European Journal of Teacher Education

Vol. 34, No. 1, February 2011, 61–79

Enhancing teachers’ counselling skills: student teachers’ views on a

teachers’ education programme
Maro Doikou* and Konstantina Diamandidou

Department of Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

European
10.1080/02619768.2010.534979
CETE_A_534979.sgm
0261-9768
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maro@edlit.auth.gr
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of Teacher Education
(online)

The purpose of this small-scale study is to investigate the outcomes of a brief

teacher education programme by exploring student teachers’ views. The teacher
education programme aimed to provide teachers with the opportunity to develop
qualities and skills that facilitate communication and to enhance teachers’
competence to apply social and emotional (SEL) programmes’ intervention
activities in the classroom. According to student teachers’ estimations, the teacher
education programme provided them with new knowledge and experiences in
communication and counselling, which they felt they could use in teaching
practice. Besides, teachers reported that the programme enabled them to develop
their self-awareness and to adopt a non-directive attitude during the
implementation of SEL programme’s activities.
Keywords: counselling; teacher education; culturally diverse pupils

It is generally acknowledged that children’s psychosocial development constitutes one

of the main aims of the school (Malikiosi-Loizou 2001). However, the educational
system of many countries is oriented mainly to academic learning (Bryan, Burnstein,
and Ergul 2004; Rogers 1980). According to Rogers (1961), significant learning
comprises more than the acquisition and the accretion of knowledge. It also involves
the process by which the individual gains an understanding of his problems and makes
changes in his attitudes and/or his behaviour.
Despite the fact that a considerable number of pupils present with affective and/or
behavioural problems (Baker et al. 1997), research evidence suggests that the majority
of them feel they cannot discuss their difficulties and receive adequate support at
school (Lang 1999). Although pupils need to express their feelings and feel accepted
as members of a community, they report a lack of availability and understanding on
their teachers’ part as well as the absence of a trusting climate at school (Baker et al.
1997; McLaughlin 1999).
Counselling contributes to the affective dimension of education as it promotes
communication, which is necessary for effective learning (Le Roux 2002). Besides, it
enables the teacher to offer emotional support to pupils so that they can acknowledge
and cope with their learning and/or psychosocial difficulties (Malikiosi-Loizou 2001).
Within this context, the role of the teacher consists of creating an environment which
facilitates significant learning (Rogers 1961). Besides, the application of a counselling
process in education contributes to the successful implementation of SEL programmes
(Triliva and Chiementi 2000), which aim to develop children’s empathy and to
enhance their self-awareness and their social and communication skills (Elias 2004;
Payton et al. 2000). In this case, the teacher takes the role of the group coordinator and

*Corresponding author. Email: maro@edlit.auth.gr

ISSN 0261-9768 print/ISSN 1469-5928 online

© 2011 Association for Teacher Education in Europe
DOI: 10.1080/02619768.2010.534979
http://www.informaworld.com
62 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

is called on to foster a spirit of cooperation, to arouse children’s interest, to encourage

their participation in the programme’s activities and to provide guidance and opportu-
nities for discussion between the members of the classroom group (Triliva and
Chiementi 2000).
Within this framework, the role of the teacher is that of a counsellor, a facilitator
of learning and a coordinator of the group. In order to meet the requirements of these
roles, teachers must be able to create the necessary conditions for the development of
positive relationships and a positive classroom environment. Rogers (1961) consid-
ered empathic understanding, congruence and unconditional positive regard as the
core conditions for significant learning. Empathic understanding refers to the
teacher’s ability to understand the way in which pupils perceive and live their experi-
ences. It concerns the teacher’s attempt ‘to understand the personal meaning that
school has for each student’ (Aspy, as cited in Rogers 1980, 307). Congruence
involves the teachers’ ability to be genuine in their relations with their pupils (Rogers
1980) and to show a consistency between their behaviour, feelings and values
(Gatongi 2007). Finally, unconditional positive regard involves the teachers’ respect
and concern for pupils with all their deficiencies or behaviour difficulties (Patterson
and Purkey 1993).
The qualities mentioned above reveal an attitude of caring (Rogers 1980) and
liking (Peterson and Purkey 1993), which promotes a feeling of security and
acceptance to the pupils (Gatongi 2007). Research investigations conducted by Aspy
and Roebuck to classrooms of all levels of education, in the 1970s (as cited in Rogers
1980, 277, 307–8; Rogers and Freiberg 1994) indicated that teachers’ empathy,
congruence and unconditional positive regard were associated with an improvement
in academic achievement and an empowerment of other attributes such as creativity,
responsibility, taking initiative and spirit of cooperation. Additionally, students of
teachers who offered the facilitative conditions mentioned above presented fewer
behaviour problems and exhibited gains in terms of self-esteem and adaptation. These
findings were supported by the results of more recent studies concerning the impact
of the application of person-centred approach on pupils’ academic learning and social
development.
The teacher’s qualities of empathy and unconditional positive regard are conveyed
through active listening (Gatongi 2007). The acquisition of this skill as well as of other
counselling skills such as appropriate questioning, summarising and paraphrasing
contributes to the development of empathic understanding (Ivey, Gluckstern, and
Bradford Ivey 1996). Research evidence suggests that teachers who display empathy,
congruence and unconditional positive regard have more positive self-concept,
provide more opportunities for discussion in the classroom and are more self-
disclosing to their pupils (Aspy and Roebuck 1974, as cited in Rogers and Freiberg
1994, 255–6; Rogers 1980). Teachers value interpersonal relationships and recognise
the importance of the endorsement of counselling values in solving pupils’ problems
(Chan 2005). Besides, pupils appreciate teachers who use counselling skills to help
them (McLaughlin 1999). The above findings suggest that acquiring counselling skills
is beneficial both for the teachers as well as for their pupils. Consequently, the need
for teachers’ training in counselling skills is emphasised in many studies (Chan 2005;
Lang 1999; McLaughlin 1999; Rogers 1980). Nevertheless, teacher education
programmes lay emphasis on the cognitive dimensions of teaching and learning and
do not aim to promote those teachers’ qualities which can contribute to building
 European Journal of Teacher Education 63

desirable relationships with pupils (Patterson and Purkey 1993). As far as it concerns
Greece, although teachers consider training in counselling skills of great importance,
they usually do not have such an opportunity during their education or in-service train-
ing (Doikou-Avlidou 1998; Malikiosi-Loizou 2001).
The purpose of the present study was to assess a brief teacher education
programme in certain counselling skills by exploring the views of the teachers who
took part in it concerning its efficacy and its applicability. The teacher education
programme was carried out as part of three broader projects entitled ‘Education of
repatriated and immigrant pupils’, ‘School integration of repatriated and immigrant
pupils in elementary school’1 and ‘School integration of repatriated and immigrant
pupils in high school’2. The two last projects were implemented after the first
project’s completion and they practically constituted its continuation to different
education levels. All these projects were funded by grants of the European Commis-
sion and the Ministry of Education of Greece.

The context of the study

The projects mentioned above aimed to enhance social and school integration of
pupils of immigrant and repatriated families. They were implemented all over Greece
on the responsibility of regional committees formed under the supervision of certain
universities of Greece. The data presented in the present study come from the imple-
mentation of the projects in the region of central Macedonia and especially in
Thessaloniki. More specifically, the particular teacher education programme was part
of a larger project involving various action plans aiming to provide psychosocial
support to culturally diverse pupils.
During the last decade the number of repatriated and immigrant pupils enrolled in
Greek public schools has considerably increased. Research findings demonstrate that
pupils from immigrant families, compared to native pupils, more frequently experi-
ence learning difficulties and are more likely to have low self-esteem and negative
self-concept regarding school performance and ability (Giavrimis, Konstantinou, and
Hatzichristou 2003). Immigrant pupils are more isolated and have less satisfactory
relationships with their peers than native pupils, as reported by their teachers and their
parents (Kolaitis et al. 2003). According to teachers’ estimations, aggressive
behaviour, feelings of insecurity, isolation and disobedience are the most frequent
difficulties encountered by immigrant and repatriated pupils (Doikou-Avlidou 2006).
Within this context, the actions taken by the project for the psychosocial support
of immigrant and repatriated pupils aimed to enhance their social integration by
promoting communication and acceptance between pupils. The specific objectives
were first, to enhance social interaction between pupils and to improve the social
status of immigrant and repatriated pupils by applying a small scale intervention based
on a SEL programme and second, to provide teachers with the opportunity to reflect
on issues of communication and to develop certain counselling skills which are
considered to be necessary for the implementation of effective interventions.
Actions intended to provide psychosocial support were implemented in three
stages. During the first stage, teachers received short term training in certain counsel-
ling skills, which constitutes the topic of the present study. In a second stage, a
number of teachers who had attended the teacher education programme voluntarily
participated in the study and implemented the SEL programme in their classrooms.
64 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

For this purpose, teachers identified certain immigrant or repatriated pupils exhibiting
considerable behaviour problems and adaptation difficulties. Subsequently, an assess-
ment of target-pupils’ behaviour took place and data concerning classroom climate
and pupils’ interaction were collected. These data were used to specify the goals of the
intervention-SEL programme and formed the basis for designing the activities that
would be implemented in the classroom. Teachers implemented the SEL programme’s
activities under the supervision of two school psychologists, members of the scientific
team of the project. Teachers were encouraged to practice communication skills that
had been presented during the teacher education programme. Finally, the SEL
programme was evaluated by investigating the changes on pupils’ behaviour and
interaction, as well as the changes in the classroom environment. Furthermore, the
appropriateness of the activities and teachers’ competence in implementing them were
assessed on the basis of teachers’ reports.

The teacher education programme in counselling skills

The teacher education programme aimed to empower the teacher’s role so that teach-
ers are more able to deal with pupils’ difficulties and to apply intervention activities
in the classroom. More specifically, the aims of the teacher education programme
were to provide teachers with the opportunity to: (i) familiarise themselves with the
basic concepts and principles of counselling; (ii) to develop qualities such as congru-
ence, unconditional positive regard and empathic understanding which facilitate
communication; and (iii) to develop communication skills, especially active listening
skills.
The content of the teacher education programme was based on Carl Rogers’
person-centred theory and included five modules: empathy, congruence, uncondi-
tional positive regard, active listening and encouragement. Accordingly, the
programme was divided into four seminars of three hours duration each, which
were held over a one-month period. The training was carried out in small groups so
that each group received 12 hours of training. During the first phase of the imple-
mentation of the teacher education programme, five groups of 10 to 14 participants
were formed while at the second phase three groups of 12 to 17 teachers were
formed.
The training procedure combined brief lecturing on theoretical issues and practice
in counselling skills, namely attending behaviour, paraphrasing, and encouragement
with experiential ways of learning. Teachers were encouraged to actively participate
in role-playing in small groups with their colleagues, in which each one consecutively
adopted one of the following roles: speaker, listener and observer. At the end of each
seminar, the participants discussed with the trainer their experience and especially the
factors that enabled them to follow the suggested way of communicating or the diffi-
culties they had met.
The assessment of the teacher education programme was completed in two phases.
During the first implementation phase, we examined the degree to which the student
teachers’ initial expectations from the teacher education programme were met after
the programme’s completion. During the second implementation phase, we focused
on the participants’ reports on the benefits gained by their participation in the
programme, as well as on their estimations regarding their ability to put the newly
acquired counselling skills into use.
 European Journal of Teacher Education 65

First implementation phase of the teacher education programme

Participants
A total of 62 teachers took part in the first implementation of the training programme.
Thirty-two teachers (51.6%) were employed in primary education (five in infant
school and 27 in elementary school) and 30 (48.4%) were employed in secondary
education. Forty-six (74.2%) of the teachers were women. Regarding working
experience, 14 teachers (22.6%) had been working in the educational system for more
than 20 years, 23 (37.1%) had 11 to 20 years of experience, 13 (21%) had 4 to 10
years, and 12 (19.4%) had one to three years of working experience.

Method
Participants provided their evaluation of the teacher education programme at two sepa-
rate time points. First, the participants’ expectations from the seminars were investigated
prior to commencing the programme. After the programme’s completion, we examined
the degree to which the participants’ initial expectations were satisfied, as well as the
benefits they gained by taking part in the programme.
The participants’ evaluations were collected with the use of two questionnaires
constructed for the purposes of this particular study. These included both open- and
closed-type questions. The basic issues to which all questions referred were: (i) the
participants’ expectations from the teacher education programme and the benefits
gained on its completion; (ii) the participants’ satisfaction from the teacher education
programme or disappointment with it; and (iii) the participants’ expectations from the
teacher education programme and the benefits gained with respect to the programme’s
applicability in their teaching practice.
The results were estimated by looking into the relative frequency of each response.
Moreover, the intercoder reliability index (CR) was calculated for each suggested
content category (Holsti 1965). Open-question data were analysed with the use of
qualitative content analysis. Since there is not much research concerning our study’s
topic, an inductive approach was used (Elo and Kungäs 2008). Therefore, categories
were generated from the data by selecting the theme as the coding unit of analysis.
Consequently, indexes of intercoder reliability were estimated for each main category.
The analysis of the material proceeded through structuring (Bonidis 2004; Graneheim
and Lundman 2004; Mayring 2000). It should be noted that the main categories, which
emerged from the qualitative content analysis of open-question data in both imple-
mentation phases of the teacher education programme were quite similar.

Results
Participants’ expectations of the teacher education programme and benefits gained
Analysis of the initial assessment data showed that nearly all teachers (95.5%) were
expecting to gain knowledge and experience during the seminars, which they could
efficiently apply in their work. In particular, 63.3% of them were looking to gain
knowledge concerning communication and counselling, while less (48.3%) were
expecting to have relevant experiences.
The participants’ answers in the final assessment showed that, in most cases, their
expectations from the teacher education programme were satisfied. According to our
66 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

Table 1. Participants’ expectations from the teacher education programme and benefits
gained.
Initial assessment: expected benefits (N = 60) f %
Acquisition of knowledge on communication and counselling 38 63.3
Acquisition of experiences in communication and counselling 29 48.3
Getting information on communication and counselling 29 48.3
Effective use of the acquired knowledge and experience 57 95.5
Final assessment: benefits gained (N = 52)
Acquisition of knowledge which can be used in teaching practice 44 84.6
Acquisition of experiences which can be used in teaching practice 39 75
Acquisition of knowledge which cannot be used 6 11.5
Acquisition of experiences which cannot be used 3 5.8
The teacher education programme was not beneficial to the participant – –

results, 84.6% of the participants stated that they had gained knowledge that could be
of use in their working setting. Moreover, although many participants did not look to
getting practical experience in communication and counselling, 75% of them
indicated that they have had such experiences that could be utilised in their educa-
tional working setting (Table 1). This finding should probably be attributed to the
programme’s experiential approach to learning.

Participants’ satisfaction with the teacher education programme and/or

disappointment with it
Participants reported their satisfaction with the teacher education programme and/or
disappointment with it by answering the following open questions: ‘Regarding the
teacher education programme, I feel satisfied because…’ and ‘Regarding the teacher
education programme, I feel disappointed because…’. Through the use of qualitative
content analysis three main categories were developed from the participants’ answers
to the first question: acquisition of new knowledge and experiences, development of
self-awareness and context of the teacher education programme.
A considerable number (16) of student teachers, whose answers fell into the first
main category, referred generally to the fact that the teacher education programme
contributed to the enrichment of their knowledge and experiences concerning
communication and counselling: ‘I am leaving feeling more experienced due to the
exercises’.
A small number (six) of the teachers who mentioned the acquisition of new
knowledge and experiences specified that the knowledge they had gained can be
used to improve their communication with their pupils whereas four of them
stressed the applicability of the new knowledge and skills in the educational working
setting:

I heard some interesting things regarding communication which can help me to be more
effective in the classroom as well as in my relation with the pupils.

I have acquired certain knowledge that I am able to use.

 European Journal of Teacher Education 67

Another reason for participants’ satisfaction was the context of the teacher
education programme. More specifically, teachers commented on the experiential
approach which was adopted during the programme, on the limited number of student
teachers and on the trainer’s proficiency in communicating with student teachers. A
few excerpts are the following:

The programme had an experiential approach; it was not limited to lectures only.

The programme took place in a friendly, comfortable and constructive environment and
there was communication between the trainer and the student teachers.

A fair number of teachers (Table 2) felt that the teacher education programme had
an impact on the development of their self-awareness. They reported that the knowl-
edge they had acquired made them learn more about their strengths and their limita-
tions. As they noticed, this could have an influence on the way they communicated
with others: ‘I needed to learn ways to communicate with others and not to try domi-
nating others in a manner that rather keeps them away’.
Teachers stressed the influence of the teacher education programme on the
enhancement of their role as educators: ‘I learned some methods of approaching and
communicating which will help me in my course as an educator’.
Regarding the reasons of teachers’ disappointment with the teacher education
programme, a small number of participants mentioned the programme’s short
duration: ‘It was of short duration, I would rather it included more meetings’.
Finally, three teachers critically referred to the lack of novel experiences:
‘The programme did not provide me with the chance to acquire experiences’ (also see
Table 2).

Participants’ expectations and benefits gained with respect to the teacher education
programme’s applicability in the teaching practice
Participants’ expectations regarding the applicability of the teacher education
programme in their teaching practice, as well as the respective benefits, were
evaluated with three closed-type questions. In addition, participants were asked to
further elaborate on their answers. Data from these three questions showed that most
educators (84.6%) have gained a better understanding of their role as educators and its
limits, in accordance with their initial expectations from the programme. Moreover, a
similar number of participants reported that, having completed the teacher education

Table 2. Reasons for participants’ satisfaction and/or disappointment with the teacher
education programme.
Reasons for satisfaction (N = 50) CR f %
Acquisition of new knowledge and experiences 0.80 26 52.0
Context – methodological approach of the seminars 0.82 15 30.4
Enhancement of self-awareness 0.83 18 36.0
Reasons for disappointment (N = 11)
Short duration of the programme 1.00 7 63.6
Lack of novel experiences 1.00 3 36.4
68 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

Table 3. Teachers’ expectations and benefits of the teacher education programme with respect
to applicability in teaching practice.
Initial assessment Final assessment
Expectations /benefits (N = 60) (N = 52)
I will become/I became aware of my limits as teacher 48 80% 44 84.6%
I will be able/I am able to approach the pupils 50 86.2% 44 84.6%
I will be able/I am able to meet the needs of pupils 49 83.1% 40 76.9%

programme, they felt able to approach their pupils in a more direct way. However, a
larger number of teachers had initially expressed such an expectation. Quite similar
were the findings regarding the educators’ ability to meet their pupils’ needs. Most
participants (76.9%) reported that they felt more able to come up to their pupils’
needs, although a greater number had initially expressed such an expectation
(Table 3).
Educators further elaborated on their reports of the skills they had acquired during
the seminars by answering two open questions. More specifically, in answering to the
open question ‘I can approach my pupils in a more direct way, because…’, teachers
referred to the acquisition of new skills, the acquisition of knowledge and experiences
as well as to the enhancement of their self-awareness. Most of the teachers who
referred to the acquisition of new communication skills felt they could apply them in
order to approach their pupils (14 teachers): ‘I can truly communicate without trying
to elicit the answer I would expect to get’.
Teachers also mentioned the learning of skills useful in dealing with behaviour
problems that their pupils may present: ‘By being understanding and tolerant I will
cope with pupils’ problems in a better way’.
A more limited number of teachers (Table 4) felt that they could approach their
pupils in a better way because of the new knowledge and the experiences they had
gained during the programme: ‘I was more sensitised to the acceptance of the different
qualities that every person possesses’.
Teachers considered the enhancement of self-awareness as another factor contrib-
uting to the pupils’ better approach: ‘I realised I have some good communication
qualities and I can therefore approach whoever I meet without hesitation’ (also see
Table 4).

Table 4. Participants’ explanations concerning the enhancement of their ability to approach

pupils in a more direct way and to meet the needs of their pupils.
Enhancement of teachers’ ability to approach pupils (N = 42) CR f %
Acquisition of new communication skills 0.82 21 50.0
Enhancement of self-awareness 0.80 8 19.0
Acquisition of new knowledge and experience 0.82 13 31.0
Enhancement of teachers’ ability to meet the needs of pupils (N = 36)
Acquisition of new knowledge and skills 0.95 20 55.5
More effective approach and understanding of pupils 0.80 9 25.0
Enhancement of self-awareness 0.80 9 25.0
 European Journal of Teacher Education 69

Qualitative content analysis of the answers to the open question ‘I feel that I can
meet the needs of the pupils more efficiently, because…’ provided similar results.
Teachers mainly referred to the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, to the more
effective approach and understanding of their pupils as well as to the enhancement of
their self-awareness.
Concerning the first topic, the majority of the teachers (11) thought that the acqui-
sition of new knowledge and skills of communication could enhance their competence
in meeting the pupils’ needs: ‘I gained experiences, ways in which I can communicate
with my pupils better’.
In addition, eight teachers emphasised the applicability of the newly acquired
knowledge concerning communication: ‘I learned to listen to the others without
attributing any characteristics to them before actually hearing them’.
Teachers also noted that the knowledge and the communication skills they had
acquired would be useful to them when dealing with the pupils’ problems: ‘I will
attach more importance to the good communication and to counselling hereafter,
which, I think, will help to the resolution of the problems’.
On the other hand, teachers commented on the enhancement of their ability to
understand and approach their pupils more effectively: ‘It [the teacher education
programme] provided me with the chance to at least try get in touch with their [the
pupils’] problems’.
The enhancement of self-awareness fostered a few teachers’ feelings of being able
to address the pupils’ needs: ‘I think I know what I need to modify in my own
behaviour/attitude in order to achieve “changes”’ (also see Table 4).
To summarise the educators’ reports concerning the skills learned during the
teacher education programme, their answers focused on two central points: (i) their
ability to apply new ways of communicating in trying to approach and understand
their pupils – which is related to the development of new coping skills; and (ii) the
enhancement of their self-awareness as educators, which is related to the empower-
ment of their role.

Second implementation phase of the teacher education programme

Data on the assessment of the first teacher education programme provided sufficient
feedback regarding the programme’s efficacy and applicability. For this reason, during
the second implementation phase of the project for the integration of repatriated and
immigrant pupils, the teacher education programme was repeated before implementing
the SEL programme. In this phase, the teacher education programme was assessed with
the same questionnaire, but only after the programme’s completion. Moreover, educa-
tors willing to continue their collaboration with us and to apply the SEL programme
in their school classes were asked to assess their own competence as they implemented
it. All these teachers had already taken part in the teacher education programme.

Participants
In total, 41 teachers took part in the teacher education programme. However, 34 of
them (29 women and five men) completed the questionnaire. It should be noted that
these teachers had not participated in the first implementation of the teacher education
programme. Twenty-eight teachers (82.4%) were employed in primary education
70 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

(nine teachers were employed in infant school and 19 in elementary school) while the
rest were employed in high school. Most of the participants had more than 11 years of
teaching experience. More specifically, nine teachers (26.5%) had 11 to 20 years of
teaching experience and 10 teachers (29.4%) had over 20 years of teaching
experience. Seven teachers (20.6%) had four to 10 years and two teachers (5.9%) had
one to three years of teaching practice whereas the rest of the participants were
employed in education for less than a year.

Results
Benefits gained by the participants of the teacher education programme
According to the results of the closed questions, 67.6% of the participants reported
that they had acquired more knowledge that could be of use in their work. Also, 55.9%
of them reported that they have had more experiences that they could utilise, while
only a small number of participants (11.8%) responded that the knowledge and
experiences they got during the seminars could not be applied in their work (Table 5).

Participants’ satisfaction with the teacher education programme and/or

disappointment with it
Qualitative content analysis of the teachers’ answers to the open question ‘In general,
regarding the teacher education programme, I feel satisfied, because…’ revealed that
student teachers mainly attributed their satisfaction with the teacher education
programme to the acquisition of new knowledge and experiences, the development of
self-awareness and the context of the teacher education programme.
Most of the teachers who referred to the acquisition of new knowledge and
experiences simply mentioned the importance of these skills in communicating with
their pupils (15 teachers): ‘I learned more about the importance of the way in which
we communicate with the pupils’.
Moreover, eight teachers underlined the applicability of this knowledge and
experience in the school setting: ‘I acquired some knowledge that I can effectively use
in the classroom’.
Teachers reported their satisfaction with the context of the teacher education
programme as well. They stressed the advantageous programme’s methodology and
its experiential approach to learning: ‘The appropriate experiential exercises were
selected, which helped me understand theory through practice’.
Teachers attributed their satisfaction with the teacher education programme to the
fact that it helped them to develop their self-awareness and thus empowered their role

Table 5. Benefits from the teacher education programme (N = 34).

Benefits f %
Acquisition of knowledge which can be used in teaching practice 23 67.6
Acquisition of experiences which can be used in teaching practice 19 55.9
Acquisition of knowledge which cannot be used 4 11.8
Acquisition of experiences which cannot be used 4 11.8
The teacher education programme was not beneficial to the participant – –
 European Journal of Teacher Education 71

Table 6. Reasons for participants’ satisfaction and/or disappointment with the teacher
education programme.
Reasons for satisfaction (N = 30) CR f %
Acquisition of new knowledge and experiences 0.81 22 73.0
Context – methodological approach of the seminars 0.77 7 23.3
Enhancement of self-awareness 0.72 7 23.3

Reasons for disappointment (N=12)

Short duration 1.00 6 50.0
Lack of novel experiences 0.90 3 25.0
Other reason 1.00 3 25.0

as educators. ‘The programme provided me with the chance to think about myself as
a teacher and to feel that other people have the same problems or needs regarding
communication as I do’.
A relatively small number of participants reported their disappointment with the
teacher education programme. For some of them, this was due to the programme’s
short duration: ‘I would rather the programme lasted more so that I could examine
specific cases which puzzle me in my work more closely’.
Even fewer teachers mentioned that the programme provided them with no new
experiences: ‘I expected a more experiential approach during the experiential
exercises’ (see Table 6).

Benefits of the teacher education programme with respect to its applicability in the
teaching practice
Regarding the advantages that the programme offered to the participants in their
teaching practice, data from the respective closed questions showed that almost all
educators (94.1%) have had a better understanding of their role and its limits. They
also presumed that they have become able to approach their pupils in a more direct
way. Moreover, 73.5% of them reported that they could meet the needs of their pupils
more efficiently (Table 7).

Table 7. Benefits of the teacher education programme with respect to applicability to the
teaching practice.
Benefits f %
I became aware of my limits as teacher 32 94.1
I feel that I am now able to approach my pupils in a more direct way, because… 32 94.1
Acquisition of new communication skills (CR: 0.88) 21 70.0
Enhancement of self-awareness (CR: 0.65) 6 20.0
Acquisition of new knowledge and experience (CR:0.68) 7 23.3
I feel that I can meet the needs of my pupils more efficiently, because… 25 73.5
Acquisition of new knowledge and skills (CR: 0.95) 10 45.0
More effective approach and understanding of pupils (CR: 0.80) 6 27.3
Enhancement of self-awareness (CR: 0.80) 7 31.8
72 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

Qualitative content analysis of the answers to the respective open questions

revealed that most student teachers attributed the enhancement of their ability to
approach their pupils more directly to the acquisition of new communication skills. A
fair number of them (10) referred to the acquisition of communication skills in
general: ‘I now know some better and more effective ways of communicating’.
Six teachers laid emphasis on the fact that they acquired listening skills, which
they could apply in their work: ‘I try to develop the elements involved in active
listening’.
Teachers also referred to the development of empathic understanding on their part:
‘I put myself in their position more frequently’.
Finally, two teachers mentioned that the communication skills they had acquired
could help them to deal with pupils’ problems: ‘I learned new coping skills’.
A small number of participants (Table 7) regarded the acquisition of new
knowledge and experiences as another factor which enabled them to approach their
pupils more directly: ‘I have more knowledge concerning the methods of approaching
the pupils’.
Finally, according to a number of teachers, the enhancement of their self-
awareness made them feel they could approach their pupils in a more effective way:
‘I can be a good listener and develop a trusting relationship with my pupils’.
With regard to the participants who reported feeling more effective in addressing
their pupils’ needs, a fair number of them attributed this change to the acquisition of
new knowledge and skills. Six teachers referred to the importance of the newly
acquired knowledge: ‘Apart from learning, pupils need support in other domains as
well and I did not have the necessary knowledge to support them’.
Four teachers noted the applicability of the knowledge and communication skills
they had acquired: ‘I can communicate and discuss with the pupils’.
Teachers thought that they could address their pupils’ needs because the teacher
education programme enabled them to gain a better understanding of them: ‘I can
better understand the position in the classroom in which they [the pupils] are as well
as their relationships with their classmates’.
Teachers referred once again to the impact that the enhancement of their self-
awareness had in their ability to meet the needs of their pupils: ‘I feel “open” to under-
stand and accepting others without stereotypes’ (Table 7).
To sum up, most educators who took part in the second implementation phase of
the teacher education programme reported that they had gained new knowledge and
experiences concerning communication and counselling, which they felt able to apply
in their work – especially in approaching their pupils and in dealing with problems in
the classroom. Furthermore, they considered that their participation in the programme
enabled them to develop their awareness of their abilities and limits as educators.
After the completion of the teacher education programme, 12 student teachers
agreed to implement in their classrooms the activities of the SEL programme for a
two-month period. Although 60 activities were initially planned to be implemented,
only 45 of them were finally applied due to the teachers’ tight schedule and the limited
available time. At the end of each activity, teachers were asked to fill a short question-
naire with closed questions regarding their competence to successfully apply the
scheduled activities and to use the acquired counselling skills. Besides, in the context
of the SEL programme’s final evaluation, semi-structured interviews were conducted
with the student teachers who implemented the SEL activities. Using a qualitative
 European Journal of Teacher Education 73

analysis of the interviews’ data (Charmaz 2008; Smith 1995), two core categories
concerning the implementation of the SEL activities and the evaluation of the whole
programme were created, among others. Subsequently, three subcategories relevant to
the issues discussed in the present study were specified by means of axial coding. Two
subcategories included in the core category ‘implementation of the SEL activities’
pertained to the teachers ease of applying the SEL activities and to the difficulties they
encountered during the implementation of the activities while the third subcategory
(which was part of the second core category) referred to the teachers’ experience from
participating in the whole programme. The intercoder reliability indexes for these
subcategories were 0.71, 0.95 and 1 respectively.
Teachers’ answers to the short questionnaire revealed that most of them had no
difficulty in arousing children’s interest in the activities and in utilising the qualities
which characterise a non-directive attitude. However, a considerable number of teach-
ers reported that they had difficulties in coordinating the pupils’ groups and in keeping
pupils’ interest in the activities vivid. Nevertheless, these results must be interpreted
with caution given that in some cases teachers did not complete the questionnaire at
the end of the activities (Table 8).
Analysis of the interviews’ data revealed similar findings. Most student teachers
reported that the implementation of the SEL activities did not pose any particular
difficulties to them. However, it is noteworthy that the teachers attributed their ease of
implementing the activities to reasons other than the knowledge and the experience
they gained during the teacher education programme:

In general, I had no difficulties in applying the SEL activities. (Sam P, primary school
teacher3)

It was not difficult [to carry out the activities] because we often have discussions with
the students and we apply activities in the classroom. (James A, high school teacher)

It was not at all difficult since I always try to do other things besides teaching because
I believe they are of the same importance. (Elisabeth A, primary school teacher)

The instructions on how to implement the activities were very clear and thus there was
no problem in organising the activities. (Kathy M, primary school teacher)

On the other hand, teachers commented on their difficulties in coordinating the

pupils’ groups. Then again, some of them ascribed these difficulties to factors other
than their own abilities, such as the pupils’ lack of cooperation or communication
skills. None of the teachers referred to the use of the counselling skills elaborated

Table 8. Teachers’ views considering their competence to implement SEL activities (N = 45).
Easy Difficult Missing
Teachers’ skills f (%) f (%) f (%)
Managing pupils’ groups 22 (48.9) 14 (31.1) 9 (20)
Establishing conditions which characterise 34 (75.6) 2 (4.4) 9 (20)
non-directive attitude
Arousing pupils’ interest 30 (66.7) 7 (15.5) 8 (17.8)
Keeping pupils’ interest vivid 17 (37.8) 18 (40) 10 (22.2)
74 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

during the teacher education programme. Some characteristic excerpts are the
following:

I had considerable difficulties in maintaining the balance within the groups. (Karen A,
primary school teacher)

At the beginning it was a bit difficult for me to organise the first activity and to imple-
ment it in the classroom. Despite the fact that there were specific instructions, it was
rather difficult to coordinate the pupils’ groups. (Elsa P, high school teacher)

There have been difficulties because children don’t know much about working in a group
and it takes some time to familiarise themselves with that. (Fay K, high school teacher).

It was particularly difficult to make them work in groups… Each one of them has learned
to work alone and to do whatever he/she wants. (Jeff K, high school teacher).

There was only a difficulty in carrying out a discussion at the end [of the activity] mainly
because the children have not learned to discuss and to listen. (Kathy M)

Only a few teachers made a direct reference to the teacher education programme
when evaluating the whole programme. It is worth mentioning though that they under-
lined the short duration of the programme as a negative characteristic. Conversely,
they made positive comments about the fact that the teacher education programme
was followed by an intervention phase:

The teacher education programme as well as the activities were very helpful but I think
that running it only once is not enough. (Sam P)

I think that the teacher education programme was very brief and it rather constituted an
introduction. Seminars should delve deeply into these matters. (Kathy M)

I think that the most important part [of the whole programme] was the intervention
because it constituted the continuation of the seminars. Seminars alone do not help if
there is no intervention. (Karen A)

It was important that apart from the teacher education programme there was an application
in practice. (Elisabeth A)

Discussion
The results of the present study indicate that during the first phase of the study the
teacher education programme came up to the participants’ expectations. Data analysis
of the teachers’ reports regarding the assessment of the teacher education programme
in its both implementation phases showed that most teachers acquired knowledge and
experiences concerning communication and counselling, which they felt they could
apply in their practice. More specifically, teachers reported feeling able to approach
their pupils in a more direct way and communicate better with them.
These findings imply that the teacher education programme contributed to the
development of participants’ empathic understanding and unconditional positive
regard. The fact that the majority of teachers reported feeling more competent to
address their pupils’ needs supports this hypothesis. Empathic understanding
 European Journal of Teacher Education 75

constitutes a factor which may predict teachers’ behaviour and relates to positive
outcomes in terms of pupils’ self-concept, behaviour and school achievement (Aspy
and Roebuck 1974, as cited in Rogers and Freiberg 1994, 258). Teachers who exhibit
high levels of empathy are more responsive to pupils’ feelings and have more positive
self-concept (Aspy and Roebuck 1975, as cited in Rogers and Freiberg 1994, 255;
Rogers 1980). Furthermore, research evidence suggests that empathic disposition
helps teachers establish a secure environment, which can facilitate the adaptation of
culturally diverse pupils to school. Teachers themselves consider empathy and respect
for each child as necessary attributes in order to meet the needs of these pupils
(Humphrey et al. 2006; McAllister and Irvine 2002).
A considerable number of teachers reported that the teacher education programme
conduced to the development of their self-awareness. They noted that it helped them
perceive their abilities and their difficulties in their communication with the pupils and
to become aware of their limitations as teachers and as persons. This made many of
them feel they could address the needs of their pupils more effectively. Self-awareness
is considered as an important dimension of individuals’ personal and professional
identity (Burnett, Hammel, and Long 2004) and constitutes an essential factor of the
teacher’s efficacy in interpersonal communication at school (Lang 1999). The present
study’s data are in line with other relevant studies which revealed an enhancement of
self-awareness in early childhood education teachers who participated in a training
programme in counselling skills (Malikiosi-Loizou 2001) as well as in senior students
attending an undergraduate counselling programme (McAuliffe 2002).
Experiential learning was considered as an important advantage of the teacher
education programme by teachers who took part in it. Evidence shows that experien-
tial learning activities help trainees understand the impact of self in counselling
relationships (Burnett, Hammel, and Long 2004). Therefore, we assume that the expe-
riential ways of learning adopted during the present study’s seminars contributed to
the development of the student teachers’ self-awareness. As was demonstrated in
McAuliffe’s study, counselling students reported that experiential activities, role-
playing and discussions enhanced their ability to reflect on their own behaviour and
experiences.
Regarding the impact of the teacher education programme to the participants’
ability to apply the SEL programme’s activities, teachers’ answers to the short ques-
tionnaire at the end of each activity revealed that they did not encounter any particular
difficulties in arousing the children’s interest and in establishing the conditions which
characterise a non-directive relationship. Nevertheless, it seems that teachers did not
find it similarly easy to exhibit those skills, which could help in keeping the pupils’
interest in activities vivid and to coordinate the pupils’ groups. Similar findings were
provided by the analysis of the interviews’ data. Teachers reported that it was not
difficult for them to organise and implement the SEL activities. Moreover, some of
them ascribed their ease of carrying out the activities to the fact that they were used
to applying activities and having discussions in their classrooms. Conversely, the
teachers referred to the difficulties they had in coordinating the pupils’ groups, which
they attributed to the children’s lack of skills that are involved in group work. These
teachers’ reports may be indicative of a rather defensive attitude on their part. Perhaps
the teachers felt that their competence to manage the pupils’ groups and successfully
implement the SEL activities could be questioned and therefore they stressed the
children’s difficulties in cooperating with each other. The fact that the teachers did not
76 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

make any reference to the application of the skills they had learned (or had not
learned) during the teacher education programme could support this explanation.
Conditions such as empathy and unconditional positive regard may motivate
pupils to take part in SEL activities given that they convey to children the teacher’s
understanding of their thoughts and feelings. Therefore, they may play an important
role in arousing the children’s interest. On the other hand, keeping the children’s inter-
est vivid is related to group management since it allows the activities and the follow-
ing discussions to be evenly carried out. Encouragement and appropriate questioning
can be helpful at this point. Hargie (1988) demonstrated that training in the use of
open questions through adequate preparation and practical sessions enables teachers
to adopt a non-directive attitude, which allows children to express themselves.
Besides, when teachers act as the coordinators of pupils’ groups, they must be in a
position to lead the discussion, to highlight the elements that are common in pupils’
experiences and to take advantage of the opportunities that may arise during the activ-
ities in order to help pupils elaborate on their feelings and their thoughts (Triliva and
Chiementi 2000). These teacher’s attributes facilitate the maintenance of children’s
participation and interest. From this point of view, managing pupils’ groups
presupposes the teacher’s ability to use counselling skills such as encouragement,
appropriate questioning, summarising and providing feedback. With the exception of
encouragement, the counselling skills mentioned above were not involved in the
teacher education programme. This may explain the difficulties teachers had in
managing pupils’ groups during the SEL activities.
Results of this study indicating teachers’ difficulties in coordinating pupils’ groups
are consistent with findings of other studies. Luk-Fong (2005) found that teachers had
difficulties in the classroom management during the discussion which followed the
implementation of activities aiming to enhance pupils’ cognitive and communication
skills. Furthermore, Malikiosi-Loizou (2001) investigated the competence of early
childhood education teachers who received 120 hours training in basic communication
skills to interact more effectively with their pupils. It was found that despite the fact
that teachers developed empathic understanding, they were not in a position to suffi-
ciently use counselling skills in practice. Therefore it is suggested that the
development and the adequate use of these skills requires a long-term training which
should provide the opportunity for sufficient practice.
Rogers (1980) argued that even 15 hours training is sufficient for improving teach-
ers’ qualities which facilitate learning and communication, on the condition that the
training is intensive and carefully planned and that it involves both cognitive and
experiential learning. Besides, the trainer himself must exhibit high levels of empathy,
congruence and unconditional positive regard. Aspy and Roebuck (1974, as cited in
Rogers and Freiberg 1994, 258) and Hargie (1988) pointed out that an important
factor for establishing the necessary conditions for effective communication is to
provide feedback to the student teachers who try to apply the knowledge and behav-
ioural styles learned during training. During the implementation of the SEL
programme, teachers who participated in the present study had regular meetings with
two school psychologists. During these supervision meetings, teachers reported on
their experience from the implementation of the activities and described the way the
pupils responded as well as the difficulties that the teachers themselves encountered
while applying the activities. The school psychologists provided teachers with feed-
back and encouraged them to practice the skills with which they had been presented
 European Journal of Teacher Education 77

during the teacher education programme. However, the provision of feedback was not
part of the content of the teacher education programme. It rather constituted a means
to promote successful implementation of activities in the classroom. Furthermore, the
difficulties encountered by the teachers in group management may be attributed to the
lack of practice in classroom environment as well as to the short duration of the
teacher education programme and the limited number of counselling skills it included.
The importance of these matters was noted by a few teachers who pointed out the need
for implementing teacher education programmes of longer duration and applying the
learned skills in practice.
A limitation of the study is that, at the final evaluation of the SEL programme,
teachers did not make any comments regarding how much use of the newly learned
skills they made during the application of the SEL activities in their class. On the other
hand, we must take into account the fact that during the interviews teachers were
called on to evaluate the whole programme, including the seminars and the SEL
programme. Therefore it is possible that they appraised their performance in the
implementation of the SEL activities more, given that this was the part of the
programme during which they were more actively involved. A further investigation
more focused on the teachers’ ability to put the newly acquired knowledge and
counselling skills into use, by means of semi-structured interviews or observations in
the classroom, could clarify this issue.
Another limitation of the present study is that the assessment of the teacher
education programme was based on participants’ self-reports. Although self-reports
have been used for the assessment of training programmes in other relevant studies
(Luk-Fong 2005; McAllister and Irvine 2002; McAuliffe 2002), the use of additional
assessment methods, such as video tape recording of teacher–pupil interactions
(Malikiosi-Loizou 2001) during the implementation of the SEL programme could be
more illuminating and lead to more safe conclusions.
The present study aimed to explore student teachers’ views regarding first, the
efficacy and the applicability of a brief teacher education programme in certain
counselling skills; and second, its impact on their competence to adequately apply a
SEL intervention programme in their classrooms. Despite the limitations mentioned
above we consider that the results of this study highlight the need for applying in-
service training in counselling skills for teachers. They also demonstrate that develop-
ing counselling skills may be particularly beneficial to teachers in terms of their ability
to provide support and communicate with their pupils and to implement effective
interventions.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the project coordinators Panayotis Xochellis, professor emer-
itus, Zoi Papanaoum, professor in school pedagogics and continuing education and Anastasia
Kesidou, lecturer in comparative education and intercultural education, Department of Educa-
tion, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, for their support and trust.

Notes
1. These projects have been commissioned by the National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens and the Center of Intercultural Education under the auspices of the Ministry of
Education.
78 M. Doikou and K. Diamandidou

2. This project has been commissioned by the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and the
Center of Intercultural Education under the auspices of the Ministry of Education.
3. The teachers’ names are fictitious.

Notes on contributors
Maro Doikou, PhD, is assistant professor in the Department of Education, School of Philosophy
and Education of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Her research interests
include social and emotional aspects of learning disabilities, classroom-based psychosocial
interventions to enhance social inclusion of pupils with special educational needs and pupils
from culturally diverse backgrounds and the role of the teacher in the provision of social
support to pupils with learning difficulties. She has published a book and several articles,
mainly in the field of learning disabilities.

Konstantina Diamandidou, PhD, is a psychologist and psychotherapist. Her research interest

has focused on the effectiveness of group and individual psychotherapy and counselling. She
also has a private practice specialising in the person centred therapy and cognitive behaviour
therapy.

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