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Radiography
Sources of Attenuation
Introduction
The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating radiation History
and matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event between a primary Present State
x-ray photon and a particle of matter does not usually result in the photon Future Direction
changing to some other form of energy and effectively disappearing. Several
interaction events are usually involved and the total attenuation is the sum of the Physics of
attenuation due to different types of interactions. These interactions include the Radiography
photoelectric effect, scattering, and pair production. The figure below shows an Nature of Penetrating
approximation of the total absorption coefficient, (µ), in red, for iron plotted as a Radiation
function of radiation energy. The four radiation-matter interactions that contribute X-rays
to the total absorption are shown in black. The four types of interactions are: Gamma Rays
photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair production (PP), and Thomson or Activity
Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial radiography is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 Decay Rate
MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that photoelectric and Compton scattering -Carbon 14 Dating
account for the majority of attenuation encountered. Ionization
Inverse Square Law
Interaction of
RT/Matter
Attenuation
Coefficient
Half-Value Layer
Sources of
Attenuation
-Compton
Scattering
Geometric
Unsharpness
Filters in
Radiography
Scatter/Radiation
Control
Radiation Safety

Equipment &
Summary of different mechanisms that cause attenuation of an incident x- Materials
ray beam X-ray Generators
Radio Isotope
Photoelectric (PE) absorption of x-rays occurs Sources
when the x-ray photon is absorbed, resulting in Radiographic Film
the ejection of electrons from the outer shell of Exposure Vaults
the atom, and hence the ionization of the atom.
Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the Techniques &
neutral state with the emission of an x-ray Calibrations
characteristic of the atom. This subsequent Imaging
emission of lower energy photons is generally absorbed and does not contribute to Consideration
(or hinder) the image making process. Photoelectron absorption is the dominant
process for x-ray absorption up to energies of about 500 KeV. Photoelectron Contrast
absorption is also dominant for atoms of high atomic numbers. Definition
Radiographic Density
Compton scattering (C) occurs when the Characteristic Curves
incident x-ray photon is deflected from its original Exposure
path by an interaction with an electron. The Calculations
electron gains energy and is ejected from its Controlling Quality
orbital position. The x-ray photon loses energy Film Processing
due to the interaction but continues to travel Viewing Radiographs
through the material along an altered path. Radiograph Interp-
Since the scattered x-ray photon has less Welds
energy, it, therefore, has a longer wavelength than the incident photon. The event Radiograph Interp -
is also known as incoherent scattering because the photon energy change Castings
resulting from an interaction is not always orderly and consistent. The energy shift
depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the scattering Advanced
medium. Click here for more information on Compton scattering and the Techniques
relationship between the scatter angle and photon energy. Real-time
Radiography
Pair production (PP) can occur when the Computed
x-ray photon energy is greater than 1.02 Tomography
MeV, but really only becomes significant at XRSIM
energies around 10 MeV. Pair production
occurs when an electron and positron are References
created with the annihilation of the x-ray
photon. Positrons are very short lived and Quizzes
disappear (positron annihilation) with the -
formation of two photons of 0.51 MeV energy. Pair production is of particular
importance when high-energy photons pass through materials of a high atomic
number.

Below are other interaction phenomenon that can occur. Under special
circumstances these may need to be considered, but are generally negligible.

Thomson scattering (R), also known as

Rayleigh, coherent, or classical scattering,
occurs when the x-ray photon interacts with
the whole atom so that the photon is
scattered with no change in internal energy
to the scattering atom, nor to the x-ray
photon. Thomson scattering is never more
than a minor contributor to the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs without
the loss of energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction.

Photodisintegration (PD) is the

process by which the x-ray photon is
captured by the nucleus of the atom
with the ejection of a particle from the
nucleus when all the energy of the x-
ray is given to the nucleus. Because of
the enormously high energies
involved, this process may be neglected for the energies of x-rays used in
radiography.

Effect of Photon Energy on Attenuation

Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the x-ray is
increased or decreased. Since attenuation characteristics of materials are
important in the development of contrast in a radiograph, an understanding of the
relationship between material thickness, absorption properties, and photon energy
is fundamental to producing a quality radiograph. A radiograph with higher contrast
will provide greater probability of detection of a given discontinuity. An
understanding of absorption is also necessary when designing x-ray and gamma
ray shielding, cabinets, or exposure vaults.

The applet below can be used to investigate the effect that photon energy has on
the type of interaction that the photon is likely to have with a particle of the material
(shown in gray). Various materials and material thicknesses may be selected and
the x-ray energy can be set to produce a range from 1 to 199 KeV. Notice as
various experiments are run with the applets that low energy radiation produces
predominately photoelectric events and higher energy x-rays produce
predominately Compton scattering events. Also notice that if the energy is too low,
none of the radiation penetrates the material.

Click here to run a JavaScript application on Attenuation.

This second applet is similar to the one above except that the voltage (KVp) for a
typical generic x-ray tube source can be selected. The applet displays the
spectrum of photon energies (without any filtering) that the x-ray source produces
at the selected voltage. Pressing the "Emit X-ray" button will show the interaction
that will occur from one photon with an energy within the spectrum. Pressing the
"Auto" button will show the interactions from a large number of photos with
energies within the spectrum.

Click here to run a different JavaScript application on Attenuation.

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Partial support for this work was provided by the NSF-ATE (Advanced Technological Education)
program through grant #DUE 0101709. Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the National Science Foundation.