negative value. Figure 7.

36 compares pulse width modulation

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FM.
Following transmission of the AM, FM or PWM signals the receiving
equipment must once more separate the intelligent information from the
carrier wave, a process known as demodulation and Figures 4.11 and 4.13
look at these systems.

Sawtooth waveform generator

If a circuit is constructed as shown in figure 7.37 the capacitor will charge

up at a rate which is determined by the values of C and R when the supply
is switched on. (See chapter 3,charging capasitors for the relevant theory.)
However, if a neon lamp or a thyristor is connected across the capacitors
that the capacitor is discharged quickly at some predetermined point during
the lower linear part of the capacitor growth curve, the a sawtooth
waveform is generated which has a relatively long rise time and a short
discharged time. When the capacitor is discharged to zerovolts the neon
lamp or thyristor will switch off and the capacitor will once more begin to
charge up to the predetermined discharge point and the sawtooth waveform
will, therefore, be generated continouosly. The long rise time to short
discharge time is characteristic of a sawtooth waveform. A sawtooth
waveform generator is used to drive the electronbeam across the X axis of
the CRO screen. During the long rise time the beam sweeps from the left to
the right-hand side of the screen. Flyback occurs during the short
discharged period placing the beam once more on the left-hand side ready
for a further sweep across the screen.

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Transistor switching using a capacitor

This is another application of the circuit theory associated with charging

capacitor discussed in chapter 3. If a circuit is constructed as shown in
Figure 7.38, the lamp will illuminate when the supply is switched on
because a signal will be applied to the case region of the transistor, but as
the capacitor charges up, the voltage across the resistor will fall to zero,
switching off the signal to the transistor base, which will switch off the
transistor and the signal lamp. The capacitor charging current can be used
to switch the transistor on or off at a rate which is dependent upon the
value of the C-R time constant. This principle can be applied to the
electronic circuits known as multivibrators.

Multivibrator

Multivibrators are a class of electronic switching circuits which are also

known as relaxationoscillation because their operation is charactherised by
a period of vigorous activity followed by a period of relaxation. They
produce an output which is generally a series of square or rectangular
pulses by switching between two transistors. Figure 7.39 shows the circuit
diagram for an astable multivibrator. Astable means not stable or free
running and, therefore, the circuit generates a continuing train of pulses at
the output . the two transistor are coupled together, so that while one
transistor is switched on, the other is switched off. Each transistore then
switches automatically to its other state and, as a result, the output
volatgewhich can be taken from the collector of either transistor is
alternatively high (+8V) or low (almost 0V) generating a series of
theoretically square pulses. In pratice, the switch over from pone transistor
is not instantaneous and, therefore, the output will not be perfectly square
as shown by Figure 7.40. the length of time its transistor is switch on
depend upon how long it takes two capacitors two charge up through the
resistors. TR1 is switched by R2C2 and TR2 by R1C1. If C1=C2 and R1=R2
the ‘off’ and ‘on’ times for each transistor will be equal and a square wave
will be generated. The rate at which the signal lamps will flash can be
varied by changing the capacitor and resistor values as suggested by Table
7.2. Reducing the values of C and R will reduce the circuit time constant
and increase the lamp flashing rate. Using different values of C1 and C2 or
different values of R1 and R2 will vary the mark-to-space ratio and a
rectangular waveform will be generated.

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which will result in an uneven flashing rate of the two signal lamps.
It may help you understanding of the circuit if you were to assemble the
multivibrator circuit on an S-DeC; vary the component values are
suggested by Table 7.2 and observe the results.

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 Chapter 8
Logic Gates and Digital Electronics

Digital electronics embraces all of todays computer-based systems. These

are decision-making circuits which used what is known as combinational
logic in applications such as industrial robots, industrial hydraulic and
neomatic systems (PLCs), telephone exchange, motor vehicle, and
domestic appliances control systems, childrens’ toys and their parents
personal computers, and audio equipment. Digital electronics disconcerned
with straightforward to state switching circuits. The simplicity and
reliablity of this semiconductor transistor switching as encouraged
designers to look for new digital markets. Traditional applictation which
have analogue inputs, such as audio recording, are now using digital
techniques, with the development of analogue to digital converters. These
convert the analog voltage signals into digital numbers. A digital and
analogue waveform are shown in figure 8.1.

The digital waveform as two quite definite states, either on or off, and
changes between these two states very rapidly. An analogue waveform
changes its value smoothly and progressively between two extremes.

In an analogue systems, changes in components values due to aging and

temperature can affect the circuits performances. Digital systems are very
much less susceptible to individual component changes. Another
significant advantage of digital circuit is there immunity to noise and
interference signals. With analogue circuitry this is a nuisance, particularly
when signal levels are very small and, therefore, easily contaminated by
noise. Digital signals, however have a very large amplitude and can,
therefore, be made relatively free of noise which helps manufacturers to
achieve a very high quality of sound reproduction, as anyone who listens to
a compact disc recording can testify. Logic circuits have been developed to
deal with these digital, two-step switching circuits. Information is
expressed as binary numbers, that is numbers which consist of ones and
zeros. These two binary states are represented by low and high voltages,
where low voltage is 0 V and high voltage is say +5V. the low level is
called Logic 0 and the high level Logic 1. When the voltage level of a
digital signal is not rapidly changing it remains steady at one of these two
levels. Information is processed according to rules built into circuits made
up of single units called Logic gates. Each unit is called to pass through or
stop it, and Logic gate because it behave according to rules which can be
described by logical or predictable statements. A logic gate may have a
number of inputs but has only one output which can only be either logic 1
or logic 0, no other value exist. The basic range of logic gates is known by
the names AND, OR, NOT, NOR, and NAND.

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The AND logic gate Scanned with CamScanner

The operation of this gate can probably best be understood by drawing a

simple switch equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 8.2. The logic symbol
is also shown. The signal lamp will only illuminate if switch A and switch
B are closed, or we could say the output F of the gate will only be at logic 1
if input A and input B are both at logic 1.
If the AND gate was operating a car handbrake warning lamp, it would
only illuminate when the handbrake and the Scanned
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on. The truth
table shows the output state for all possible combinations of inputs.

The OR gate

The OR gate can be represented by parallel connected switches, as shown

in Figure 8.3 which also shows the logic symbol. In this case the signal
lamp will only illuminate if switch A or switch B or both switches are
closed. Alternatively, we could say that the output F will only be at logic 1
if input A or input B or both inputs are at logic 1.
If the OR gate was operating an interior light in a motor car, if would
illuminate when the nearside a motor car, if would illuminate when the
nearside door was opened or the offside door was opened or when both
doors were opened. The truth table shows the output state for all possible
combinations of inputs.

The Exclusive –OR gate

The Exclusive –OR gate is an OR gate with only two inputs which will
give a logic 1 output only if input A or input B is at logic 1, but not when
both