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Abstract: The Malay Basin has a very high present-day surface heat flow, with an estimated heat flow
anomaly of about 33-42 mW m-2• The heat flow anomaly is interpreted as the result of thinning of the
lithosphere during basin formation. The basin is relatively young age (about 35 Ma), which implies that
the thermal anomaly due to lithospheric thinning has not dissipated completely; the Basin is still
undergoing thermal subsidence. Data from over 60 wells were used in the analysis of subsidence and
thermal histories to gain a better understanding of its tectonic evolution. A model of lithospheric
stretching was used, whereby rifting occurred over a 10 Ma year period starting 35 Ma ago. The
subsidence histories from well data gave stretching factor (13) estimates ranging from about 1.2 on the
basin flanks to about 4 in the centre. The basin flanks were uplifted during the initial rifting, causing
subsidence to be delayed for about 10 Ma. Flank uplift was probably the result of non-uniform stretching
of the lithosphere and horizontal heat loss through the sides of the basin as the lithosphere was being
stretched. Heat flows calculated using the 13 estimates agree with those derived from well test data and,
therefore, supports the stretching model. These results are comparable with those derived from maturity
mode~g using available vitrinite maturity data.
A'
A
0 20 40 60 SO 100 120 140 160 lS0krn
0
~
S 4
S
location in Fig. 4
Figure 2. Generalised cross-section across the Basin shows the characteristic rift-and-sag stratal geometry.
Peninsular
Malaysia
Geothermal Gradient
°C/km
December 1997
98 MAZLAN B. HJ. MADON
temperatures or BHTs) or measurements of
S'N F
==~1;.;03;.;'E;;..._~1;;.;04::;'E~=~lO;;,;;S;.;'E;;...._~106'E
S'N formation-fluid temperatures during repeat
formation tests (RFTs), drill-stem tests (DSTs) and
WELL LOCATION production tests (PTs). Subsurface temperatures
measured during DSTs and PTs are generally
7'N
considered to be the most reliable and are used
• without further correction. Temperatures obtained
• • by other methods need to be corrected to the true
• • formation temperatures, using various correction
6'N
• •• 6'N
techniques (e.g. Waples and Mahadir Ramly, 1994).
\ The corrected subsurface temperatures are then
used to calculate the geothermal gradients (dT /
S'N PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
S'N dz), which is related to heat flow, Q, by
Q = k dT
10.~'F. 104'F. 10S'E I06'E dz
where k is the thermal conductivity of the sediment.
Figure 4. Map of Malay Basin showing the location of Formation temperatures and sediment thermal
wells used in subsidence analysis. Cross-section AN conductivities in the Malay Basin have been
shown in Fig. 2.
ASIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN
INOIAN OCEAN
Figure 5. Extrusion tectonics model for Southeast Asia (from Tapponnieret al., 1982). The Malay Basin (MB) is located
along a major strike-slip fauItthatwas reactivated by the India-Asia collision during early Tertiary times. Stippled areas
represent marginal seas. SCS - South China Sea, AS - Andaman Sea, SS - SuIu Sea, MS - Makassar Strait.
~E ~tI anomaly
backgcound heat
I flow
, 67 · lcc~stal~.e~t;~
~ 33 .. ......... .... ........ .................................. ........ .. ...... ..
CO ,
Q)
.c
equilibrium heat flow
o
Figure 6. Schematic illustration of various components of heat flow in
sedimentary basins.
(A) (B) .
Loaded Unloaded
porosity
"Backstripped" 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
a
S*
- Anding&nt. 1
-5o«>ngSG.5.1
......... DuyungSH.2. 1
Dd.h· 1
- - - - Core.uta
Figure 7. Backstripping technique (A) involves removing the loading effect of a sediment pile ofthickness S * and
calculating the unloaded depth of basement (tectonic subsidence), ST' Symbols explained in the text. (B~ Porosity
vs depth curve used in the decompaction equation, based on soniclog data from southern Malay Basin wells. Sonic·
log porosity values obtained by empirical method (Issler, 1992) assuming L1tma =59J.ls/ft, x=2.095.
Table 1. Average geothermal gradients of Southeast Asian Tertiary basins, from Hutchison
(1989, p. 64). The data is used to estimate the regional average background heat flow (see text).
Table 2. Modelling parameters used in subsidencelheat flow modelling (from Cochran, 1983).
December 1997
lO3°E lO4°E lOSoE lO6°E
SON SON
MaR.P.
40 35 30 25 ·20 15 10 5 0
0.0 .....
~
STRETCHING FACTOR
0
FROM WELL DATA 1.0 Do
! J1 ,..,
7°N 7°N j
. § 2.0 IJ = I.4S
L
.. :J
3.0
Well X
4.0 s::
~
0
~
p:J
I
MaR.P. ~
6°N 6°N 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
s::
J>
C
0.0 0
z
1.0
!
..,.
§ 2.0
]
:J
OIl
3.0
SON PENINSULAR SON WellY
MALAYSIA 4.0
Figure 8. Results of backstripping well data and modelling subsidence based on stretching model. Map shows b factors in the basin. Note the delay of subsidence shown
in wells on the basin flanks.
ANALYSIS OF TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE AND HEAT FLOW IN THE MALAY BASIN (OFFSHORE PENINSULAR MALAYSIA) 103
flow predicted by the ~ values are compared with VITRINITE REFLECTANCE AND
heat flow anomaly derived from well data, including TEMPERATURE HISTORY
those based on DSTIPT data. Figure 9 shows a
series of theoretical heat flow curves for various Vitrinite reflectance (Ro) as a thermal maturity
values of ~ between 1.2 and 4, as indicated by the indicator in sediments can be used to determine
subsidence analysis results. The figure shows that paleotemperature and heat flow histories of basins.
heat flow anomaly resulting from lithospheric A Ro-vs-depth profile is forward modelled by using
stretching decreases exponentially with time since the burial history . (geohistory) derived from
the end of stretching (10 Ma) but, for young basins backstripping and an assumed geothermal gradient
« 50 Ma), the anomaly is still significant. For as input. The calculated profile is then compared
example, the Malay Basin, whose age is about 35 with measured profile to see if the assumed
Ma, has a present-day heat flow of 35-80 mW/m 2 geothermal gradient is correct. This forward
including the crustal contribution of 33 m W m-2 . modelling approach is done iteratively by changing
Figure 10 compares the predicted and observed the temperature gradient until a match between
heat flow at some of the well locations, based on ~ the calculated and the observed Ro is obtained. In
derived from backstripped subsidence. The observed this study, I have used the kinetics-based EasY%Ro
and predicted heat flows show a reasonable algorithm of Sweeney and Burnham (1990).
correlation. Wells at the deeper central parts of the Waples et al. (1994) investigated the possible
Basin show predicted heat flows that are higher suppression of vitrinite reflectance in the Malay
than the observed. The presence of sediment may Basin using the Fluorescence Alteration of Multiple
have reduced the surface heat flow significantly, Macerals (FAMM) technique (Wilkins et al., 1992).
especially in the centre of the Basin; the sediment This technique measures the change in the peak
acts as insulator that prevents heat from escaping fluorescence intensity of vitrinite when subjected
through the surface. Some studies (e.g. de to excitation by a constant-intensity light source.
Bremaecker, 1983; Lucazeau and Le Douaran, 1985) F AMM measurements are calibrated against a
have shown that, for a moderately high standard telocollinite sample for conversion of the
sedimentation rate (3.5 cm Ma-1 in the Malay fluorescence alteration ratio to the equivalent
Basin), surface heat flow may be reduced by as vitrinite reflectance, herein called Re. Waples et al.
much as 20-30% as a result of sediment blanketing. (1994) compared the FAMM results with
140
140
---E
N 120 0
....... 0
0
~ 0
120 E 100
'-' 0
---
N ~
0
0
..e 100 c;::
....cd 80 0
00
~ Q) 0016 0
E Malay Basin ..c: 0 0
'-' 80 '"0
~ Q)
.....
0 u 60
c;::
....cd 60 .:a
...
Q) ~'
e,
Q)
..c: c.. ~o
<,;
40
40 1.2
20 0 40 60 80 100 120 140
50 100 150 200
time since rifting (Ma) observed heat flow (m W 1m2)
Figure 9. Theoretical heat flow history (ID model, uniform Figure 10. Plot of predicted vs observed heat flow data For
stretching) predicted by various /3 values for stretching duration reference, perfect correlation is represented by the diagonal line
of 10 Ma. Shown also is observed range of heat flow (35--80 mW (slope = 1). Predicted heat flow based on lithospheric stretching
m-2) in the Malay Basin (age about 35-40 Ma), excluding crustal model using the estimated stretching factors, while observed heat
heat flow of 33 mW m-2 • flows are based on temperature data in the boreholes.
December 1997
104 MAZlAN B. HJ. MADON
conventional Ro measurements and found conductivities of water and sediment grains,
significant suppression of vitrinite reflectance, respectively (Table 2). Porosity is assumed to vary .
particularly in the southwest and north-central exponentially with depth while lateral changes off
parts of the Malay Basin (Fig. 11). Hence, in this and, hence, of ks are ignored. The average
study the FAMM data of Waples et al. (1994) was conductivity of the sediment column at any time, t,
used. is obtained by
Figures 12 and 13 show the results of modelling kave(t) = 0.5[ks(zt) + ks(O)]
the F AMM data from five wells. All the wells show where Zt is the thickness of sediment at time t and
decreasing temperature gradients with time since ks(O) is the conductivity of unconsolidated surface
rifting started from about 50-55°C km-l to 40- sediment (1.3 W m-lK-l).
50°C km-l. Assuming an average sediment The results (Fig. 14) show relatively good
conductivity of 1.9 W m-l K-l, these temperature agreement between the modelled heat flows and
gradients give surface heat flow values of 75-90 the heat flows derived from Ro data. All wells,
mW m-2, which agree rather well with the observed except Larut-1, show initially-increasing heat flow
heat flow (Fig. 10). with time since stretching, and decreasing gradually
The temperature gradients can also be used to from about 22 to 15 Ma ago. The observed heat
calculate the heat flow history of the Basin. Besides flow seems to decrease more rapidly after about 18
temperature gradient, heat flow variation is also a Ma, probably because of the increasing blanketing
function of sediment thermal conductivity, ks' which effect of sediment during the later part of the basin
is assumed to vary linearly with porosity, f, evolution.
according to the relationship (Watts and Thome,
1984): DISCUSSION
ks(z)= ifJ kw + (1 - ifJ)kg
where z is depth and kw and kg are the thermal The results of this analysis indicate that the
thermal and subsidence histories of the Malay Basin
can be explained in general by the lithospheric
stretching model. In the model, we have made
%Ro
simplifying assumptions about, for example, the
0°·2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 initial crustal thickness before stretching, and other
relevant parameters. The stretching of the
lithosphere was also assumed to have been uniform,
o VRo i.e. strain is distributed equally throughout the
0 whole lithosphere. There are many variants of the
0
0
• FAMM McKenzie model that address these issues (e.g.
0
0 0 Royden and Keen, 1980; White and McKenzie,
1 00 0 1988). More complex models, however, are
0
0
cP • meaningless when there are many other
.-
0
000 uncertainties in the model such as age of
o
0
0 • sedimentary horizons, sediment thermal
.e
'-"
0 00
00
0
0
~
......
~ MaB.P.
'-l ~
40 30 20 10 o
0.0 (B) Maturity ~
en
o
AlB %Ro "rrl
0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 §z
]' 1.0 0.0 o
(J)
c
.:s t.s
H
OJ
(J)
is
Q.. 0.5 m
z
~ 2.0 K
(')
m
~
2.5 SOTONG-S L 1.0 o
::x:
m
M
~
3.0 1.5 "
~
z
2.0 :i!
(C) Temperature Gradient ] m
s:::
Ma B.P.
2.5 ~
~
40 30 20 10 o 3.0 z
0-
~
60 ""
(J)
0.5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to PRSS for permission to publish
1.0
this paper.
1.5
!-5 2.0
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(A)
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•
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~- .............
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~
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108 MAZLAN B. HJ. MADaN
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---------.~.-~~.-.--------
Manuscript received 23 July 1997