4a.

Indian Paintings and Mythology

Chitrasutras: The traditional Indian concept of painting (A.D. 450-650)
The „Citrasutras‟ refers to all the texts related to “citras”. The earliest known „Citrasutras‟
are:
a) Citralaksana, attributed to Nagnajit (The father of Indian painting).
b) Vishnudharmottara Purana.
It is deduced that both these texts belonged to the early Gupta Period, i.e. about A.D.
450-650.
c) The third Text which is of major significance is the „Silparatna‟. It is a text written by
Sri Kumara in the later part of the 16th century.
All „citrasutras‟ explain painting in their own ways. They also present the myths of its
origin (Nardi, 2006).

The Myths:
The Chitrasutra in the „Vishnudharmottara‟ is the one standard and the most valuable text
in India which deals with the classifications of pictures, painting materials, merits and
defects. It is the oldest text on paintings which has been retained today. The origin of
painting is attributed to the sage „Narayana‟ who created „Urvashi‟, the beautiful celestial
nymph, by drawing a beautiful figure on his thigh. This explains the origin of drawing.
„Narayana‟ taught this to „Vishwakarma‟, who successfully interpreted the entire theme
of the universe by imitating in painting (Nardi, 2006).
Painting is introduced in citralaksana of „Nagnajit‟ and „Vishnudharmottara Purana‟ with
the narration of a myth that reinforces the deeds of traditional authorities such a Vishnu,
„Vishwakarma‟ and „Nagnajit‟. According to the Indian philosophical thought, arts and
crafts have a divine origin. The divine origin of painting is explained in the texts through
the narration of 2 main myths which recognize „Vishnu‟, „Vishwakarma‟ and „Nagnajit‟
as the main authorities in this field. The myth narrated in „chitralaksana‟ is of prime
importance. It proclaims Brahma as the supreme power who gave birth to the precepts of
painting and then encourages King „Nagnajit‟ to paint the first picture into the world of
living. According to the conversation between Brahma and King „Nagnajit‟ as narrated in
„Chitralaksana‟, “first of all the Vedas and the performance of offerings came into
this world. In order to raise a place for worship, one must paint pictures. For this
reason painting is counted as knowledge (Veda)”. „Vishwakarma‟ shared with

152
„Nagnajit‟ his wealth of knowledge regarding paintings. He also emphasized which
objects and means are beautiful and the means of ornamentation and beautification
of paintings (Nardi, 2006).
The instructions on the measurement imparted by God „Vishwakarma‟ relate to the nude
human forms and this shows that the ancient Indian painters, in the first place studied the
human form in its nudity and represented gods, kings and heroes as nude. These
observations receive striking support from the most ancient fresco-paintings of India, in
the Jogimara Caves, belonging to the 3rd Century B.C. The brief descriptions suggest that
nude figures predominate in those. Another myth of painting to be considered is that
narrated in the „Vishnudharmottara Purana‟. The myth says that the rules of citra were
produced long ago by the sage „Narayana‟. He created „Urvarshi‟ by drawing a picture on
his thigh. According to „Vishnudharmottara Purana‟, painting is the most excellent
of all the art forms and grants dharma, artha and kama. Keeping this in mind,
painting should be done carefully in such a way that it captivates the minds of
everyone with its lines, shading, decoration and color. A painting that is instilled
with postures, beauty, playfulness and sentiments, as visualized by a perceptive
mind, is thus believed to fulfill desires. Similar to the „Vishnudharmottara Purana‟, the
chitralaksana of „Nagajit‟ emphasizes the auspicious elements of a painting. The
approach might be traceable to a religious reason that is the image to be worshipped
must be perfect in all aspects so as to have an auspicious power. The chitralaksana
states that: „the art of measurement in painting is based on the worship of all gods, which
leads to the expansion of their fame and the expulsion of sins and fear‟. The ultimate
purpose of the act of painting seems to be the worship of an image which is the
incarnate of all auspicious elements and contains proper measurements and
proportions (Sivaramamutri, 1970).
„Vatsyayana‟ (3rd century A.D.) mentions the art of painting as one of the 64
complementary sciences of the „Kamasutra‟, together with dance, singing and
instrumental music. According to the „Silparatna‟, all palaces and gateways should be
decorated with various paintings to enhance their beauty. The „Silparatna‟ proceeds
explaining that painting (citrabhasa) should be executed on a surface of plastered walls, in
all suitable internal and external spaces, by depicting auspicious stories and images of
deities. It also tells that scenes of war (even if between gods and demons), death, misery,
and depiction of naked figures should not be executed in houses. On wall surfaces,

153
bigger paintings should be drawn depicting benevolent stories narrated in the
Agamas, Vedas, and Puranas. These pictures should be painted in a range of beautiful
colors, applying them proportionately to meet the requirements of forms, sentiments,
moods and actions. This would be rewarding for the patron and the painter. Indian
traditional painting is narrative in its character and the stories depicted in painting
are found in literature (agamas, Vedas and puranas). Citralaksana mentions that the
stories recorded in the agamas and Vedas and the puranas should be represented in
paintings. It also mentions that in painting, all objects, movable or immovable, found in
the 3 worlds, should be depicted in their respective nature. Chapter 71 of „Narada Silpa
Sastra‟ introduces another explanation of citra. According to „Narada‟, pictures are to be
such as to captivate our minds and give joy to our eyes. They must be of several colors
and brilliance. Ornaments must be gilded and set with gems. The picture in general
should be auspicious and with lovely forms. „Narada‟ also says that painting is for the
pleasure of gods, for the satisfaction of the presiding deity of the building and also for
beauty (Anand, 1989).
Painting is divided into three kinds on the basis of where it is done: on the floor, the
wall and the ceiling. These various kinds of paintings should be made in abundance on
various surfaces. Depending on the places, the painting should depict various subjects or
objects. The terms chitra, ardhachitra, and chitrabhasha are used in this context to
differentiate broadly between sculpture, relief, and painting, respectively. Although in
the earliest theoretical texts on South Asian art, the term chitra is used to mean
"sculpture" or "painting," in certain texts of the medieval period, chitra means "sculpture
in the round," and a distinction is made between chitra (sculpture), ardhachitra (relief),
and chitrabhasha (painting). In the six limbs of painting, modeling is given as an
important one. Emotions portrayed in pictures are best illustrated in some masterpieces
such as the subjugation of Nalagiri from Ajanta. The vishnudharmottara has specially
stressed on important elements of art. Different methods for suggesting various aspects of
nature are here enumerated, as for instance, portraying lotuses in bloom, aquatic beings
for suggesting water, overcast clouds to signify rainy season, pleasant flower decked
forests to signify spring, and so on. Chitrasutras also enumerates the varieties of hair
like kuntala, long and fine, dakshinavarta, curling to right, Taranga, wavy,
varidhara, straight and flowing, jutatasara, curled and abundant. Shapes of eyes are
described like chapakriti, bow-sdhaped, utpalpatrabha, blue-lotus hue, matsyodara, fish

154
like, padmapatranibha, lotus-petal like, and sanakriti, globular. Chitrasutra classified
paintings into satya (natural), vainika (Lyrical), nagara (sophisticated), and misra
(Mixed). Substantial discussion was on the “rasas” or the number of moods that can be
portrayed in pictures, with illustrations for each. In the text named
abhilashitarthachintamani by king „Somesvara‟ of the western „Chalukya‟ dynasty of the
12th Century, painting is also described in the context of decoration of living rooms.
The „naradasilpa‟ has two chapters. One deals with „chitrasala‟, that describes art
galleries, and the other chapter deals with „chitralankritirachanavidhi‟, that gives a
classification of pictures like bhaumika, kudyaka and urdhvaka, related to the floor, the
wall, and the ceiling. It talks about temporary decoration of the floors like kolam,
rangoli and alpana. The painting on wall is mural decoration. Pictorial themes and
their appropriate location are also a topic of discussion. The iconography of gods is
also discussed in texts of those time periods. Enumeration of murtis and their
iconography are also subjects here (Anand, 1989).

155
4b. Mughal Series on Ramayana

A Mughal series on Ramayana:

One of the most familiar of all Hindu religious stories, the Ramayana is the product of a
long oral tradition first somewhere around 600 B.C.; various versions of the elementary
story exist, each one emphasizes certain episodes, and some of them add new characters
and adventures in accord with the local concepts of the divine. It forms a basic source for
traditional village storytellers, for Indian festivals such as Dusserah and Diwali, and for
cinematography as well. The protagonist of the story is Rama, one of the many
incarnations of the god Vishnu. This manuscript was in account of Ramchandra, who was
one of the greatest kings of India. His spiritual refinements were exemplary, being a
manifestation of the divine. It is a story of his graceful attributes, pleasing virtues, great
victories, and conduct, which show the magnificence of his being (Shirodkar, 2010).

Fig.167: A group of dancing girls sent to entice Fig.168: King Dasaratha celebrates the horse sacrifice
the youthful ascetic Rishyashringa

In this image (Fig.168), the elaborately painted pillars of the ceremonial hall are
interesting evidence for the contemporary palace decoration-little of which has
survived.

156
Fig.169: Rama and Lakshman fight the demoness Taraka Fig.170: Rama and Lakshman battle demons

157
Fig.171: The Nymph Rambha cursed by Vishwamitra Fig.172: Rama chases rakshasa in the form of a golden
Antelope
(Fig.171) Decreeing another test of Vishwamitra‟s concentration, the god Indra ordered
the nymph Rambha to seduce the sage.
(Fig.172) The demon maricha, in the form of a golden antelope, leads Rama away from
his home. This allows Ravana to abduct Rama‟s wife Sita and thus sets the story in
motion.

158
 Fig.173: Hanuman brings the mountain of healing herbs

To rescue Sita, Rama joins an army of monkeys and stands to siege the island of Lanka.
When the warriors are wounded, the monkey general Hanuman recalls a distant mountain
covered with healing herbs and travels there magically with enormous leaps.

159
4c. Series of Paintings on Geet Govinda: A tradition transcending ages, religions and
various change of guards
According to historical evidence, the Indian tradition of illuminated manuscripts goes back
to the 10th century, but references regarding illuminations are found in many ancient texts,
from the Rig-Veda to the Ramayana, the oldest Indian text and epic. The earliest
illustrated manuscripts found are on palm leaf and belong to the 10th and 12th centuries.
Palm leaf illustrations seem to have been widespread and have been found in Bihar,
Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka. It is surprising that while we come across
references of book illuminations in Indian texts, we do not find concrete evidence to point
to the same except a few Sanskrit, Jain and Buddhist works which were illustrated. In the
Samarth Wagdevta Mandir, an illustrated “pothi” containing several colored miniatures
remains preserved, and that the words „Geet Govinda‟ were embossed on it (late 14th
century). Geet Govinda is a wonderful poem, which has stirred the minds of readers,
artists, dancers and musicians to such passion that they themselves become the geet
or song while reading, dancing, painting, acting or playing on their instruments. This
whimsical poem written by Jaideva is truly the zenith of the history of Indian fine arts. In
the context of Indian miniatures, Geet Govinda has been painted in almost every
representative style. These miniatures need to be studied keeping in mind the fact that this
great lyric of the 12th century provides a bridge between art and literature. The divine
love of Radha and Krishna crossed all barriers of language, caste and tradition. It
was sung and danced by expert artists and tribal „Abhirs‟ alike. Geet Govinda represents
the basic Indian attitude towards love (Upadhyaya, 2006).

Fig.174: Krishna playing flute

160
The earliest illustrations of the Geet Govinda date to circa AD 1450 and were found in
Gujarat. A series of Geet Govinda paintings was done in AD 1590 in Jaunpur, in eastern
Uttar Pradesh, now preserved in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya in
Mumbai (formerly the Prince of Wales Museum). During the reign of Akbar, a manuscript
of Geet Govinda was produced and in Bikaner it was illustrated by the artist Rukunnuddin.
The Jaunpur manuscripts are the most important as they represent early features of the
painting style which flourished in eastern UP. The earlier Gujarat style was different from
that of Jaunpur. The Jain texts point to the tradition of manuscript painting but there are
also manuscripts like Geet Govinda which are not Jain but have been illustrated. The Geet
Govinda illustrated under Akbar‟s patronage is interesting as the Mughal influence is
apparent on the costumes that the figures wear in these paintings (Miller, 2015).
In the subsequent period, i.e. the 16th to 19th centuries, many such manuscripts were
created. Some of the early Sanskrit manuscripts which were illustrated are Vasant Vilas,
Geet Govinda, Ramayana and Mahabharata. These examples indicate that the tradition of
illumination of manuscripts commenced more rigorously in India from the end of the 9th
century onwards. In western Rajasthan, the Geet Govinda was painted in a modified Jain
style in AD 1610. Under the patronage of Maharaja Sangram Singh II (AD 1710-1734),
this magnificent poem was painted in Mewar in 1723. These paintings of the Geet
Govinda are preserved in Saraswati Bhandar, Udaipur. In Kishangarh, a delightful series
of paintings of Geet Govinda was produced in 1820 for Raja Kalyan Singh. During the
reign of Raja Medini Pal of Basohli, the Geet Govinda was painted in 1730. Few leaves
are displayed in the National Museum, New Delhi. The Geet Govinda painted in Kangra is
simply exquisite. Geet Govinda is the only Sanskrit poem that has been painted by artists
of different representative styles of Indian Miniature painting such as of Mewar, Bikaner,
Kishangarh, Bundi, Kangra, Guler, Basohli, etc. (Singh & Smith 2013).

161
The story of this poem is limited to two-and-a-quarter days. The first day of spring centres
on Krishna‟s love for gopis, or milkmaids; the inquisitiveness of Radha; the regret of
Krishna and the sadness of Radha.

Fig.175: Krishna asking for forgiveness

At night Krishna sends a duti, messenger, to Radha. The duti requests Radha to meet
Krishna and to join the rasa, a dance, performed by Krishna along with milkmaids in the
forests of Vrindavana but Radha is reluctant to oblige. She believes that Krishna must be
frolicking with the gopis and gets annoyed. Thus, the night wears off. On the second day,
Krishna tries his best to pacify Radha but the latter gives him a refusal. The Manini, angry,
Radha refuses to stoop. The whole day passes and evening comes. Krishna feels downcast
and retires to his grove. Radha‟s sakhi or companion tries to cheer her up, urging her to go
to Krishna‟s groove. Radha succumbs at last. The second night is the night of fulfillment
of divine love. Next morning, Radha entices Krishna to set her apparel in order, with
which the poem ends. All the ashtapadis of Geet Govinda are elegantly arranged. There
are 12 cantos, each of which contains 1 to 4 ashtapadis. At the beginning and the end of
every ashtapadi, we find a shloka in the form of a blessing. The ashtapadis are suitable
both for singing and acting (Upadhyaya, 2006).
At least 200 translations of Geet Govinda are available in several Indian languages. Geet
Govinda was also carved on ivory in Orissa and the paintings were executed in Orissa on
the different themes of Geet Govinda. The themes of Geet Govinda were also depicted by
the artists on the basis of the different ragas and raginis, melodies.

162
It would be worthwhile to assess the impact of this unique creation on other branches of
art. In Nepal, the Geet Govinda is sung during the spring celebrations to honor Goddess
Saraswati. In south India the poem is sung in accordance with the classical Carnatic form
of music. It is also sung to accompany Kathakali performances in Kerala.Geet Govinda
was a composition which inspired musicians, dancers, painters and litterateurs. Rasa dance
is a folk based dance derived from the Geet Govinda. The popularity of the Geet Govinda
is also reflected in architecture and sculpture. The verses of the Geet Govinda are
engraved on the stairs of the Balaji Temple in southern India and on the main gate of the
famous Jagannath Temple in Puri. This poem blends love, nature and the seasons into its
composition. The characteristics of a nayika or heroine elaborated in Sanskrit literature
became synonymous of the characteristics of Radha, depicted by artists when they painted
her. The nayika of Kishangarh style epitomizes all these characteristics: she possesses a
gentle tenderness, girlish passion, kind attentiveness and eager devotion; her eyes are large
ad delicate like a doe‟s; they flash like lightning; her face dazzles like the moon; her skin,
limbs and hands are smooth and delicate like the lotus leaf; she looks like a lotus flower
and her delicate charms lure the lover; her breasts are large and firm like pitchers of water
and her hair is black as night and long as the tendrils of vine. The creation of Radha as a
divine consort of Krishna seems exclusively a concept of Jaideva. Radha is inevitably
linked with Krishna. Both are dependent on each other. Traditional nomenclatures like
Radha-Mohan, Radhe-Shyam, Radha-Vallabha, Radha-Krishna are common parlance.
There is a mention of Radha in the Rig-Veda. In the religious Puranas and Upanishads,
there are several references and interpretations of Radha. An imagery of a woman playing
a flute, said to be Radha, was also found in the excavations at Mathura (Singh & Smith
2013).
In the Mughal style of painting, the theme of Radha and Krishna was painted. Artists from
varied origins were inspired by the devotional goodness surrounding this concept of
Radha-Krishna which is reflected in their paintings. They have widely used the color blue
for Krishna as the symbol of life. The artists used line and color to bring out the emotions
of the Bihari couplets. They brought alive the atmosphere of Vrindavana with its green
gardens, orchards, dense clouds, cranes floating in the River Yamuna, the lotus flowers
and the kunjas or grooves where Radha and Krishna met (Miller, 2015).
Nihalchand who depicted Radha as Bani thani, a well-dressed heroine wearing ornaments,
is famous all over the world as he depicted all the classical characteristics of an ideal

163
heroine portrayed in Sanskrit literature in this painting. Nihalchand and his predecessors
have painted several scenes of the Krishna leela. A boat scene in the Kishangarh style is
preserved in National Museum, New Delhi. The boat scene is famous among art lovers
and was painted by Nihalchand in the 18th century. The boat on the surface of Gundalo
Lake of Kishangarh, the divine couple, the flora and fauna are beautifully painted. In these
paintings, the face is not round but of proportionate length. The nose is long, the eyebrows
are round, and the neck is like a surahi, an earthen pot, the upper part of which is long and
narrow (Miller, 2015).
In Jaipur style, we see fascinating facial renderings of Radha, portrayed as having dark,
wide, penetrating eyes and wearing costumes painted in contrasting colors. Radha‟s beauty
is perfectly portrayed. There is also an excellent painting made between 1765-1770 done
in the Bilaspur idiom and preserved in Indian Museum, Kolkata. In this strange miniature,
Radha appears in police uniform, arresting Krishna. The bewildered gopis gaze at Radha
and Krishna. Radha looks sterm like a constable in true form. Another painting depicted
Radha in all her exquisite charm, grace and delicacy, seated or standing under a flowering
mandara tree, which is preserved in National Museum, New Delhi. During the period of
Maratha dominance, 14 miniatures were found in Maheshwar, once the capital of the
illustrious Maratha ruler Ahilya Devi. Holi festivities were also popular form used for the
depiction of Radha. There is a miniature in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, painted in 1780,
showing Radha and Krishna sprinkling colored water one each other (Singh & Smith
2013).

The Kanheri Geet Govinda

Jaideva and Geet Govinda: He was born in the village Kindubilva or Kenduli in the
Birbhum district of West Bengal in circa AD 1108. Geet Govinda contains „ashtapadis‟,
eight-stanza songs. Kanheri Geet Govinda is based upon a charmingly illustrated
manuscript, which is found in Khandesh. The Album shows us fantastic colorful
depictions. These miniatures contain a blend of the folk and traditional features.
Khandesh was originally the land of Krishna or Kanha. It seems that Khandesh was the
region where the followers of Krishna ruled and promoted Krishna worship. The tradition
of preserving Geet Govinda manuscripts also continues in Khandesh. The illustrated
manuscripts of Geet Govinda, found in Dhule, is said to have been painted in Prakasha,
which is located on the bank of River Tapti and has as many as 104 temples. This version
of Geet Govinda contains 290 miniatures. The last miniature bears the colophon (tail

164
piece) indicating the illustrations of the Geet Govinda were completed in AD 1765.
Another illustrated Geet Govinda executed in this style was found in the Samarth
Wagdevta Mandir. This illustrated manuscript portrays ragas and raginis. It seems that the
local artists here opted to paint the local style of dresses, jewellery, flora and fauna
(Upadhyaya, 2006).

Fig.176: Vasanta Raga

Mainly vegetable and pigments obtained from minerals were used. Indigo is frequently
used in painting the sky and Krishna. They do not seem to have used gold or silver. These
characteristics have imparted a unique regional flavor to the miniatures. The thin birds
represent the main feature of this style. The miniatures, based on the theme of Ramayana
which are preserved in National Museum, New Delhi, are identical in several respects to
these miniatures (Upadhyaya, 2006).

165
 Fig.177: Rama killing Ravana

Apart from the toy-like birds, the flora and fauna painted also obtain a quite distinctive
touch. The female figures that belong to the first category wear a lehenga, or skirt; and
chunni, or veil. They wear Khandeshi as well as Rajasthani ornaments. Nath, nose
ornament; karnaphool, earrings and chudis, bangles are common features. The size of nath
is abnormally big, which is one of the specific characteristics of Khandesh. In some
miniatures a mathapatti, an ornament for the forehead, can be seen. The size of the
karnaphool is also big and the number of chudis is more than usual. The women are shown
wearing ornaments symbolic of married women such as mangal sutra and payal or anklets.
In Khandesh, women paint a longer red mark on their forehead, which is known as khor or
malvat. In several miniatures we find figures of women in malvat on their forehead. Some
female figures are shown wearing a high juda, lock of hair, a significant feature of Jaipur
& Bundi. The male figures in the first category are tiny, their faces are round, noses
longer, bodies bulky and are shown wearing dhoti, loose garments for lower body and a
dupatta or scarf. They have tied hair, called choti. Pandits are seen with a circular tika on
their forehead. This is a peculiar Khandeshi influence. Krishna is depicted as the Blue
lord. It is an exceptional feature of these miniatures that only in one figure we find Krishna
with a morpankhi mukut, peacock crown. In the rest of the miniatures, he is shown
wearing a crown of a type worn only in Maharashtra. The eyebrow has been painted
relatively straight. In all, these miniatures, the foliage is exceptionally painted. Kela,
banana; nariyal, coconut; champa, parijat, dense kela trees with red petals, gudhal,
chameli, kewda and supari trees are brilliantly depicted. The kunja, or groove, in which

166
Radha sit sis painted in the Khandeshi style. The mandap is decorated with white flowers
of chameli or sadafuli. The depiction of flowers trees and animals is based on the Deccan
style. The miniatures of Khandeshi style depict tiny female figures. The eyes are round.
They wear nauvari saris. They wear a mangal sutra around their neck and show a malvat
mark on their foreheads. The female figures are not very thin and wear a big chuda on the
right wrist. In all the miniatures where Krishna appears, he is depicted as vithoba or
vitthal. He is shown painted dark blue, tiny and plump, wearing a long garlan of white
flowers around his neck. The eyes of Radha and the duti are not fully almond shaped. In
some female figures, we find unusual depictions of the way in which the sari is draped.
The architecture depicted in these miniatures is Khandeshi. In some miniatures, we find
Mewari influence where double storied houses are painted. The malvat on the forehead of
the female is a significant Khandeshi feature. This characteristic is not found in any other
style. Ashoka trees with long leaves and sadafuli flowers with five petals are also features
typical of Khandeshi style. The depiction of parambi is also peculiar and is absent in the
other styles. A particular type of bangle, known as bangri; jhumka; an oval shaped gold
garland; odhni with white pearls; chinz petty and bujatti-jewellery for the neck-are the
main ornaments of this region, painted in these miniatures. Chourangi, a particular type of
rectangular table used in Maharashtra to keep flowers for workship, has also been shown.
Nanda wears a ghunghri, which is a particular type of dress, worn by the Abhirs of
Khandesh, to protect themselves from the rain. Krishna wears a shela or uparna, which is
a sort of folded shawl, worn by the people in Maharastra. These miniatures are also well
known for the toy-like animals and birds. Another distinctive feature noticed in the
miniatures of Kanheri Geet Govinda, is the abundant use of dark red twisted lines,
frequently painted by the artist along with flora and fauna. Karl Khandalavala discussed
this red twisted line in his book Painting of Bygone Years. In miniatures of the Kanheri
Geet Govinda, this line is frequently painted, which is termed as magenta rock formations
by Karl Khandalavala. Red was a favorite color of the artist. Geet Govinda is a poem
devoted to Radha and Krishna and the word „Kanheri‟ represents the both in one
(Upadhyaya, 2006).
Sects of Krishna Following: The Caitanya sect was founded by Caitanya Mahaprabhu of
Bengal in the 12th century. The followers of this sect were devotees of Krishna. They
remembered Krishna by chanting his name. The Vaishnava sect emerged in the 13th
century in India and considers Krishna as Uttampurush, or the first man (Miller, 2015).

167