04 EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

CHAPTER 04

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

This chapter presents details of experimental method and its implementation carried
out to estimate the effect of cut out geometry and size on stress distribution and SCF
around special shaped cut out for different loading condition.

4.1 Photoelasticity

The name photoelasticity implies the use of light (photo) and elastically stresses
model. This method was earlier used for plane bodies of complicated shape and
geometries, particularly for the reason that such geometrical shapes were not
amenable to mathematical analysis. Photoelasticity is an experimental method for
measurement of stress and strain in which light is either passed through a model or
reflected from the surface of loaded body. Photoelastic model is generally preferred
in situation where and strain information is needed over extended region and thus
whole field method. Photoelastic stress analysis is a full field technique for
measuring the magnitude and direction of principal stresses. When polarized light is
passed through a stressed transparent model, interference patterns or fringes are
formed. These patterns provide immediate qualitative information about the general
distribution of stress, positions of stress concentrations and of areas of low stress
using the principals of Stress optic law.

Nfσ
σ 1−σ 2=
h

Where,

σ 1 and σ 2= maximum and minimum principal stresses at the point under

consideration,

N=Fringe order,

f σ = Material Fringe Value,

h=Thickness. (28)

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4.2 Principle of Photoelasticity

Certain non-crystalline transparent materials notably some polymeric plastics are
optically isotropic under normal conditions but become doubly refractive or
birefringent when stressed. The effect normally persists while the loads are
maintained but vanishes almost instantaneously or after some interval of time
depending on the material and condition of loading when loads are removed. The
phenomenon of temporary or artificial birefringence was first observed by Brewster
1816. This is the physical characteristic on which photoelasticity is based. (29)

4.2.1 Birefringence

Photoelastic materials are birefringent, that is, they act as temporary wave plates,
refracting light differently for different light-amplitude orientations, depending upon
the state of stress in the material. In the unloaded state, the material exhibits an index
of refraction n0 that is independent of orientation. Therefore, light of all orientations
propagating along all axes through the material propagate with the same speed,
namely v/n0. In the loaded state, however, the orientation of a given light amplitude
vector with respect to the principal stress axes, and the magnitudes of the principal
stresses, determine the index of refraction for that light wave. Effectively, a
birefringent material acts as a temporary wave plate (Fig.4.1). The index of Refraction
n1 for light having its amplitude vector in the direction of the maximum principal
normal stress σ1 is given by

n1 - n0 = c1σ1+c2 (σ2+σ3)

Where c1 and c2 are called the stress-optic coefficients and, if birefringence is to occur,
c1≠c2 .In a similar way, the index of refraction n2 for light having its amplitude vector
in the direction of the minimum principal normal stress σ2 is given by

n2 - n0 = c1σ2+ c2 (σ3+σ1 )

And for light having its amplitude vector in the out of-plane direction,

n3 - n0 = c1σ3+ c2 (σ1+σ 2)

Equations are called Maxwell’s equations.

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Fig.4.1 Birefringent material

4.3 Experimental Set up

In Photoelasticity, stress field is evaluated through the use of light. Typically for a
known incident light, the emergent light is analysed for stress information. While
formulating the stress optic law a plane polarised light was considered to be incident
on the model. Since a polarised light is used the basic equipment used in
photoelasticity is called as Polariscope.

Fig.4.2 Experimental set up

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4.3.1 Polariscope

A Polariscope is an optical setup that allows the birefringence in specimens to be

analyzed. It consists of a light source, a polarizer, an optional quarter-wave plate, a
specimen, another optional quarter-wave plate, and a second polarizer called the
analyzer.

Two types of Polariscope are commonly employed i.e.

i. Plane Polariscope
ii. Circular Polariscope

4.3.1.1 Plane Polariscope

A plane polariscope is a device which consists essentially of two polarizing

filters set as shown in fig.4.3. Light from the source is polarized in, say the
vertical plane by the first filter which is termed the polarizer. The second
filter, the analyser, is generally set with its polarizing axis at right angles to
that of the polarizer, so that none of the light polarized in the vertical plane
by the first filter will pass through the second and on looking through the
analyser in the direction of light source no light beam will be seen. Two filters
set thus are said to be “crossed". this is the usual setting of the polarizing filters
for photo-elastic observations, but occasionally they are set parallel, and in this
case, all the light from the polarizer is transmitted and the field appears light.

The plane Polariscope consists of, a light source, a polarizer, a specimen, an analyzer
that is always crossed with respect to the polarizer

Fig.4.3 Plane Polariscope

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4.3.1.2 Circular Polariscope

A plane polarized wave on passing through a crystal plate is split into two
components, plane-polarized in directions at right angles to one another. In
general these two components combine to give an elliptically polarized wave,
but if they have a relative phase retardation of π /2, corresponding to a relative
path retardation of quarter of a wavelength, they combine to give a circularly
polarized wave. A crystal plate which converts an incident plane-polarizer wave
into a circularly polarized wave is therefore referred to as a quarter-wave
plate. A polariscope which has two quarter wave plates placed between the
polarizer and analyser in the manner indicated in Fig.4.4 is termed a circular
polariscope, the light entering the specimen under examination being circularly
polarized by the first quarter wave plate. The second quarter wave plate is set
with its polarizing axes at right angles to those of' the first, that is the "fast"
axis of first plate lines up with the "slow" axis of the second. The second
plate therefore exactly undoes the effect of the first, and if there is no
specimen in the polariscope, the light emerging from the second plate is plane-
polarized in the same direction as the light from the polarizer.

The circular Polariscope consists of a light source, a polarizer, a quarter-wave plate

oriented at 45º with respect to the polarizer, a specimen, a second quarter-wave plate,
an analyzer that is always crossed with respect to the polarizer.

Fig.4.4 Circular Polariscope

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4.4 Selection of Material

The essential properties of an ideal Photoelastic material may be summarized
under the following heading

i. Transparency: Material must be Transparent to light used in Polariscope. It

is obvious that unless the material is transparent it is unsuited for
Photoelastic models.
ii. The material must not show any double refraction before the
application of external load. The material should be optically isotropic
when not loaded and also elastically isotropic.
iii. The stress-strain and stress-retardation relationships should be linear.
iv. The material should possess reasonably high elastic modulus of
elasticity so that the deflections of the model are not excessive.
v. The optical and mechanical properties should remain constant for
small changes of ambient temperature. Materials for frozen stress
work must have a well defined softening temperature.
vi. The material must have adequate mechanical strength and must be
easy to machine without chipping or developing machining stresses.
Good casting properties are of great value.
vii. Material should have high modulus of elasticity & Ultimate tensile
strength.
viii. Material should have low fringe value so that it will have high
sensitivity to stress or strain.
ix. Strain and optical creep effects should be small and in the case of
materials for frozen stress experiments, the fringe pattern must be
retained without alteration of the fringe orders for a reasonable length
of time.
x. The materials must be moderate in cost and readily available

It is difficult to find a material which is satisfactory in every respect, but

epoxy resins, which are the best materials available at the present time, may be
said to approach the ideal when compared with in glass and celluloid which
were the only materials available in the early days of photoelasticity.

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The Mechanical properties of Epoxy Resin (Araldite Resin CY 230 and Hardener HY
951) shown in table 1

Table 4.1: Mechanical properties of Epoxy Resin

Name Trade Name Young’s Poisson’s ratio

Modulus (Mpa)
Araldite CY 230
Epoxy resin and 10 % 2570.22 0.38
Hardener HY-
951

4.5 Casting Procedure for Preparation of Sheet

The procedure to be followed for casting the plate varies with the materials to
be cast. epoxy resins provide at present the most generally useful photoelastic
materials. Epoxy resin Araldite CY 230 and 10 % Hardener HY- 951, which
obtained from the Huntsman Corporation Chemical manufacturing company, The
most commonly used photo elastic model material for two dimensional
Photoelastic analysis is cold setting epoxy resin. A procedure for casting of photo
elastic models of cold setting Epoxy Resin, consisting of Araldite CY – 230 and
hardener HY – 951 will be describe briefly.

i. For every 100 cc of araldite 10.5 cc of hardener is mixed.

ii. The resin is heated in oven up to 50° C to 80°C for about one hour to
remove all air bubbles and moisture.
iii. Then it is cooled down slowly to the room temp. The hardener is added
slowly by stirring the mixture continuously.
iv. The mixture should be stirred in one direction for ten minutes till it is
transparent, clear and homogeneous.
v. The mould is completely sprayed with silicon spray for easy removal and
then filled by the mixture, i.e. up to the top surface.
vi. The mould is kept at this position for proper curing at room temperature.
vii. For easy removal of the sheet from the mould, the curing time of sixteen
to eighteen hours is sufficient.
viii. After curing time the sheet is removed from the mould carefully.

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ix. The sheet in this stage is slightly plastic. So it is kept on the perfect flat
transparent glass for further curing. The total curing time is about one
week.

Fig.4.5 casting of photoelastic material

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4.6 Calibration of Photoelastic Material

The stress fringe value of model material vary with time and also from batch to batch
hence it is necessary to calibrate each sheet or casting at the time of test.

Calibration is performed on simple specimens for which closed form stress field
solution is known. Although the stress field for simple tension or beam under the pure
bending are known, the use of a circular disc under diametral compression is preferred
for calibration.

Circular disc is preferred because the specimen is compact easy to machine and it can
also be easily loaded. The stress field in circular disc cannot be obtained using
principles of Strength of Materials but one has to use the principle of Theory of
elasticity. (29)

4.6.1 Procedure for Calibration of Photoelastic Material

i. A circular disc is to be cut from the sheet to be calibrated.

ii. The ratio of diameter to thickness of the disc should be chosen, so that disc
does not buckle under the load. The Photoelastic material is calibrated by
making a circular disc of 60 mm dia. out of the same sheet.
iii. Fringe order at the centre of the disc is obtained using Tardy’s method of
compensation.
iv. The graph is drawn between load (P) and fringe order (N). A best-fit straight
line then drawn through the points (graphical approach to least square) and the
slope of line P/N is used following equation to evaluate the material fringe
value.
8P
Fσ=
πDN
Where,
F σ =¿Material fringe value,
P=applied load on disc,
D =Diameter of disc and
N =Fringe order

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v. The load is first increased and then decrease incrementally under the diametral
compression on circular polariscope to find the material fringe value (Fσ).
vi. The fringe order at the centre of disc and corresponding load are recorded.
vii. The Photoelastic material Plate model is found to have a stress fringe value
equal to 13.4131 N/mm2,as shown in Table 4.2

Fig.4.6 Calibration of circular disc

Table 4.2 Reading for Calibration of circular disc

Sr. No Load N 8P Fσ
Fσ=
(Kg) πDN
1 10 0 0
2 30 1 12.4904
3 60 2 12.4904 13.4131 N/mm
4 100 3 13.8783
5 135 4 14.0517
6 170 5 14.1558

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