DESIGN AND DYNAMICS LABORATORY

(ME69035)
Submitted by
Shaik Sydavali (19ME63R38)
E04: Photo Elasticity (Four Point Bending Test)

INTRODUCTION:

Photoelasticity is an experimental cum optical technique that

uses properties of light in order to investigate the stress distribution on the loaded
specimen. Photoelasticity is the branch of photomechanics. It is a nondestructive
technique. It is an old method which was first observed in 1816 by Scottish physicist
David Brewster. Photoelasticity basically provides the information of difference of
principal stresses i.e. σ1- σ2 and the orientation of principal stress at a point. Certain
transparent non-crystalline materials are optically isotropic under normal conditions
but become anisotropic and display characteristics similar to that of crystal when
stressed. This behavior is known as temporary double refraction and the material
which possess such phenomenon are known as double refractive or birefringent
material. This is the physical characteristics on which photoelasticity depend.
Transmission photoelasticity is basically used for model studies whereas reflection
photoelasticity is used for prototype analysis. Photoelasticity may be applied to the
models in the laboratory or directly to the prototype in the field. Consequently, it
indicates not only the most loaded or stress concentration areas of an observed
component but can also provide accurate stress value at any critical point. Qualitative
observation of the model response allows the identification of the many features or
zones under the stress concentration. The density of fringe contours indicates that the
value of the variable it represents is quite high at that zone. Fringes are closely packed
at stress concentration areas while its density gets decreases as we move away from
highly stressed zone. Also the thickness of the band is inversely related to the gradient
of the variable it represents in region i.e. where the fringe is sharp the gradient is high
and vice-versa. Comparison of the different designs is easily possible through a
qualitative evaluation of fringe patterns. Not only theses fringe patterns also serve as
a simple means to check the quality of the finished product.
The response of the photo-elasticity consists of two families of characteristic bands
that are observed in the polariscope i.e. Isochromatic and Isoclinic fringes.
Isochromatic fringes are the lines or contours of point having constant principal stress
difference i.e. σ1-σ2. While isoclinic fringes occur wherever principal stress direction
coincides with the axis of polarization of the polarizer. Thus isochromatic gives us the
magnitude part of principal stress while isoclinic gives us the information about
directions of the principal stresses in the model. These two families of band can be
discriminated easily under the white light i.e. under the white source isochromatic
band appears as a beautiful colour band whereas isoclinic appears as black band (Note-
Fringe with zeroth order will also appear as black in colour). They can be differentiate
also under the monochromatic light i.e. under monochromatic light, only isoclinic
band will move when we move both analyzer and polarizer with same angle.
Photoelasticity may be applied to two dimensional or to three dimensional problems
and can be extended to elastic-plastic, non-linear elastic and dynamic problems as
well. One of the most important advantages of photoelasticity over other experimental
methods is that it finds the flaws in the loaded condition and these flaws which are
found out in loading are more important as they will cause problem in post-time.The
equipment used for this experiment is called polariscope which is shown in below
figure.
Different parts of polariscope:

1. Light source
2. Polarizer
3. Analyzer
4. Specimen
5. Loading frame.
Polarizer:-
Polarized light vector are the light vector in which vibration occur
only in single plane and the process of transforming the unpolarized light into the
polarized is known Polarization. There are the varieties of methods through which a
light vector can be polarized and some of them are:
a) Polarization by Transmission.
b) Polarization by Reflection.
c) Polarization by Refraction.
d) Polarization by Scattering.
The most common method of polarization involves the use of Polaroid filter. Polaroid
filter which came in sheet form are thin, light weight and less costly compared to
prism type polarizers and can be easily rotated. A Dichroic material is also used which
absorbs light polarized in one- direction more strongly than light get polarized at the
right angles to that direction. The most commonly dichroic polarizers are made of
stretched polyvinyl alcohol sheets treated with absorbing dyes or polymeric
iodine. Further if the tip of the light vector is constrained to lie on the circumference
of a circle, it is said to be Circular polarized light which is shown in Fig-2 and when
the light vector is parallel to a given direction in the wave front, it is said to be Linearly
or Plane polarized light as shown in Fig-3.
Retardation Plates:
When the light vector enters into the retardation
plates they get splits up into the two components i.e. along the fast and slow axis as
shown in the Fig-4 and Fig-5 respectively. These two components of light travel with
different velocities along these axes and come out at different time out of plate due to
which a phase difference (δ) is been created between these two components and thus
due to which they are known as retardation plates. These plates are made up of
permanent birefringent material and thus at each point the fast and slow axis changes
from point to point. When the thickness of plate is such that a phase difference of π/2
radian is produced then the plate is known as Quarter-wave plate and when the phase
difference is π it is known as half- wave plate. Further if the retardation is 2π then one
gets a full-wave plate and the light incident comes out unaltered.
Specimen:
There are certain non-crystalline transparent materials, notably some
polymeric materials which are optically isotropic under the normal conditions but
become double refractive when stressed, this material is known as temporary
birefringent material unlike the retardation plates which are permanent birefringent
material. This effect persists when the loads are maintained but vanishes almost
instantaneously or after certain interval of time depending on the material and
condition of loading when the loads are removed. This is the physical phenomenon
onto which photoelasticity depends. There are many polymers which possess such
phenomenon some of them are Polycarbonate, Epoxy, Homolite 100, Gelatin,
Polyurethane etc.

Polariscope
For this experiment polariscope has been used. The polariscope is the basic instrument
used in the photoelasticity experiment. Essentially, it consists of a light source, two
plates of linear polarizers and two quarter wave plate or retarders. Besides other
possible arrangements, polariscope has generally employed for two configurations:
The Plane Polariscope (Fig-4), which uses linear and plane polarized light and shows
the families of isochromatic and isoclinic fringes: the circular polariscope (Fig-5),
which uses circularly polarized light to show the family of isochromatic fringes only
i.e. it eliminates all the isoclinic band from the specimen. To get circular polarized
light two quarter wave retarders have been used which are placed crossed to each.The
reason behind the appearing of isochromatic bands is the extinction of light which
happens as the principal stress difference (σ1−σ2) causes a relative phase difference of
(2mπ), where m is an integer. Wherever the principal stress
difference (σ1−σ2) doesn’t causes a phase difference of (2mπ) we will not see black
band (refer equation 3.9). When we use circular polariscope the light vector which
comes out of the model becomes independent of θ and thus we will not see any
Isoclinic band in circular polariscope. Because of this feature, it has been used in
evaluating the stress value as it allows us to find value of fringe order N more
precisely.The polariscope is the basic instrument of photoelastic experiment. It is
generally of two configuration,
1. Plane polariscope
2. Circular polariscope
1. Plane polariscope:
The plane polariscope consists of a light source and
two linear polarizer plates that usually are employed with their polarization axes
crossed. The light intensity sensed by the observer is zero if there is no stressed model
in the working field. The plane polariscope is used for the observation of isochromatic
and isoclinic fringes.This configuration gives direction and magnitude using isoclinic
and isochromatic fringe respectively of stress induced in the loaded specimen.

2. Circular polariscope:
The circular polariscope is used for the
observation of isochromatic fringe orders. The name ‘circular’ comes from the fact
that it uses circular propagating light in its working field. The light wave is generated
in the light source and crosses the polarizer plate to be plane polarized. A ¼ wave
plate is placed with its fast and slow axes making a 45° angle with the polarizer. The
second wave plate is arranged to be crossed to the first one. This arrangement
regenerates the initial plane of polarization.The observer does not sense light intensity
in this arrangement unless a loaded birefringent model is positioned in the working
field. The zero light intensity is caused by the placement of an analyzer with axes
crossed to the first polarizer. Other arrangements of axes of polarizers and wave plates
are possible and are used in some applications.This configuration gives only
magnitude using isochromatic fringe of stress induced in the loaded specimen.

Fringes:
These are the dark and bright pattern which are observed in the light incident on a
loaded specimen.There are two different types of changes which can be observed in
Photoelasticity
1. isochromatic fringes
2. isoclinic fringes
1. Isochromatic fringes are lines of constant principal stress difference.If the Source
light is monochromatic is appear as dark and light fringes, where is white light
illumination coloured fringes are observed. The difference in principal stresses is
related to the birefringence and hence the fringe colour through the stress-optic law.
Isochromatics are the loci of the points along which the difference in the first and
second principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points
with equal maximum shear stress magnitude.
2. Isoclinic fringes occur whenever either principal stress direction coincides with the
axis of polarisation of the polariser. Isoclinic fringes therefore provide information
about the directions of the principal stresses in the model. When combined with the
values of (σ1 – σ2) from the photoelectric stress pattern, isoclinic fringes provide the
necessary information for the complete solution of a two-dimensional stress
problem.Isoclinics are the loci of the points in the specimen along which the principal
stresses are in the same direction.

Calculation:
Stress-optics law:
Consider a transparent model made of high polymer subjected to a plane state of stress.
Let the state of stress at a point be characterised by the principal stresses σ 1, σ2 and
their orientation with reference to a set of axes. Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices
for vibrations corresponding to these two directions. Let n be the refractive index in
the unstressed state. Maxwell formulated the relations between stresses and the indices
of refraction as
n1-n = c1 σ1 – c2 σ2
n2-n = c1 σ2 – c2 σ1
where, C1 is called the direct stress-optic coefficient and C2 is the transverse stress
optic coefficient.
If a plane polarised light is incident on the model, the relative retardation can be
obtained as a function of the refractive indices as
δ=(2πt/λ)(n1−n2)δ=(2πt/λ)(n1−n2)
Using above two equations,
δ=(2πt/λ)(n1−n2)(c1+c2)δ=(2πt/λ)(n1−n2)(c1+c2)
This equation indicates that in a photoelastic model, the relative retardation changes
from point to point depending on the stress level. If C1 + C2 is replaced by C, the
relative retardation is given as
δ=2πt/λC(n1−n2)δ=2πt/λC(n1−n2)
which can be rewritten in terms of fringe order N as,
N=δ2π=t//λC(n1−n2)N=δ2π=t/λC(n1−n2)
For quantitative calculation of difference between principal stresses circular
configuration has been used. The stress-optics law relates the principal stress
difference (σ1−σ2)with the measured isochromatic fringe order N and after knowing
value of fringe order (N) at the particular point, one can easily get the value
of (σ1−σ2) at that particular point.

The relative stress-optic coefficient C is usually assumed to be a constant for a

material. However, various studies have shown that this coefficient depends on
wavelength and should be used with care. The above Eq. can be recast as
σ1−σ2=Nfσtσ1−σ2=Nfσ/t
Equation is famously known as stress-optic law as it relates the stress information to
optical measurement.
where,
fσ=λ/Cfσ=λ/C
which is known as the material stress fringe value with the units N/mm/fringe.
t is thickness of specimen used.
σ1, σ2 are the principle stresses
To get the value of difference between principal stresses at some particular point in
the model, the value of fringe order at that particular is found out by using Tardy’s
compensation method. Before applying Tardy’s method, zero order fringes have to be
identifying first. In order to find the zero order fringes, white light has been used as it
show the zero-order fringe as black and rest all order fringe as colorful.The steps
which to be followed in order to find value of N at an arbitrary point are as follows
[2]:
1. Move one of the bands of isochromatic at a point of interest, by changing the angle
between polarizer and analyzer. Usually, polarizer plate is rotated in order to do so.
2. If move higher order band at that point of interest, then subtract the value of
the δN from that band order value and
3.If move lower order band at that point of interest, then add the value of the δN to
that band order value
The value of retardation (δN) is given by

δN=±β180δN=±β/180

β = angle of rotation of polarizer w.r.t analyzer in degree.

Further, to get the fringe value (fσ) which is a constant value for a material is found
out through a problem of disc under radial compressive load. The theoretical solution
of disc under radial compressive load is given by [2]-
σ1−σ2=8P/πDtσ1−σ2=8P/πDt
Comparing equation (3.11) with equation (3.13), we have
σf=8P/πDNσf=8P/πDN

Thus, by substituting the value of equation (3.14) and value of N in equation (3.11),
the magnitude of difference between principal stresses can be evaluated at different
arbitrary point.

Study-1: Disc under Compression:

A circular transparent disc made up of epoxy resin has been used for the conventional
photo-elasticity experiment. This disc has been subjected to the diametric compressive
load and the stress magnitude has been evaluated with help of stress-optic law. The
stress fringe contour of disc under diametrical compression at different loads is shown
in the Fig-6 respectively. In those figure part (a) shows the fringe under
monochromatic light while part (b) shows the fringe under white light. From the stress
fringe contour it has been noted that the area which are under stress concentration
zone, shows high density of fringe contour compared to that of low stress zone. Also,
a black colour band is seen at the periphery of the disc in the entire figure under white
light. This black band is nothing but a zeroth order fringe.
Study-2: Four Point Bending:
Generally, four-point bending flexural test is
used for finding out the modulus of elasticity in bending Ef flexural stress σf flexural
strain ϵf and the flexural stress-strain response of the material. This test is very similar
to the three-point bending flexural test. The major difference being that the addition
of the 4th bearing brings a much larger portion of the beam to the maximum stress, as
opposed to only the material right under central bending. This difference is of prime
importance when studying brittle materials, where the number and severity of flaws
exposed to the maximum stress is directly related to the flexural strength and crack
initiation.

Table 1: Specification for rectangular strip

Material length(mm) Breadth(mm) thickness(mm)
Epoxy-resin 150.61 26.18 5

A rectangular strip made of epoxy-resin material with dimensions as in table 1 is made

as shown in fig-6. This specimen was subjected to four-point bending with the help of
a fixture and the stress magnitude has been evaluated with the help of stress-optic law.
The dead weight (PAPA) is kept on the loading pan and its equivalent load
(PBPB) which was found out by taking moment at hinge point (C) is divided into two
equal parts (PCPC) with the help of the fixture as shown in fig-7.

Four point bending under mixed loading I:

The rectangular strip is subjected to mixed
loading I and observed under the polariscope for doing the photoelasticity experiment.
The loading is done as shown in the fig-8. Different loads had been put on the loading
pan of loading frame in order to observe the isochromatic fringe contour near the
loaded points.

The difference between the principal stresses i.e. σ1−σ2 has been evaluated near the
loading points of the specimen. For this the value, of fσfσ was taken as same as used
for the disc under the radial compression load. By finding the proper fringe order (N)
and by employing the stress-optic law.The isochromatic fringe contours obtained
under circular configuration for mixed loading I is shown in fig-9, in which part (a)
showing the contours under the monochromatic light while in part (b) the contours
were formed when white light is passed through the specimen.Fig-10 shows the
variation of the stress with loading at the pre-determined point on the specimen. From
graph, it can be seen that the variation of stress for different loading was found to be
linear.

RESULTS:
PROCEDURES:

1. After set up is done one of the isochromatic lines moved at a point of interest,
by changing the angle between polarizer and analyser, polarizer plate was rotated
actually.

2. In clockwise rotation we subtracted the delta N value from next higher order N
value.

3. In anticlockwise rotation we added the delta N value to the adjacent lower order
n value.

4. After finding the angle of rotation of polariser with respect to analyser(β) we

calculated the value of retardation. (retardation= +/-(β/180)).

5. The above mentioned steps are common for both the specimens(circular and
rectangular).

7. In dealing with rectangular specimen we took two readings top and bottom
while observing the top and bottom fringes formed in specimen respectively. we
took top and bottom readings in both clockwise and anti-clockwise manner.

8. Finally, the fringe order’s average value of clockwise and anticlockwise

readings is taken as final value with respect to the load.

9. Fringe value(fσ) and difference in magnitude of radial stresses were found out.

10. Finally, graphs are plotted and conclusion drawn.

OBSERVATIONS:
1. FOR CIRCULAR SPECIMEN
2.FOR TOP LAYER OF RECTANGULAR SPECIMEN:

3.FOR BOTTOM LAYER OF RECTANGULAR SPECIMEN:

CONCLUSION:

The different load values were plotted against fringe order and relationship
was found out to be linear. The difference in principal stress values were
found out in circular and rectangular specimen.