Chapter 6

Ceramic
 Introduction
—  An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semi metal) and one or more nonmetals.
Classification of Ceramics :
—  traditional ceramics
—  industrial / engineering or high-tech ceramic materials
—  glasses
Properties of ceramic
—  high hardness and stiffness (rigid) but low ductility (brittle) of ceramic materials-
characterized by covalent and ionic bonding which are stronger than metallic bonding in
metals,
—  The strong bonding also provides these materials with high melting temperatures and
some tend to degrade rather than melt.
—  The tightly held electrons in ceramic molecules make material poor thermal and
electrical conductors -Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to the free
electrons in the metallic bond).
—  Lesser thermal expansion coefficients than metals.
—  Most ceramic materials are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers.
 Classification of ceramic
Traditional ceramic
General • made from minerals occurring in nature
• made from three basic components (clay,
flint and feldspar)
• Clay
• Flint (rock of very fine-grained silica, SiO2)
• Feldspar (crystalline minerals consisting of
aluminium silicates, potassium, calcium or
sodium)
Application Structural (bricks, pipes, floor and roof
tiles)
Refractories ( kiln linings, gas fire
radiant, steel and glass making crucibles)
Whitewares (tableware, wall tiles,
pottery products, and sanitary ware)
Example Alumina, zirconia, carbides (tungsten
carbide, silicon carbide), nitrides (cubic
boron nitride, titanium nitride, etc),
cermets.
Modern /industrial/engineering
ceramic
• synthetically produced from raw materials
• consists of pure or nearly pure
compounds such as aluminium oxide,
silicon carbide and silicon nitride .
Aerospace (engine, missile nose cone,
rocket nozzle)
Biomedical (Artificial bone; Dentistry
applications, teeth)
Electronic (Capacitors
Integrated Circuit packages, Transducers,
Insulator)
Optical ( lense, switches, laser amplifier)
silicon carbide in high-temperature areas of
automotive gas turbine engines and
aluminium oxide in the support base for
integrated circuit chips in a thermal
conduction module.
 Classification of ceramic
Traditional ceramic
Processing • Ceramics are manufactured by
step mixing, shaping and firing natural
minerals including pottery stones,
feldspar and clay
Processes 1.  Extrusion, such as extruding
"slugs" to make bricks
2.  Pressing to make shaped parts.
3.  Slip casting, as in making toilet
bowls, wash basins and
ornamentals like ceramic
statues.
4.  Jiggering
Modern /industrial/engineering
ceramic
• Fine Ceramics are manufactured
using highly purified natural raw
materials, artificial raw materials
synthesized through chemical
processes and other non-naturally
occurring compounds.
1.  shaping by hand (or "throwing"),
2.  slipcasting
3.  tape casting,
4.  injection molding,
5.  dry pressing,
6.  isostatic pressing,
7.  hot isostatic pressing (HIP) and
others
Processing of ceramic
Processing of traditional ceramic
 Traditional ceramic process
•  Traditional ceramic : crushing or grinding the raw materials into very fine particles
(powder); mixing the particles with water to bind the particles together for
traditional ceramics.

•  After shaping, the green parts are dried and fired (sintered) the material.
 Crushing
— Reduction of large lumps from the mine to smaller
sizes for subsequent further reduction. Crushing of
materials is accomplished by compression against
rigid surfaces or by impact against surfaces in a rigid
constrained motion.
(a) jaw crushers – large jaw toggles back and forth to
crush lumps against a hard, rigid surface.
(b) gyratory crushers – a gyrating cone to compress
lumps against a rigid surface.
(c) roll crushers – ceramic lumps are squeezed between
rotating drums.
(d) hammer mills – rotating hammers impacting the
material to break up the lumps.
 Crushing

(a)jaw crushers , (b) gyratory crushers (c) roll crushers,

(d) hammer mills
 Grinding
—  The operation of reducing the small pieces after crushing to a fine
powder. Grinding is accomplished by abrasion and impact of the crushed
mineral by the free motion of unconnected hard media such as balls,
pebbles or rods.
 Shaping process
—  Slip casting
—  Plastic forming
—  Semidry pressing
—  Dry pressing

—  After shaping process, the ceramic is in green condition.

—  The term green refer to the condition of ceramic after shaping ,
but before firing, meaning it is not fully treated
—  It is lack in hardness and strength , and normally in brittle condition
that can be easily break
—  To increase the strength of green part, firing or sintering should be
conducted in order to bond the ceramic atom together.
 Slip casting
—  Often used in the mass-production of ceramics and is ideally suited to the making of wares
that cannot be formed by other methods of shaping.
—  A slip, made by mixing clay body with water, is poured into a highly absorbent plaster mold.
—  Water from the slip is absorbed into the mould leaving a layer of clay body covering its
internal surfaces and taking its internal shape.
—  Excess slip is poured out of the mold, which is then split open and the molded object
removed.
—  APPLICATION :
—  Slip casting is widely used in the production of sanitary wares and is also used for making
smaller articles, such as intricately-detailed figurines.
Plastic forming
(1) Hand modeling, molding, and
throwing;
(2) Jiggering, which is a mechanized
extension of hand throwing used to
manufacture bowls and plates;
(3)Plastic pressing, in which a clay slug is
pressed in a mold; and
(4) Extrusion, in which the clay is
compressed through a die opening to make
long sections of uniform cross‑sectional
shape.
 
 Jiggering
•  A combination of processes is used to make house ware plates and bowls.
(i)  A wet clay slug is placed on a convex mold
(ii)  A forming tool is pressed into the slug to provide the initial rough shape – the
operation is called batting and the work piece thus created is called a bat
(iii)  A heated jigger tool is used to impart the final contoured shape to the product
by pressing the profile into the surface during rotation o the work part. It is
then dried and fired.

•  Advantages:
•  High production rate with automation.
•  Low tooling cost.
•  Limitations:
•  Limited to axis-symmetric parts.
•  Limited dimensional accuracy.
 Extrusion
•  The clay mixture containing 20 – 30% of water, is forced through a
die opening by screw-type equipment.
•  It is used to produce long sections of uniform cross-section, which
are then cut to required piece length.
•  It utilizes a screw-type action to assist in mixing the clay and
pushing the plastic material through the die opening.
•  It is widely used to make hollow bricks, shaped tiles, drain pipes,
tubes and insulators.

Advantages:
•  Hollow shapes and small diameters.
•  High production rate.

Limitations:
•  The cross-section of the extruded product must be constant and
limited thickness.
 Semidry Pressing
•  The proportion of water in the starting clay is
typically in the range from 10% to 15%.
•  Uses high pressure to overcome the material’s
low plasticity and force it to flow into a die cavity.
•  Flash is often formed due to excess clay being
squeezed between the die sections.

(1)  deposi+ng  mist  powder  

into  die  cavity,  (2)  pressing  
(3)  opening  the  die  sec+ons  
and  ejec+on  
 Dry pressing
•  Similar to powder-metal compaction process.
•  Moisture content: 4%. Organic / inorganic binders / lubricants: stearix acid,
wax, starch, polyvinyl alcohol.
•  Pressing pressure: 35 – 200MPa. Using vibratory pressing. Lubricants are also
added to prevent die sticking during pressing and ejection.
•  The dies must be made of hardened tool steel or cemented tungsten carbide
to reduce wear. Since dry clay will not flow during pressing, the geometry of
the part must be simple. No flash is formed and no drying shrinkage occurs.
•  Hence, drying time is eliminated an good accuracy can be achieved.

Advantages:
•  Close control of dimensional tolerances as in P/M.
•  High production rates with automation.

Limitations:
•  Used for simple shapes.
•  Density variation in parts with high length-to-diameter ratios.
•  Dies, usually made of carbides or hardened steel, must have high wear
resistance to withstand the abrasive ceramic particles.
•  Equipment can be expensive.
Mechanized ceramic shaping
—  Plastic forming is a process in which a plastic
clay slug is pressed between upper and lower
mold, contained in metal ring.
—  The mold is made from porous material so that
when the vacuum is drawn on the back of the
mold halves, moisture is removed from the clay.
—  The mold section is then open , using a positive
air pressure to prevent the part from sticking to
the mold
Drying and firing
Drying
•  Drying was done to eliminate shrinkage.
•  Shrinkage is a problem because water contributes volume to the piece
and when it is removed the volume is reduced (piece shrinks).
•  This is done in drying chambers by a combination of convection and
radiation using infrared sources.
•  Drying times range from a quarter of an hour for thin sections and several
days for very thick sections.

Firing
•  The green piece lacks of hardness and strength; it must be fired to fix the
part shape and achieve hardness and strength in the finished ware.
•  Firing is the heat treatment process that sinters the ceramic material; it is
performed in a furnace called a kiln.
•  In sintering, the bonds are developed between the ceramic grains and this
is accompanied by densification and reduction of porosity.
Modern ceramic
•  Modern ceramics, : other substances such as binders
and additives are used during shaping to impart
certain characteristics.
Function of additives:
•  binder – for holding ceramic particles together.
•  lubricant – for mold release and to reduce internal
friction between particles during moulding.
•  wetting agent – to improve mixing.
•  plasticizer – to make the mix more plastic and
formable.
•  agents – control foaming and sintering.
•  deflocculent – to make the ceramic-water
suspension uniform (eg. Na2Co3). T
Processing of modern ceramic
•  Cold isostatic pressing
•  Hot isostatic pressing
•  Dry pressing
•  Hot pressing
•  Extrusion
•  Tape casting
•  Injection casting
•  Cutting
•  Grinding /polishing
 Cold isostatic pressing
• This forming method involves pressing dried and granulated
raw materials into a shape close to that of the finished
product.
• The granulated raw materials are poured into a rubber mold.
• The mold is then put in a high-pressure container, where
hydraulic pressure is applied evenly from all directions
(isostatic pressing) in order to provide uniform, highly dense
compaction.
• This method is ideal for forming products with large
dimensions.
 Hot isostatic pressing
—  In this process, gas pressure is applied isostatically at high
temperatures to enhance sintering and produce dense
bodies.
—  After materials are pre-sintered, and their density is
increased to almost 95 percent of the theoretical density,
they are placed in a pressure container equipped with a
furnace.
—  Gas pressure is then applied isostatically at 1,000 to 2,000
atmospheres while being heated.
 Dry pressing
•  This forming method involves filling a die with dried
and granulated raw materials, and pressing them
into a shape close to that of the finished product.
•  Granulated raw materials fill a metallic mold, and
pressure is applied from the top and bottom
(uniaxial press) to achieve highly dense compaction.
•  This method is ideal for mass-producing semi-
complex machinery parts which require high levels
of dimensional accuracy.

Hot pressing
—  This forming method involves applying pressure at high temperatures in
order to reduce porosity (voids) and produce dense sintered bodies.
—  A carbon mold is filled with raw powder, which is then heated and pressurized
simultaneously from the top and bottom to make a sintered body.
—  This method yields ceramic bodies of simple shapes.
 Extrusion
• This is a forming method in which
dried and granulated raw materials
are mixed with water, binder, a
plasticizing agent and a dispersing
agent.
•  The resulting clay-like, plastic body
is then extruded into the desired
shape under pressure.
•  This method is ideal for long
products with continuous and
unchanging cross-sections.
 Tape casting
•  This method is used to produce continuous thin compacts using
slurries composed of raw powder, binder and solvating media.
•  The tape casting process generally employs a "doctor blade" to
spread the slurry into a thin film.
•  This process is ideal for preparing the "green" (unfired ceramic)
tape used in manufacturing multilayer ceramic integrated circuit
packages and ceramic chip capacitors.
 Injection/casting
•  This is a forming method in which dried and granulated raw materials are mixed
with additives to provide a degree of fluidity.
•  The raw material is then pressure-filled into a forming die that gives it a shape
close to that of the finished product.
•  In the injection molding process, raw materials are mixed with resin in order to
provide the necessary degree of fluidity, and then injected into the molding die.
•  The mold is then cooled to harden the binder and produce a "green" compact
part (also known as an unsintered powder compact).
•  In the casting process, mixed raw materials are combined with solvating media
and a dispersant, and then fed into an absorbent die.
•  The materials are then dehydrated and solidified to make a compact.
•  Both methods are suitable for complex, three-dimensionally shaped products
requiring high levels of dimensional accuracy.
 Cutting
• Because ceramics are very hard, cutting them after they have
been sintered requires considerable energy and specialized
tools such as diamond wheels.
• Considering this, engineers strive to cut or process ceramics
into a shape as close to the finished shape as possible before
sintering, which involves estimating the degree of shrinkage that
will take place during the sintering process.
• Super hard tools and drills are used in this process.

Grinding and polishing

• This important process is designed to fabricate products with
high levels of dimensional accuracy and mirror-finished surfaces.
• It is generally performed using a diamond wheel.
• Because ceramics are extremely hard, it is necessary to use
diamond, the hardest material in the world, for the grinding and
polishing process.
Modern Ceramic- How to Make a Fine Ceramic Knife
1.0    Water,  raw  powder  and  ceramic   4.0  The  mold  is  placed  under  high  
milling  balls  are  fed  into  a  mixer-­‐ pressure  —  1  ton  per  cm2  (approx.  12,900  
like  device  called  a  mill.     psi)  —  to  solidify  the  powder  into  the  
desired  shape.    

2.0  To  create  particles  of  uniform  

size,  with  diameters  of   5.0  The  material  is  then  fired  and  sintered  in  
approximately  one  micrometer  (1   a  kiln,  like  conventional  ceramics,  but  under  
µm  or  0.001  mm),  raw  materials  are   precisely  controlled  temperatures.    
first  mixed  into  a  slurry  —  a  fluid  of  
water  and  ceramic  powder  in  which  
the  particles  are  blended.     6.0  During  the  firing  process,  the  ceramic  
blade  shrinks  to  75  percent  of  its  original,  
unfired  size,  while  the  volume  shrinks  by  
nearly  half.  These  shrinkage  rates  are  
carefully  calculated  during  the  design  
process,  so  the  finished  size  matches  the  
3.0  A  spray  dryer  dehydrates   design  specifications.    
the  raw  materials  in  the  slurry  
to  make  a  granulated  powder.     7.0  The  blade  is  then  ground  with  a  
diamond  wheel  to  produce  a  razor-­‐sharp  
edge.    

4.0  The  granulated  powder   8.0  A  handle  is  then  attached  to  
is  used  to  fill  a  knife-­‐
complete  the  process.    
shaped  mold.    
Glass working/ forming
•  The methods by which glass is shaped into useful products
are very different from those used for the other types.
•  In glassworking, the principal starting material is silica (SiO2);
this is usually combined with other oxide ceramics that form
glasses.
•  The starting material is heated to transform it from a hard
solid into a viscous liquid; it is then shaped into the desired
geometry while in this fluid condition.
•  When cooled and hard, the material remains in the glassy
state rather than crystallizing.
•  Glass is processed by melting it and then shaping it, either in
molds (casting), various devices such as rolling (to make plate
glass) or by blowing (to produce bottles and other
containers).
•  A finishing step is required for certain products. The strength
of glass can be improved by thermal and chemical
treatments.
Glass products can be generally be categorized as follows:
•  flat sheets or plates such as window glass, glass door and table tops.
•  rods and tubing, used for chemicals, neon lights and decorative
artifacts.
•  discrete products such as bottles, vases, headlights and television
tubes.
•  glass fibers, to reinforce composite materials and for fiber optics.

To fabricate these products can be grouped into three

categories:
•  discrete processes for piece ware;
•  continuous processes for making flat glass and tubing for laboratory
ware and fluorescent lights;
•  fiber-making processes to produce fibers for insulation, fiber optics.
Shaping of glasses
There was generally 4 types of glass shaping
method
—  Casting
—  Spinning
—  Pressing
—  Blowing
 Casting
—  If the molten metal glass is sufficiently fluid, it can be poured into a mold.
—  Products such as astronomical lenses and mirrors are made by this method.
—  These pieces must be cooled very slowly to avoid internal stresses and possible cracking due
to temperature gradients that would otherwise be set up in the glass.
—  After cooling and solidifying, the piece must be finished by lapping and polishing.

Spinning
• Similar  to  centrifugal  cas+ng  of  metals.  
•   It  is  used  to  produce  funnel-­‐shaped  components  such  as  
the  back  sec+ons  of  cathode  ray  tubes  for  televisions  and  
computer  monitors.  
•   A  gob  of  molten  glass  is  dropped  into  a  conical  mold  
made  of  steel.    
• The  mold  is  rotated  so  that  centrifugal  force  causes  the  
glass  to  flow  upward  and  spread  itself  on  the  mold  
surface.    
• The  faceplate  (front  of  the  viewing  screen)  is  later  
assembled  to  the  funnel  using  a  sealing  glass  of  low  
mel+ng  point.  
 Pressing
•  Widely used process for mass production of glass pieces such
as dishes, bakeware, headlight lenses, TV tube faceplates and
similar items that are relatively flat.
•  A gob of molten glass is fed into a mold cavity using a gob
feeder to feed the right amount of molten glass from the
furnace into the mold.
•  The gob is then compressed into shape by a plunger, the
plunger retracts and the finished product is released
 Blowing
•  Blowing is performed on highly automated equipment.
•  One of the method is known as press-and-blow, which is a pressing
operation followed by a blowing operation. A glass gob is fed into a
mold and pressed by a plunger.
•  The partially formed piece, called a parison, is then transferred to a
larger mold cavity and blown to complete the shape forming.
•  The process is suited to the production of wide-mouth containers. A
split mold is used in the blowing operation for part removal.
 Shaping of Flat Plate/Sheet Glass
•   
Processes for producing flat glass such as sheet and plate glass:

(a) Rolling of flat plate

•  Starting glass from melting furnace is squeezed through opposing
rolls whose gap determines sheet thickness, followed by grinding and
polishing for parallelism and smoothness. The surfaces of the glass
may be embossed with a pattern by using textured roller surfaces.
(b) Float method
•  Molten glass from furnace flows onto surface of a molten tin
bath, where it spreads evenly across the surface. It then moves
over rollers and solidifies. Able to achieve uniform thickness and
smoothness. No grinding or polishing is needed.

(c) Drawing process

•  Involves a machine in which the molten glass passes through a
pair of rolls. The solidifying glass is squeezed between these two
rolls and then moved forward over a set of smaller rolls.
 Shaping of glass tube
•  Using Danner method
•  Molten glass wraps around a rotating hollow mandrel (cylindrical or conical) through
which air is blown while the glass is being drawn.
•  The temperature of the air and its volumetric flow rate, as well as the drawing
velocity, determine the diameter and wall thickness of the tubular cross-section.
•  During hardening, the glass tube is supported by a series of rollers extending about
30 m beyond the mandrel.
•  The continuous tubing is then cut into standard lengths. Tubular glass products
include laboratory glassware, fluorescent light tubes and thermometers.
•  Glass rods are made in similar manner, but air is not blown through the mandrel.
•  The drawn product becomes a solid glass rod.