to turbulent

flow involves a noticeable change
in the shape of the boundary layer
velocity profiles. Flatter
 The turbulent profiles are flatter,
flatter,
have a large velocity gradient at the
wall, and produce a larger boundary
layer thickness than do the laminar
profiles.

boundary layer velocity profiles

on a flat pplate for laminar,,
transitional, and turbulent flow.
63
Laminar and Turbulent
 For laminar flow  5 .48 1 2 0 . 730
  w  U
x Re x 2 Re x

 0 .382
 For turbulent flow  1/ 5
1
 w  U 2 0 . 0594

x Re x 2 Re x
1/ 5

The turbulent boundary layer develops more rapidly than the

laminar boundary layer.
Wall shear stress is much higher in the turbulent boundary layer
than in the laminar layer.

64
Effects of Pressure Gradient
Fox
Fox

65
Effect of Pressure Gradients 1/4
 Use the boundary conditions at the wall u=v=0 at y=0

 u u u  p  2u  2u p
  u  v      2  2 
 t x x  x y y y 0 x

which (momentum equation) relates the curvature of the velocity

profile at the surface to the pressure gradient.
gradient.

66
Effect of Pressure Gradients 1/4
 Favorable pressure gradient:
gradient: the pressure decreases in the flow
direction
T counteract
To t t the
th slowing
l i theth fluid
fl id particles
ti l ini the
th boundary
b d layer.
l
p / x  0
 Adverse pressure gradient:
gradient: the pressure increases in the flow
di ti
direction
To contribute to the slowing of the fluid particles.

p / x  0

67
p / x  0
 2u p
 2 
 The velocity profile is linear near the wall.
wall. y y 0 x
 In the boundary layer, the velocity gradient becomes smaller and
gradually
d ll approaches
h zero. TheTh decrease
d in
i the
th velocity
l it gradient
di t
means that the second derivative of the velocity must be negative.
 The second derivative is shown as being zero at the wall,
wall negative
within the boundary layer, and approaching zero at the outer edge of
the boundaryy layer.
y
the second derivative
approach zero from the
negative side
side.

68
Source: Fox et al.
p / x  0
 A negative pressure gradient is seen to produce a velocity variation
somewhat similar to that of the zero pressure gradient case.

Source: Fox et al.

69
 p / x  0
 A positive pressure gradient requires a positive derivative value of
the second derivative of the velocity at the wall.
 Since
Si this
thi derivative
d i ti mustt approachh zero fromf the
th negative
ti side,
id att
some point within the boundary layer the second derivative must
equal to zero
zero. A zero second derivative
derivative, it will be recalled,
recalled is
associated with an inflection point.

PI=point of inflection

70
Source: Fox et al.
 p / x  0
 If the
h adverse
d pressure gradient
di is i severe enough,
enoughh, the
h fluid
fl id particle
i l
in the boundary layer will actually be brought to rest (the velocity in
the layer
y of fluid adjacent
j to the wall must be zero or negative
g )).
 If the adverse pressure gradient is severe enough, the particle will be
forced away from the body surface (called flow separation)
separation) as they
makek room ffor ffollowing
ll i particles,
i l ultimately
li l leading
l di to a wake k in i
which flow is turbulent.

Low pressure High pressure

Source: Fox et al. 71

Effect of Pressure Gradients 2/4
 For uniform flow over a flat plate the flow never separates,
separates, and
we never develop a wake region, whether the boundary layer is
laminar or turbulent,
turbulent regardless of plate length.
length
p/p/x=0 : no flow separation.
p/p/x<0 : no flow separation.
separation
p/p/x>0 : could have flow separation, not always leads to flow
wake p/
separation and a wake. p/x>0 is a “necessary
necessary condition”
condition for
flow separation to occur.
occur.

72
Effect of Pressure Gradients 3/4
Separation occurs.
Outside the boundary layer. The flow decelerates.
decelerates
The flow accelerates.
Constant velocity ? How small the adverse
pressure gradient needs to
eliminate flow separation?

Source: Fox et al.

al
73
Effect of Pressure Gradients 4/4

PI=point of inflection

Source: Fox et al.

al
74
Effects of Pressure Gradient
Munson
Munson

75
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
y
Inviscid Flow 1/2
 For “inviscid
“inviscid”” flow past a circular
cylinder,, the fluid velocity along the
cylinder
surface would vary from Ufs=0 at the
very front and rear of the cylinder to a
maximum of Ufs=2U at the topp and
bottom of the cylinder.
 The pressure on the surface of the
cylinder would be symmetrical about
the vertical mid-
mid-plane of the cylinder.
Favorable pressure
gradient
Adverse p
pressure ggradient

76
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
y
Inviscid Flow 2/2
 The drag on the cylinder is zero.
zero.
No matter how small the viscosity, there will be a boundary layer
that separates from the surface, giving a drag that is independent of
the value of μ.

This leads to what has been termed

paradox, the drag on an
d’Alembert’s paradox,
object in an inviscid fluid is zero,
zero, but
the drag on an object in a fluid with
vanishingly
i hi l small ll (but
(b t nonzero))
viscosity is not zero.
zero.

77
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
y
Viscous Flow 1/5
 Consider
C id a fluid fl id particle
i l within
i hi
the boundary layer. In its attempt
to flow from A to F.
 Because of the viscous effects
involved, the particle in the
b
boundary
d layer
l experiences
i a loss
l
of energy as it flow along.
along.
 This loss means that the particle
does not have enough energy to
coast all of the way up the
pressure hill ( from
f C to F) andd to
reach point F at the rear of the
cylinder.
cy de .
78
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
y
Viscous Flow 2/5
 The kinetic energy deficit is seen in the velocity profile detail at
Point C.
 The
Th situation
it ti isi similar
i il to t a bicyclist
bi li t coasting
ti down
d a hill andd up
the other side of the valley. If there were no friction,
friction, the rider
starting with zero speed could reach the same height from which
he started. Clearly friction, making it impossible for a rider to
reach the height from which he started without supplying
additional energy.
 The fluid within the boundary layer does not have such an energy
supply.. Thus, the fluid flows against the increasing pressure as far as
supply
it can, at which point the boundary layer separates from (lifts off)
the surface.
surface
79
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
y
Viscous Flow 3/5
 At the separation location D, the velocity gradient at the wall and
the wall shear stress are zero.
 Beyond
B d that
th t separation
ti location
l ti (from
(f D to
t E) there
th is i reverse flow
fl
in the boundary layer.
 Because of the boundary layer separation,
separation the average pressure on
the rear half of the cylinder is considerably less than on the front
half.
 Thus, a large pressure drag is developed,
developed, even though the viscous
shear dragg mayy be qquite small.
small.
Drag= friction drag + pressure drag

80
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
Viscous Flow 4/5
 The location of separation, the width of the wake region behind the
object, and the pressure distribution on the surface depend on the
nature of the boundary layer flow.
flow
 Compared with a laminar boundary layer, the turbulent layer flow
has more kinetic energy and momentum
momentum. Thus,
Thus the turbulent
boundary layer can flow farther around the cylinder before it
separates than can the laminar boundary layer.

81
Flows Past Circular Cylinder
Viscous Flow 5/5
Separation occurs The momentum flux within
when the momentum the turbulent boundary layer is
of fluid layers near greater than within the laminar
the surface is reduced layer.
to zero byy the Thee turbulent
u bu e layer
aye iss better
be e
combined action of able to resist separation in an
pressure and viscous adverse pressure gradient.
forces.
forces

Drag= friction drag + pressure drag

82
Flow Past an airfoil

Flow visualization
photographs
p g p of flow
past an airfoil: (a
( a)
zero angle
g of attack,
no separation, (b
(b) 55
angle
g of attack, flow
separation.

83
NEXT…
NEXT
 DRAG
Friction Dragg
Pressure Drag
Drag Coefficient Data and Examples
 LIFT

84
Lift and Drag Concepts 2/3
 The resultant force in the downstream direction ((by
by the fluid)
fluid) is termed the DRAG
DRAG,,
and the resultant force normal to the upstream velocity is termed the LIFT
LIFT,, both
of which are surface forces.
forces. L


Drag  D  e x   n dA  e x    p   e rr r   r e dA

  p    cos     sin dA

D
 rr r

Lift  L  e     dA  e    p   e
y n y rr r   r e dA

   p   sin      cosdA
rr r
n
 
e x  e r  cos      cos  , e x  e  cos     sin 
2 
 
e y  e r  cos     sin  , e y  e r  cos 
2 

85
DRAG
 Drag
D FD is
i the
h stream wise
i component off surface
f force
f exertedd by
b a
fluid on a body.
body.
D  D   dFx   p cos dA    w sin
Drag i dA
Drag  D  e x   t n dA  e x    p   rr e r   r e dA
 The drag coefficient CD   p    cos    sin  dA   p cos    sin  dA
 rr   r  r
D
CD    p cos dA     sin dA r
1 2
U A where A is the cross sectional area area..
2
 The drag coefficient is a function of object shape, Reynolds
number,Re, Mach number, Ma, Froude number, Fr, and relative
roughness of the surface,  / 
C D  f shape
h , Re,
R Fr M , /  
F , Ma
86
Friction Drag
 Friction drag is due to the shear stress on the object

1 2
Df  U bC Df
2
CDf=f (shear stress, orientation of the surface on which it acts)
Df
CDf  i the
is h friction
f i i drag
d coefficient.
ffi i
1 2
U A
2

C Df  f Re  , /   Re  
U

87
Pressure Drag (Form Drag)
 Pressure drag is due to the pressure difference on the object.


D p  p cos dA
The pressure drag coefficient CDp

C Dp 
Dp

 p cos dA

 C p cos dA
1 1 A
U 2 A U 2 A
2 2 Dynamic pressure
C p  ( p  p 0 ) /(U 2 / 2)

D  f (Re  ,  / )
C Dp
88
Drag Coefficient Data and
E
Examplel

89
CD – Shape Dependence
 The drag coefficient for an
object depends on the shape
of the object,
object with shapes
ranging from those that are
streamlined to those that are
blunt..
blunt
 Drag coefficient for an
ellipse with the characteristic
area either the frontal area,
A bD or th
A=bD, the planform
l f area,
A=b.
A=b

90
CD – Shape Dependence
 Two objects of considerably different size that have the same drag
force: (a) circular cylinder CD=1.2, (b) streamlined strut CD=0.12

91
CD – Shape Dependence Fox
 Drag coefficient for
flow past a variety of
objects.
objects
 Re>1000

Source: Fox et al.

92
CD – Shape Dependence Fox
NACA National Ad
NACA: Advisory
isor Committee for Aerona
Aeronautics
tics
 For conventional section
NACA0015, the pressure
gradient becomes adverse at
x/c=0.13, near the point of
maximum thickness. The dragg
coefficient CD=0.0061.
 For laminar-
laminar-flow section
NACA 662-015, the pressure
gradient becomes adverse at
x/c=0.63.
/ 0 63 Th
Thus the
th bulk
b lk off the
th
flow is laminar; CD=0.0035.

Source: Fox et al. 93

CD – Shape Dependence Fox
 The
Th variation
i i off drag
d
coefficient as a function of
angle
g of attack for an airfoil.
 The angle of attack is small, the
boundary layer remain attached
to the
h airfoil,
airfoil
i f il, andd the
h drag
d is
i
relatively small.
 For angles larger than critical
angle the body appears to the
flow as if it were a blunt body,
body,
andd the
h ddrag increases
i greatly.
l
Critical angle of attack

94
CD – Shape Dependence Fox
 The variation of drag coefficient as a function of aspect ratio for a
flat plate normal to the upstream flow and a circular cylinder.

95
CD – Reynolds Number Dependence
 The main categories of Reynolds number dependence are (1) very
low Reynolds number flow, (2) Moderate Reynolds number flow,
and (3) very large Reynolds number flow
flow.
 For Low Reynolds number flows (Re<1) D  f ( U, , )

Dimensional analysis D  CU

D 2C
U2C For a sphere D  6aU or D  -6au
CD   
1 U 2  2 2 2
U  Re where u is a velocity of a sphere,
2
U is a free stream velocity,
 For
F moderate
d t Reynolds
R ld number
b and a is a radius.
1/ 2
C D ~ Re
96
CD – Reynolds Number Dependence
 Drag coefficient for low Reynolds number flow past a variety of
objects.

D 3DU 24
CD   
1
2 U 2 14 D 2 2 U 4 D
1 2 1 2
Re

97
 CD – Reynolds Number Dependence
 Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number for a smooth
circular cylinder and a smooth sphere.
The turbulent boundary layer travels
further along the surface into the
adverse pressure gradient on the rear
portion of the cylinder before
separation occurs
occurs. This results a
small pressure drag ,and
thinner wake ,,small
sudden decrease in CD.

The drag coefficient decreases when the

boundary layer becomes turbulent.
turbulent. 98
Flow Patterns for Various Reynolds
Numbers
 The structure of the flow field
at selected Reynolds number.

A B C D E

99
CD – Reynolds Number Dependence
 Character of the drag
coefficient as a function of
Reynolds number for objects
with various degrees of
streamlining,g, from a flat pplate
normal to the upstream flow to
a flat plate parallel to the flow.
On a flat plate with a sharp leading edge
in a typical air
air--stream, Rexcr=5
=5××105.

For blunt bodies,

bodies, the drag coefficient decreases when the boundary layer becomes
turbulent.. (pressure drag decreases but friction drag increases -> total drag decreases)
turbulent
For streamlined bodies,
bodies, the dragg coefficient increases when the boundary y layer
y
becomes turbulent.
turbulent. (friction drag increases)
100
Drag: 1. friction drag 2. pressure drag
CD – Surface Roughness 1/3
 Surface roughness protrudes through the laminar sub- sub-layers adjacent
to the surface and alters the wall shear stress.
stress.
 In
I addition
dditi tot the
th increased
i d turbulent
t b l t shear
h stress,
stress
t , surface
f roughness
h
can alter the Reynolds number at which the boundary layer
becomes turbulent
turbulent..
 A rough flat plate may have a larger portion of its length covered by a
turbulent boundaryy layer
y than the corresponding
p g smooth plate.
p
 For streamlined bodies, the drag increases with increasing surface
roughness
g because turbulent shear stress is much ggreater than
laminar shear stress.

101
CD – Surface Roughness 2/3
 For
F extremely l bl
blunt bbody,
d such
h as a fl
flat plate
l normall to theh flow,
fl the
h
drag is independent of the surface roughness.
 For blunt bodies like a circular cylinder or sphere,
sphere an increase in
surface roughness can actually cause a decrease in the drag - a
considerable drop in pressure drag with a slight increase in
f i i drag,
friction d combining
bi i to give
i a smaller ll overallll drag.
d
 The boundary layer can be tripped into turbulence at a smaller
Reynolds number by using a rough-
rough-surfaced sphere
sphere.. For example,
example
the critical Reynolds number for a golf bass is approximately
Re=4××104. In the range of 4×104 <Re<4
Re=4 <Re<4××105 , the drag on the
standard
d d roughh (i.e.,
(i dimpled)
di l d) golf
lf ball
b ll is
i considerably
id bl less
l than
h forf
the smooth ball.

102
CD – Surface Roughness 3/3
Critical Reynolds number

The reason for dimples

on golf balls

The boundary layer can be tripped into turbulence at a smaller

103
Reynolds number by using a rough-surfaced sphere.
LIFT 1/3
 Lift is defined as the component of surface force exerted by a fluid
on a body perpendicular to the fluid motion.

  
Lift  L  dFy   p sin dA   w cos dA

 The
Th lift
lif coefficient,
ffi i CL, is
i defined
d fi d as
L Lift  L  e y   t n dA  e y    p   rr e r   r e dA
CL 
1    p   rr sin     r cos  dA
U 2 A
2    p sin dA    r cos dA

C L  f shape
p , Re, Fr , Ma , /  
104
LIFT 2/3
 Most common lift-lift-generating devices (i.e., airfoils, fans, spoiler on
cars, etc.) operate in the large Reynolds number in which the flow
has a boundary layer character
character, with viscous effects confined to the
boundary layers and wake regions.
 Most of the lift comes from the surface pressure distribution
distribution.. The
wall shear stress contributes little to the lift.
 The relative importance
p of shear stress and ppressure effects depends
p
strongly on the Reynolds number. For very low Reynolds number
regimes, viscous effects are important, and the contribution of the
shear stress to the lift may be as important as that of the pressure.
pressure.

105
LIFT 3/3
 For
F the h most part, the
h pressure distribution
di ib i on the h surface
f off an
automobile is consistent with simple Bernoulli equation analysis.
analysis.
 Locations with high
high--speed flow (i.e.,
(i e over the roof and hood) have
low pressure,
pressure, while locations with lowlow--speed flow (i.e., on the
grill and windshield) have high pressure.
pressure.
 It is easy to believe that the integrated effect of this pressure
distribution would provide a net upward force.force.

Pressure distribution on the

surface of an automobile.

106
Airfoil 1/6
 Airfoil is a typical device designed to produce lift.
lift.
 Lift is generated by a pressure distribution that is different on the top
andd bottom
b tt surface
surface.
f .
 For large Reynolds number flows, these pressure distribution are
pressure U2/2
usually directly proportional to the dynamic pressure, /2,, with
viscous effects being of secondary importance.

107
Airfoil 2/6
 Symmetrical airfoil cannot produce lift if the angle of attack,
attack, α , is
zero.
 Asymmetry
A t off th
the nonsymmetrical
t i l airfoil
i f il could
ld produce
d lift even
with α =0
=0..
 For certain value of α, the
pressure distributions on the
upper and lower surfaces are
different, but their resultant
pressure forces will be equal
andd opposite.
it

108
Definition – Angle of Attack
Attack…
 The angle of attack () is the angle
between the airfoil chord and the
free stream velocity vector.
vector.
 The chord length (c) of an airfoil is
the straight line joining the leading
edge and the trailing edge.
 The aspect
p ration ((A A) is defined as
the ratio of the square of the length
of the airfoil (b = l) to the pla
plannform
area (Ap=bc). A =b2/Ap=b/c.

109
Airfoil 3/6
 The
Th lift
lif andd drag
d coefficient
ffi i is
i a function
f i off
attack, , and aspect ratio,
angle of attack, ratio, A. The
p ratio is defined as the ratio of the square
aspect q
of the wing length (b) to the planform area
(Ap=bc) , A= b2/Ap.
 The
Th lift
lif coefficient
ffi i increases
i andd the
h drag
d
coefficient decreases with an increase in
aspect
p ratio (-> longer g wings).
wings)
g ).
 Long wings are more efficient because their
wing tip losses are relatively minor than for
short
h wings.i

110
Airfoil 4/6
 The
Th increase
i in
i drag
d due
d tot the
th finite
fi it length
l th (A(A
<∞) of the wing is often termed induced drag. drag. It
is due to the interaction of the complexp swirlingg
flow structure near the wing tips and the free
stream..
stream
 High
Hi h performance
f soaring
i airplanes
i l andd highly
hi hl
efficient soaring birds (i.e., the albatross and sea
ggull)) have long, g, narrow wings
g (-> large
g aspect
p
ratio wings)
wings). Such wings, however, have
considerable inertia that inhibits rapid
maneuvers Thus
maneuvers. Thus, highly maneuverable fighter
or acrobatic airplanes and birds (i.e., the falcon)
have small
small--aspect-
aspect-ratio wings.
wings.
111
Airfoil 5/6
 Although
Al h h viscous
i effects
ff andd the
h wall
ll shear
h stress contribute
ib little
li l to
the direct generation of lift, they play an important role in the design
and use of liftingg devices.
 The viscosity
viscosity--induced boundary layer separation can occur on non-non-
streamlined bodies such as airfoils that have too large and angle of
attack.
k
 As the angle of attack is increased, the boundary layer on the upper
surface separates
separates, the flow over the wing develops a wide
wide, turbulent
wake region, the lift decreases, and the drag increases.
increases.
Airfoil
o stall
s results.
esu s.

112
Airfoil 6/6
 Such conditions are extremely dangerous if
they occur while the airplane is flying at a
low altitude where there is not sufficient
time and altitude to recover from the stall. stall
 As the angle of attack is increase,
increase the △ p
between the upper and lower surfaces
increase, causing the lift coefficient to
increase smoothly until a maximum is
reached. Further increases in angle of attack
produce
d a sudden
dd decrease
d in
i CL/CD.
Onset of boundary
layer separation on
the upper surface 113
CL/CD vs.
vs α, CL vs.
vs CD
Most efficient angle of attack
(i.e., largest CL/CD)

O t off boundary
Onset b d
layer separation on
the upper surface

114
Lift Control Devices 1/2
 To
T generate necessary liftlif
during the relatively low-
low-speed
landingg and takeoff pprocedures,,
the airfoil shape is altered by
extending special flaps on the
front and/or rear portion of the
wing.
 Use of the flaps
p considerably y
enhances the lift, although it is
at the expense of an increase in
the drag

115
Lift Control Devices 2/2

 Application of high
high--lift boundary
layer control devices to reduce
takeoff speed of a jet transport
aircraft.
Flaps
 In the landing configuration, large
slotted trailing-
trailing-edge flaps roll out
from under the wing and deflect spoiler
downward to increase the lift
coefficient After touchdown,
coefficient. touchdown, spoiler
are raised in front of each flap to
decrease lift and ensure that the plane
remains
i on theh ground. d
 In the takeoff configuration, large
slotted trailing-
g-edge
trailing g flaps p deflect to
increase the lift coefficient.
116