Kerosene - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Kerosene

Kerosene
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kerosene is a combustible hydrocarbon liquid widely used as a

fuel, in industry, and in households. Its name is derived from
Greek: κηρός (keros) meaning wax, and was registered as a
trademark by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a
genericized trademark. It is sometimes spelled kerosine in
scientific and industrial usage.[1] The term "kerosene" is
common in much of India, Canada, the United States, Australia
and New Zealand.[2][3]

Kerosene is usually called paraffin in the UK, Ireland,

Southeast Asia and South Africa.[4] A more viscous paraffin oil
is used as a laxative. A waxy solid extracted from petroleum is
called paraffin wax.

Kerosene is widely used to power jet engines of aircraft (jet

fuel) and some rocket engines, and is also commonly used as
a cooking and lighting fuel and for fire toys such as poi. In parts
of Asia, where the price of kerosene is subsidized, it fuels
outboard motors on small fishing boats.[5] Kerosene lamps are
widely used for lighting in rural areas of Asia and Africa where
electrical distribution is not available or too costly for
widespread use. World total kerosene consumption for all
purposes is equivalent to about 1.2 million barrels per day.[6]

To prevent confusion between kerosene and the much more An Australian kerosene
flammable gasoline, some jurisdictions regulate markings or bottle, containing
colorings for containers in which kerosene is stored or blue-dyed kerosene
dispensed. For example, in the United States, the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania requires that portable containers used at retail service
stations be colored blue, as opposed to red (for gasoline) or yellow (for diesel fuel).[7]

Contents
1 Properties
2 History
2.1 Illuminating oil from coal and oil shale
2.2 Kerosene from petroleum
3 Use
3.1 As fuel
3.1.1 Heating and lighting

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3.1.2 Cooking
3.1.3 Transportation
3.2 In chemistry
3.3 In entertainment
3.4 In industry
3.5 Other
4 Toxicity
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

Properties
Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons obtained from the fractional
distillation of petroleum between 150 °C and 275 °C, resulting in a mixture with a density of
0.78–0.81 g/cm3 composed of carbon chains that typically contain between 6 and 16 carbon
atoms per molecule.[8] It is miscible in petroleum solvents but immiscible in water.

Regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosene's major components are
branched and straight chain alkanes and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which normally
account for at least 70% by volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons in this boiling range, such as
alkylbenzenes (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring), do not normally exceed
25% by volume of kerosene streams. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by
volume.[9]

The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F), and its autoignition
temperature is 220 °C (428 °F).[10] The pour point of kerosene depends on grade, with
commercial aviation fuel standardized at −47 °C (−53 °F).

Heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel; its lower heating value is 43.1
MJ/kg (around 18,500 Btu/lb), and its higher heating value is 46.2 MJ/kg.[11]

In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS2869 Class C1 is the
lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in
some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporising oil. BS2869 Class
C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene is
usually sold in 5 or 20 litre containers from hardware, camping and garden stores and is
often dyed purple. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is
undyed.

National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene
used for jet fuel. Flash point and freezing point properties are of particular interest for
operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of static electricity and
other purposes.

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History
The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well
as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the
9th century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his Kitab
al-Asrar (Book of Secrets), the physician and chemist Razi
described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed
naft abyad ("white naphtha"), using an apparatus called an
alembic. One method used clay as an absorbent, whereas the
other method used ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac). The
distillation process was to be repeated until the final product was
perfectly clear and "safe to light", i.e. volatile hydrocarbon
fractions had been mostly removed. Kerosene was also produced Persian scholar Rāzi
during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the (or Rhazes) was the
rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled.[12] first to distill kerosene
in the 9th century
Illuminating oil from coal and oil shale

Although “coal oil” was well known by industrial chemists since at least
the 1700s as a byproduct of making coal gas and coal tar, it burned with
a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination. In cities,
much indoor illumination was provided by piped-in coal gas, but outside
the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for
fueling indoor lamps was supplied by whale oil, specifically that from
sperm whales, which burned brighter and cleaner.[13]

In 1846, Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner gave a public

demonstration in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island of a new process
he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort and distilled from it a
clear, thin fluid which he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He Abraham
coined the name "Kerosene" for his fuel, a contraction of keroselaion, Gesner first
distilled
meaning wax-oil.[14] The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was
kerosene from
high.
bituminous coal
Fortunately, Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of New and oil shale
Brunswick's geology a naturally occurring asphaltum called albertite. He experimentally
was blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate in 1846;
because they had coal extraction rights for the province, and he lost a commercial
court case when their experts claimed albertite was a form of coal.[15] production
Gesner subsequently moved to Newtown Creek, Long Island, New followed in
York, in 1854, where he secured the backing of a group of 1854
businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to
which he assigned his patents.

Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854,
two years after James Young's US patent. Gesner's method of purifying the distillation
products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better-
smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in

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1854 and later in Boston, being distilled from

bituminous coal and oil shale.[14] Gesner registered
the word "Kerosene" as a trademark in 1854, and
for several years, only the North American Gas
Light Company and the Downer Company (to which
Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call
their lamp oil "Kerosene" in the United States.[16]

In 1848, Scottish chemist James Young

experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal A queue for kerosene. Moscow,
mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating Russia, 1920s
fuel. When the seep became exhausted, he
experimented with the dry distillation of coal,
especially the resinous "boghead coal" (torbanite). He extracted a number of useful liquids
from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil", because at low temperatures, it congealed
into a substance resembling paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the
resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at
Bathgate in 1851, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous
coal. In 1852, he took out a US patent for the same invention. These patents were
subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits, and other producers were
obliged to pay him royalties.[14]

Kerosene from petroleum

In 1851, Samuel Martin Kier began selling lamp oil to local miners, under the name "Carbon
Oil". He distilled this by a process of his own invention from crude oil. He also invented a
new lamp to burn his product.[17] He has been dubbed the Grandfather of the American Oil
Industry by historians.[18] Since the 1840s, Kier's salt wells were becoming fouled with
petroleum. At first, Kier simply dumped the useless oil into the nearby Pennsylvania Main
Line Canal, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil, along
with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania.[19]

Ignacy Łukasiewicz, a Polish pharmacist residing in Lwów, had been experimenting with
different distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's Kerosene process, but using
local seep oil. Many people knew of his work, but paid little attention to it. On the night of 31
July 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually
impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Łukasiewicz and his new
lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several
lamps plus a large supply of fuel. Łukasiewicz realized the potential of his work and quit the
pharmacy to find a business partner, and then travelled to Vienna to register his technique
with the government. Łukasiewicz moved to the Gorlice region of Poland in 1854, and sank
several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near
Jasło in 1859.[20]

The petroleum discovery at the Drake Well in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused a great
deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but
also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, and
southern Poland, where Ignacy Lukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum
seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely

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side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil
from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As a result, the illuminating oil industry in
the US completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based
illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary
status, and became the lower-case generic product “kerosene”.[21] Because Gesner’s
original Kerosene had been also known as “coal oil,” generic kerosene from petroleum
continued to be called “coal oil” in the US well into the 20th century.

In the United Kingdom, manufacturing oil from coal (or oil shale) continued into the early
20th century, although increasingly overshadowed by petroleum oils.

As kerosene production increased, whaling declined. The American whaling fleet, which had
been steadily growing for 50 years, reached its all-time peak of 199 ships in 1858. By 1860,
just two years later, the fleet had dropped to 167 ships. The Civil War cut into American
whaling temporarily, but only 105 whaling ships returned to sea in 1866, the first full year of
peace, and that number dwindled until only 39 American ships set out to hunt whales in
1876.[22] Kerosene, made first from coal and oil shale, then from petroleum, had largely
taken over whaling’s lucrative market in lamp oil.

Electric lighting started displacing kerosene as an illuminant in the late 1800s, especially in
urban areas. However, kerosene remained the predominant commercial end-use for
petroleum refined in the US until 1909, when it was exceeded by motor fuels. The rise of the
gasoline-powered automobile in the early 1900s created a demand for the lighter
hydrocarbon fractions, and refiners invented methods to increase the output of gasoline,
while decreasing the output of kerosene. In addition, some of the heavier hydrocarbons that
previously went into kerosene were incorporated into diesel fuel. Kerosene kept some
market share by being increasingly used in stoves and portable heaters.[23]

In 2013, kerosene made up about 0.1 percent by volume of petroleum refinery output in the
US.[24]

Use
As fuel

Heating and lighting

At one time the fuel, also known as heating oil in the UK and Ireland,[25] was Fuels for heating
widely used in kerosene lamps and lanterns. Although it replaced whale oil, Heating oil
the 1873 edition of Elements of Chemistry said, "The vapor of this Wood pellet
substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder."[26] This Kerosene
Propane
may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with
Natural gas
cheaper but more volatile hydrocarbon mixtures, such as naphtha.[27] Wood
Kerosene was a significant fire risk; in 1880, nearly two of every five New Coal
York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps.[28]

In less-developed countries kerosene is an important source of energy for cooking and

lighting. It is used as a cooking fuel in portable stoves for backpackers. As a heating fuel, it

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is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some filling stations. It is sometimes used as
a heat source during power failures.

Kerosene is widely used in Japan as a home heating

fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In
Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling
station or be delivered to homes.

In the United Kingdom and Ireland, kerosene is often

used as a heating fuel in areas not connected to a gas
pipeline network. It is used less for cooking where LPG
is preferred owing to its (LPG's) easier lighting. A truck delivering kerosene in
Kerosene is still often the fuel of choice for range Japan
cookers such as Rayburn.

The Amish, who generally abstain from the use of electricity, rely on kerosene for lighting at
night.

More ubiquitous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, kerosene space heaters were
often built into kitchen ranges, and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry
through the winter. At one time, citrus growers used a smudge pot fueled by kerosene to
create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from
damaging crops. "Salamanders" are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to
dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before the days of electrically lighted road
barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired, pot-bellied
torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low
temperature of combustion.

A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a gas mantle
mounted above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above the
woven cotton wick, the mantle is a residue of mineral materials (mostly thorium dioxide)
which is heated to incandescence by the flame produced by the wick. The thorium and
cerium oxide combination produces both a whiter light and a greater fraction of the energy
in the form of visible light than a black body at the same temperature would. These types of
lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity, because they give a
much better light than a simple wick-type lamp does.. Recently a multipurpose lantern which
also doubles as cooking stove has been introduced in India in areas which do not have
electricity.[29]

Cooking

In countries such as India and Nigeria,[30] kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking,
especially by the poor, and kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking
appliances. As such, increase in the price of kerosene can have a major political and
environmental consequence. The Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price
very low, to around 15 US cents per liter as of February 2007, as lower prices discourage
dismantling of forests for cooking fuel.[31] In Nigeria an attempt by the government to
remove fuel subsidy which includes kerosene was met with strong opposition from the
Nigeria populace.[32]

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Kerosene is used as a fuel in portable stoves, especially in

Primus stoves invented in 1892. Portable kerosene stoves earn
a reputation of reliable and durable stove in everyday use, and
perform especially well under adverse conditions. In outdoor
activities and mountaineering, a decisive advantage of
pressurized kerosene stoves over gas cartridge stoves is their
particularly high thermal output and their ability to operate at
very low temperature in winter or at high altitude.

Transportation

In the mid-20th century, kerosene or tractor vaporising oil

(TVO) was used as a cheap fuel for tractors. The engine would
start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine
warmed up. A heat valve on the manifold would route the Advertizement for an oil
exhaust gases around the intake pipe, heating the kerosene to stove, from the Albion
the point where it was vaporized and could be ignited by an Lamp Company,
electric spark. Birmingham, England, c.
1900
In Europe following the Second World War, automobiles were
modified similarly to run on kerosene rather than gasoline,
which would have to be imported and was heavily taxed. Besides additional piping and the
switch between fuels, the head gasket was replaced by a much thicker one to diminish the
compression ratio (making the engine less powerful and less efficient, but able to run on
kerosene). The necessary equipment was sold under the trademark "Econom".[33]

During the fuel crisis of the 1970s, Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the Saab
99 Petro that ran on kerosene, turpentine or gasoline. The project, codenamed "Project
Lapponia", was headed by Simo Vuorio, and towards the end of the 1970s, a working
prototype was produced based on the Saab 99 GL. The car was designed to run on two
fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it
ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat
using the Fischer–Tropsch process. Between 1980 and 1984, 3,756 Saab 99 Petros and
2,385 Talbot Horizons (a version of the Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab
components) were made. One reason to manufacture kerosene-fueled cars was that in
Finland kerosene was less heavily taxed than gasoline.[34]

Kerosene is used to fuel smaller-horsepower outboard motors built by Yamaha Motors,

Suzuki Marine, and Tohatsu. Primarily used on small fishing craft, these are dual-fuel
engines that start on gasoline and then transition to kerosene once the engine reaches
optimum operating temperature. Multiple fuel Evinrude and Mercury Racing engines also
burn kerosene, as well as jet fuel.[35]

Today, kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines in several grades. One form of the fuel
known as RP-1 is burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel. These fuel grade kerosenes
meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points. The combustion reaction can be
approximated as follows, with the molecular formula C12H26 (dodecane):

2 C12H26(l) + 37 O2(g) → 24 CO2(g) + 26 H2O(g); ∆H˚ = -7513 kJ

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In the initial phase of liftoff, the Saturn V launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of
liquid oxygen with RP-1.[36] For the five 6.4 meganewton sea-level thrust F-1 rocket engines
of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62 × 1011 watts (J/s)
(162 gigawatt) or 217 million horsepower.[36]

Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold
temperatures.[37]

Ultra-low sulfur kerosene is a custom-blended fuel used by the New York City Transit to
power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the
widespread adoption of ultra-low sulfur diesel, which has since become the standard. In
2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's
contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost.[38]

In chemistry

In X-ray crystallography, kerosene can be used to store crystals. When a hydrated crystal is
left in air, dehydration may occur slowly. This makes the colour of the crystal become dull.
Kerosene can keep air from the crystal.

It can be also used to prevent air from re-dissolving in a boiled liquid.,[39] and to store
potassium, sodium, lithium, etc.

In entertainment

Kerosene is often used in the entertainment industry for fire performances, such as fire
breathing, fire juggling or poi, and fire dancing. Because of its low flame temperature when
burnt in free air, the risk is lower should the performer come in contact with the flame.
Kerosene is generally not recommended as fuel for indoor fire dancing, as it produces an
unpleasant (to some) odor, which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. Ethanol
was sometimes used instead, but the flames it produces look less impressive, and its lower
flash point poses a high risk.

In industry

As a petroleum product miscible with many industrial liquids, kerosene can be used as both
a solvent, able to remove other petroleum products, such as chain grease, and as a
lubricant, with less risk of combustion when compared to using gasoline. It can also be used
as a cooling agent in metal production and treatment (oxygen-free conditions).[40]

In the petroleum industry, kerosene is often used as a synthetic hydrocarbon for corrosion
experiments to simulate crude oil in field conditions.

Kerosene has been found to be an effective pesticide. It is effective at killing a large number
of insects, notably bed bugs and head lice. It can also be applied to standing pools of water
in order to kill mosquito larvae. It covers the insects' tracheae with a thin film of paraffin,
which prevents the exchange of oxygen. The insects are smothered.

Other

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Kerosene can be applied topically to hard-to-remove mucilage or adhesive left by stickers

on a glass surface (such as in show windows of stores).[39]

It can be used to remove candle wax that has dripped onto a glass surface; it is
recommended that the excess wax be scraped off prior to applying kerosene via a soaked
cloth or tissue paper.[39]

It can be used to clean bicycle and motorcycle chains of old lubricant before
relubrication.[39]

Toxicity
Ingestion of kerosene is harmful or fatal. Kerosene is sometimes recommended as a folk
remedy for killing head lice, but health agencies warn against this as it can cause burns and
serious illness. A kerosene shampoo can even be fatal if fumes are inhaled.[41][42]

See also
Aviation fuel
Gasoline gallon equivalent
List of CO2 emitted per million Btu of energy from various fuels
Tractor vaporising oil

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2. "Kerosene". Oxford English Dictionary.
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32. Ibikun, Yinka (25 July 2011). "Nigeria Kerosene Too Expensive For Oil-Rich Country's Poor"
(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/25/nigeria-kerosene-too-expensive_n_908837.html).
Huffington Post.
33. Popular Science: 193. December 1951. Missing or empty |title= (help)
34. Bakrutan: "Saab 99 Petro" by Petri Tyrkös, n. 4, 2008
35. Banse, Timothy (7 July 2010). "Kerosene Outboards: An Alternative Fuel?"
(http://marineenginedigest.com/specialreports/kerosene-outboards.htm). Marine Engine
Digest.
36. Ebbing, Darrell. General Chemistry (http://books.google.com/books?id=VakHAAAAQBAJ&
pg=PA251). Cengage Learning. pp. 251–. ISBN 978-1-111-80895-2.
37. Kerosene blending (http://www.epa.gov/diesel/presentations/keroseneblding.pdf), (pdf from
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38. "How a Plan for Bus Fuel Grew Expensive" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/25/nyregion
/25fuel.html). The New York Times. 25 September 2008.
39. Kerosene: Other uses: Miscellaneous. (http://oilfielddirectory.com/oilfield/kerosene.htm)
40. "Oil atomisation puts a different face on iron alloy powders". Metal Powder Report 59 (10):
26–06. 2004. doi:10.1016/S0026-0657(04)00279-6 (https://dx.doi.org
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41. Levine, Michael D.; Gresham, Chip, III (30 April 2009). "Toxicity, Hydrocarbons"
(http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/821143-overview). emedicine. Retrieved 1 December
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42. Mahdi, Awad Hassan (1988). "Kerosene Poisoning in Children in Riyadh"
(http://tropej.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/34/6/316). Journal of Tropical Pediatrics
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/10.1093%2Ftropej%2F34.6.316). PMID 3221417 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed

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Kerosene - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene

/3221417). Retrieved 1 December 2009. "Radiological signs of pneumonia were shown in nine
out of 27 patients who had chest X-rays. There was one death."

External links
"Kerosene" (http://www.websters-online- Look up kerosene in
dictionary.org/definition/english/ke/kerosene.html), Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Webster Online Dictionary
Article on Gesner (http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/205/301/ic/cdc/heirloom_series
/volume4/136-139.htm)
Kerosene Fuel Primer (http://www.endtimesreport.com/kerosene_fuel_primer.html)
San Diego Union-Tribune Article (http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/military
/20030805-9999_1n5bomb.html)
Material Safety Data Sheet (http://www.nafaa.org/K1_MSDS.pdf)
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh
/npg/npgd0366.html)
Kerosene - Heating Oil (http://www.crownoil.co.uk/products/kerosene/)

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