Managerial Mathematics:

QQM1023

Perhaps you have heard about speed limit. What does the word “limit”
means to you??

Or maybe you have been in a parking-lot situation in which you must

“inch up” to the car in front, but yet you do not want to bump or touch
it. This notation of getting closer and closer to something, but yet not
touching it, is very important in mathematics and is involved in the
concept of limits.

Basically, we will let a variable “inch up” to a particular value and

examine the effect it has on the values of a function.

5.1 DEFINITION OF LIMITS

 Limits is based on the idea “getting closer to something” or
“approaching something but yet not touching it”.
 The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is the number L, written
lim f ( x)  L
x c

provided that f(x) is arbitrarily close to L for all x sufficiently close

to, but not equal to, c.

 We emphasize that, when finding a limit, we are concerned not

with what happens to f(x) when x equals c, but only with what
happens to f(x) when x is close to c.
 Moreover, a limit must be independent of the way in which x
approaches c. That is, the limit must be the same whether x

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approaches c from the left or from the right(for x < c or x >

c, respectively).
 For example:

Let say; ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, the limit for this function as x is

approaching the value of 1 is denoted by:

lim f  x   lim 2 x  1
x 1 x 1

 In this case, x can approach 1 from both side:

i)

Left : denoted by x  2 , means x can take values that are
less than and close to 2 (1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999….etc)
ii) Right: denoted by x  2  , means that x can take values that
are greater and closer to 2 (2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001…)
 There are three ways for us to obtain the limits of a function:
From the table
From the graph
Using Algebra

5.1.1 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: FROM

THE TABLE
Suppose that we are given a function,
f ( x)  3x 2  1

and we would like to examine what is the value (limit) of this function

as the input (x) approaches 4. In other word we try to solve this

question;
lim f  x   lim 3 x 2  1
x4 x4

As we know, x can approach 4 in either way, left or right;

Step 1:
x approach 4 from left: x  4 therefore the value of x must be less
than but close to 4:

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x  3.9 , x  3.99 , x  3.999 , x  3.9999

Closest to 4
Closer to 4

Closer to 4

Less than
4

Substitude the selected values of x to examine the effect on f  x  :

f  x   3x 2  1
When x  3.9
f  3.9   3 3.9   1  44.63
2

f  x   3x 2  1
When x  3.99
f  3.99   3 3.99   1  46.7603
2

Carry on with value of x that are closer to 4 like x  3.999 and

x  3.9999 . What can you conclude??  as x approach 4 (from left)
f(x) will approach ??

You can also examine the limit for the function through table:
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999
f  x
Table: x  4

From the table, we can see that, as x approach 4 from the left,
f  x  is getting closer (approach) to the value of 47 or


had f  x   had 3x 2  1  47 
x 4  x 4 

Step 2:

Similarly, now let us examine if x approach 4 from the right: x  4 

where the values of x must be greater than 4. Select a few values of
x that are greater than 4 (but remember it must be close to 4) like

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x  4.1, x  4.01, x  4.001 and x  4.0001. Examine the effects on f(x)

from the table:

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001

f  x
Table: x  4

From the table, we can see that, as x approach 4 from the right,
f  x  is getting closer (approach) to the value of 47 or


had f  x   had 3 x 2  1  47 
x4 x 4

Step 3: EQUAL
As had f  x   had f  x   47
x 4  x 4 

Therefore we can conclude had f  x   had 3 x  1  47

x4
2
x4
 

DEFINITION 5.1.1(a):
The limit of a function exist, if and only if the limit of the function
from both side (left/right) are equal.

If
NOTES: ,
therefore
DO NOT EXIST
any value

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Example
1: x3  1
Given f  x   , find the limit for f  x  as x approach 1.
x 1

Solution
:
Step 1:
Build the table for x approaching 1 from the left : x  1

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

f  x
Table : x  1

As x approaching 1 from the left, we can see that f  x  is

approaching 3 or:
 x3 1
lim f  x   lim    3
x 1 x 1
 x 1 

Step 2:

Build the table for x approaching 1 from the right : x  1

x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001

f  x
Table : x  1

As x approaching 1 from the right, we can see that f  x  is

approaching 3 or:

 x3 1
lim f  x   lim    3
x 1 x 1
 x 1 

Step 3: EQUAL
As lim f  x   lim f  x   3
x1 x 1

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 x3 1
Therefore, lim f  x   lim   3
x 1 x 1
 x 1 

Example
1
2:
Determine whether lim
x 3  x  3 exist or not?

Solution
:
Step 1:

Build the table for x approaching 3 from the left : x  3

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999

f  x
Table : x  3

As x approaching 3 from the left, we can see that f  x  is

approaching -10000 or:
1
had f  x   had  10000  
x 3 x  3   x  3

(where the closer x gets to 3, the smaller f  x  will be  approaching

-)

Step 2:

Build the table for x approaching 3 from the right : x  3

x 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001

f  x
Table : x  3

As x approaching 3 from the right, we can see that f  x  is

approaching 10000 or:

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1
lim f  x   lim  10000  
x 3 x 3  x  3
(where f  x  is getting bigger as x approach 3 from right)

Step 3:

As xlim f  x   lim f  x 
3 x 3

1
Therefore lim f  x   lim  DOES NOT EXIST
x 3 x 3  x  3

5.2 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: FROM THE

GRAPH

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Another way to obtain the limit of a function is from the graph.

Example
3:
Based on the graph for the function f  x  , we can examine the

limit for this function as x approach 1:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x
  x  1 1  x  

a) Find

i) lim f  x  ii) lim f  x 

x 1 x 1

iii) lim f  x 
x 1

Example
4: y

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-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

  x  2 2  x  

b) Find

i) lim f  x  ii) lim f  x 

x 2  x 2 

iii) lim f  x 
x 2

Example
5:
y

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-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

  x  1  1  x  

c) Find

i) lim f  x  ii) lim f  x 

 
x  1  
x  1

iii) lim f  x  iv) f   1

x  1

5.3 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: USING

ALGEBRA
PROPERTIES OF LIMITS:

PROPERTY 1

i) lim c  c where c is a constant

xa

Example
6: a) lim 7 
x2

b) lim e 
x 5

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PROPERTY 2

ii) lim xn  an
xa

Example
7: x2 
a) lim
x 3

b) lim x1 / 3 
x  27

Let say:

lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M

xa x a

where L and M are real numbers, therefore:

PROPERTY 3

iii) lim
xa
 f  x   g  x    lim
xa
f  x   lim g  x 
xa

= L ± M

PROPERTY 4

iv) lim
x a
 f  x .g  x    lim
x a
f  x . lim g  x 
x a

=LxM

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PROPERTY 5

v) lim
xa
 c. f  x    c. lim
x a
f  x

=cL

PROPERTY 6

n f  x   n lim f  x 
vi) lim
x a x a

= n
L

Example
8:
Given f ( x)  2 x  3 and g ( x)  x 2  1 . Find

a) lim(2 x  3) 
x 2

b) lim( x 2  1) 
x2

c) 
lim (2 x  3)  ( x 2  1) 
x2


d) lim(2 x  3)( x 2  1) 
x 2

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e) lim e( x 2  1) 
x2

f) lim (2 x  3) 
x2

LIMITS PROPERTY FOR RATIONAL FUNCTIONS:

If:
lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M
xa x a

where L and M are real numbers, therefore:

f  x
The limit for the rational function : h(x )  , is obatian by
g  x

f  x L
lim h( x)  lim 
xa xa g  x M

However, there are 4 possibilities for the values of L and M that will
define the limits for this function:

POSSIBILITY 1 L ≠0 and M ≠ 0
Therefore;

f  x L
had  0
xa g  x M

Example
Given:
9:
f ( x)  5 x  4 and g ( x)  3 x  7

Find:
a) lim(5 x  4) 
x 3

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b) lim (3 x  7) 
x 3

(5 x  4)
c) lim 
x 3 (3 x  7)

Example
Find:
10: x  2
a) lim
x3 x 8

x2  5
b) lim 
x 2 1 x

POSSIBILITY 2 L =0 and M ≠ 0
Therefore;

f  x 0
lim  0
xa g x M

x4
a)Example
lim =
x 4 x2
11:

2x  4
b) lim 
x 2 3

POSSIBILITY 3 L ≠0 and M = 0
Therefore;

f  x L
lim  
xa g  x 0 DO NOT EXIST

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Example
12:
x
a) lim =
x 3 x 3

4x
b) lim 
x3 2x  6

POSSIBILITY 3 L =0 and M = 0
f  x 0
lim   LIMIT MIGHT/MIGHT NOT EXIST
x a g  x 0

 To determine whether the limit exist/not, check whether the

function is in the simplest form or not.

Example
13: x2
a) lim 
x 2 x2  4

3x 2  7 x  2
b) lim 
x 2 x4

5.4 CONCEPTS OF INFINITY (∞)

i) a+∞=∞
ii) ∞+a=∞
iii) a - ∞ = -∞
iv) ∞-a=∞

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v) a.∞ = ∞
vi) a(-∞) = - ∞
vii) a=0
∞
viii) ∞=∞
a
ix) ∞n = ∞; for n>0
x) ∞n = 0; for n<0
xi) ∞n = 1; for n=0
xii) n
 =∞
* a is constant

5.5 LIMITS AT INFINITY

i) Limit at infinity for a constant function:

lim a  a where a is constant.

x 

Limit of a constant function will always remains no matter what values

does x approaching.

Example
14:
Find:
a) lim  
x

b) xlim 2.718 
 

ii) Limit at infinity for polynomial function:

lim ax n  a. n where a is constant.

x 
To find limit at infinity for polynomial function, simply substitutes the
input (x) with .

Example
Find;
15:
a) lim (3 x 2  1) 
x 

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b) lim (2 x 5  x 4  1000) 
x 

f ( x )  numerator
iii) Limit at infinity for rational function: h( x) 
g ( x)  deno min ator
Steps to obtain limit at infinity for rational function;
i. Exclude all terms except the one with the greatest power for
numerator and denominator.
ii. Simplify
iii. Substitutes x with ∞ or -
iv. Find the limit for the function.

Example
16: 2x4  x2  3
a) lim 
x x 3  x  2

2 x3  x 2  3
b) lim 
x x 3  x  2

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x 1
c) lim 
x 2 x 2  5 x

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