SECOND TERM

Teaching
Topic Learning Outcome
Period

7 Chemical Energetics 18

7.1 Enthalpy changes of 6 Candidates should be able to:

reaction, H
(a) explain that most chemical reactions are
accompanied by enthalpy changes (exothermic
or endothermic);
(b) define enthalpy change of reaction, H, and
state the standard conditions;
(c) define enthalpy change of formation,
combustion, hydration, solution, neutralisation,
atomisation, bond energy, ionisation energy
and electron affinity;
(d) calculate the heat energy change from
experimental measurements using the
relationship: heat change, q mc T
or q = mc ;
(e) calculate enthalpy changes from experimental
results.

7.2 Hess‟ law 6 Candidates should be able to:

(a) state Hess‟ law, and its use to find enthalpy

changes that cannot be determined directly,
e.g. an enthalpy change of formation from
enthalpy changes of combustion;
(b) construct energy level diagrams relating the
enthalpy to reaction path and activation
energy;
(c) calculate enthalpy changes from energy cycles.

7.3 Born-Haber cycle 4 Candidates should be able to:

(a) define lattice energy for simple ionic crystals

in terms of the change from gaseous ions to
solid lattice;
(b) explain qualitatively the effects of ionic charge
and ionic radius on the numerical magnitude of
lattice energy values;
(c) construct Born-Haber cycle for the formation
of simple ionic crystals.

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

7.4 The solubility of 2 Candidates should be able to:

solids in liquids
(a) construct energy cycles for the formation of
aqueous solutions of ionic compounds;
(b) explain qualitatively the influence on solubility
of the relationship between enthalpy change of
solution, lattice energy of solid and enthalpy
change of hydration or other solvent-solute
interaction.

8 Electrochemistry 26

8.1 Half-cell and redox 2 Candidates should be able to:

equations
(a) explain the redox processes and cell diagram
(cell notation) of the Daniell cell;
(b) construct redox equations.

8.2 Standard electrode 9 Candidates should be able to:

potential
(a) describe the standard hydrogen electrode;
(b) use the standard hydrogen electrode to
determine standard electrode potential
(standard reduction potential), Eº;
(c) calculate the standard cell potential using the
Eo values, and write the redox equations;
(d) predict the stability of aqueous ions from Eº
values;
(e) predict the power of oxidising and reducing
agents from Eº values;
(f) predict the feasibility of a reaction from Eºcell
value and from the combination of various
electrode potentials: spontaneous and non-
spontaneous electrode reactions.

8.3 Non-standard cell 3 Candidates should be able to:

potentials
(a) calculate the non-standard cell potential, Ecell,
of a cell using the Nernst equation.

8.4 Fuel cells 2 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the importance of the development of

more efficient batteries for electric cars in
terms of smaller size, lower mass and higher
voltage, as exemplified by hydrogen-oxygen
fuel cell.

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

8.5 Electrolysis 6 Candidates should be able to:

(a) compare the principles of electrolytic cell to

electrochemical cell;
(b) predict the products formed during
electrolysis;
(c) state the Faraday‟s first and second laws of
electrolysis;
(d) state the relationship between the Faraday
constant, the Avogadro constant and the
electronic charge;
(e) calculate the quantity of electricity used, the
mass of material and/or gas volume liberated
during electrolysis.

8.6 Applications of 4 Candidates should be able to:

electrochemistry
(a) explain the principles of electrochemistry in
the process and prevention of corrosion
(rusting of iron);
(b) describe the extraction of aluminium by
electrolysis, and state the advantages of
recycling aluminium;
(c) describe the process of anodisation of
aluminium to resist corrosion;
(d) describe the diaphragm cell in the manufacture
of chlorine from brine;
(e) describe the treatment of industrial effluent by
electrolysis to remove Ni2+, Cr3+ and Cd2+;
(f) describe the electroplating of coated plastics.

9 Periodic Table: Periodicity 10

9.1 Physical properties of 5 Candidates should be able to:

elements of Period 2
and Period 3 (a) interpret and explain the trend and gradation
of atomic radius, melting point, boiling point,
enthalpy change of vaporisation and electrical
conductivity in terms of structure and bonding;
(b) explain the factors influencing ionisation
energies;
(c) explain the trend in ionisation energies across
Period 2 and Period 3 and down a group;

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

(d) predict the electronic configuration and

position of unknown elements in the Periodic
Table from successive values of ionisation
energies.

9.2 Reactions of Period 3 2 Candidates should be able to:

elements with oxygen
and water (a) describe the reactions of Period 3 elements
with oxygen and water;
(b) interpret the ability of elements to act as
oxidising and reducing agents.

9.3 Acidic and basic 3 Candidates should be able to:

properties of oxides
and hydrolysis of
oxides
(a) explain the acidic and basic properties of the
oxides of Period 3 elements;
(b) describe the reactions of the oxides of Period
3 elements with water;
(c) describe the classification of the oxides of
Period 3 elements as basic, amphoteric or
acidic based on their reactions with water, acid
and alkali;
(d) describe the use of sulphur dioxide in food
preservation.

10 Group 2 10

10.1 Selected Group 2 7 Candidates should be able to:

elements and their
compounds (a) describe the trends in physical properties of
Group 2 elements: Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba;
(b) describe the reactions of Group 2 elements
with oxygen and water;
(c) describe the behaviour of the oxides of Group
2 elements with water;
(d) explain qualitatively the thermal
decomposition of the nitrates, carbonates and
hydroxides of Group 2 elements in terms of
the charge density and polarisability of large
anions;
(e) explain qualitatively the variation in solubility
of sulphate of Group 2 elements in terms of the
relative magnitudes of the enthalpy change of
hydration for the relevant ions and the
corresponding lattice energy.

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

10.2 Anomalous behaviour 2 Candidates should be able to:

of beryllium
(a) explain the anomalous behaviour of beryllium
as exemplified by the formation of covalent
compounds;
(b) describe the diagonal relationships between
beryllium and aluminium;
(c) explain the similarity of aqueous beryllium
salts to aqueous aluminium salts in terms of
their acidic property.

10.3 Uses of Group 2 1 Candidates should be able to:

compounds
(a) state the uses of Group 2 compounds in
agriculture, industry and medicine.

11 Group 14 10

11.1 Physical properties of 2 Candidates should be able to:

Group 14 elements
(a) explain the trends in physical properties
(melting points and electrical conductivity) of
Group 14 elements: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb.

11.2 Tetrachlorides and 4 Candidates should be able to:

oxides of Group 14
elements (a) explain the bonding and molecular shapes of
the tetrachlorides of group 14 elements;
(b) explain the volatility, thermal stability and
hydrolysis of tetrachlorides in terms of
structure and bonding;
(c) explain the bonding, acid-base nature and the
thermal stability of the oxides of oxidation
states +2 and +4.

11.3 Relative stability of +2 2 Candidates should be able to:

and +4 oxidation states
of Group 14 elements (a) explain the relative stability of +2 and +4
oxidation states of the elements in their oxides,
chlorides and aqueous cations.

11.4 Silicon, silicone and 1 Candidates should be able to:

silicates
(a) describe the structures of silicone and silicates
(pyroxenes and amphiboles), sheets (mica) and
framework structure (quartz) (general formulae
are not required);

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

(b) explain the uses of silicon as a semiconductor

and silicone as a fluid, elastomer and resin;
(c) describe the uses of silicates as basic materials
for cement, glass, ceramics and zeolites.

11.5 Tin alloys 1 Candidates should be able to:

(a) describe the uses of tin in solder and pewter.

12 Group 17 8

12.1 Physical properties of 1 Candidates should be able to:

selected Group 17
elements (a) state that the colour intensity of Group 17
elements: Cl2, Br2, I2, increase down the group;
(b) explain how the volatility of Group 17
elements decreases down the group.

12.2 Reactions of selected 4 Candidates should be able to:

Group 17 elements
(a) deduce and explain the relative reactivities of
Group 17 elements as oxidising agents from
Eº values;
(b) explain the order of reactivity of F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
with hydrogen, and compare the relative
thermal stabilities of the hydrides;
(c) explain the reactions of chlorine with cold and
hot aqueous sodium hydroxide.

12.3 Reactions of selected 2 Candidates should be able to:

halide ions
(a) explain and write equations for reactions of
Group 17 ions with aqueous silver ions
followed by aqueous ammonia;
(b) explain and write equations for reactions of
Group 17 ions with concentrated sulphuric
acid.

12.4 Industrial applications 1 Candidates should be able to:

of halogens and their
compounds (a) describe the industrial uses of the halogens and
their compounds as antiseptic, bleaching agent
and in black-and-white photography;
(b) explain the use of chlorine in water treatment.

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Topic Learning Outcome
Period

13 Transition Elements 14

13.1 Physical properties of 2 Candidates should be able to:

first row transition
elements (a) define a transition element in terms of
incomplete d orbitals in at least one of its ions;
(b) describe the similarities in physical properties
such as atomic radius, ionic radius and first
ionisation energy;
(c) explain the variation in successive ionisation
energies;
(d) contrast qualitatively the melting point,
density, atomic radius, ionic radius, first
ionisation energy and conductivity of the first
row transition elements with those of calcium
as a typical s-block element.

13.2 Chemical properties of 8 Candidates should be able to:

first row transition
elements (a) explain variable oxidation states in terms of
the energies of 3d and 4s orbitals;
(b) explain the colours of transition metal ions in
terms of a partially filled 3d orbitals;
(c) state the principal oxidation numbers of these
elements in their common cations, oxides and
oxo ions;
(d) explain qualitatively the relative stabilities of
these oxidation states;
(e) explain the uses of standard reduction
potentials in predicting the relative stabilities
of aqueous ions;
(f) explain the terms complex ion and ligand;

(g) explain the formation of complex ions and the

colour changes by exchange of ligands.
(Examples of ligands: water, ammonia,
cyanide ions, thiocyanate ions, ethanedioate
ions, ethylenediaminetetraethanoate, halide
ions; examples of complex ions: [Fe(CN)6]4 ,
[Fe(CN)6]3 , [Fe(H2O)5(SCN)]2+);
(h) explain the use of first row transition elements
in homogeneous catalysis, as exemplifed by
Fe2+ or Fe3+ in the reaction between I and
2
S2O8 ;

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Period

(i) explain the use of first row transition elements

in heterogeneous catalysis, as exemplifed by
Ni and Pt in the hydrogenation of alkenes.

13.3 Nomenclature and 3 Candidates should be able to:

bonding of complexes
(a) name complexes using International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
nomenclature;
(b) discuss coordinate bond formation between
ligands and the central metal atom/ion, and
state the types of ligands, i.e. monodentate,
bidentate and hexadentate.

13.4 Uses of first row 1 Candidates should be able to:

transition elements and
their compounds (a) describe the use of chromium (in stainless
steel), cobalt, manganese, titanium (in alloys)
and TiO2 (in paints).

8
 Appendix A
Table of Cations Reactions
Reagent H2S in alkaline
H2S in acid medium medium or (NH4)2S
NaOH(aq) NH3(aq) Na2CO3(aq) K4Fe(CN)6(aq) Na2HPO4(aq) Others reagent
Cation

Al3+ White precipitate White precipitate. White precipitate. White precipitate, White precipitate. (a) Aluminon reagent: red precipitate.
soluble in excess. soluble in mineral (b) CH3COONa: no precipitate; white
acid and NaOH, precipitate when boiled.
insoluble in (c) K2CrO4: orange yellow precipitate,
CH3COOH. dissolve in mineral asid.

Ba2+ White precipitate in White precipitate. White precipitate, (a) Dilute H2SO4 or CaSO4(aq): white
concentrated soluble in HNO3 or precipitate.
solution HCl. (b) (NH4)2C2O4: white precipitate,
dissolve in hot CH3COOH.
(c) K2CrO4: yellow precipitate.

Ca2+ White precipitate. White precipitate. White precipitate in (NH4)2C2O4: white precipitate, insoluble
excess reagent. in CH3COOH.

Cr3+ Greyish green Greyish green Greyish green Green precipitate, Greyish green (a) Excess NaOH + H2O2: yellow
134

precipitate, soluble precipitate soluble in precipitate. soluble in mineral precipitate. solution.

in excess to form excess to form purple acids. (b) Acidified solution + H2O2: blue
green solution. solution. solution blue precipitate
yellow solution.

Cu2+ Blue precipitate, Blue precipitate, Blue precipitate, Redish brown Blue precipitate. Black precipitate, Black precipitate. (a) SCN : black precipitate.
turns black when soluble in excess to turns black when precipitate soluble soluble in hot (b) KI: white precipitate in brown
heated. produce dark blue heated. in excess NH3(aq) HNO3. solution.
solution. Soluble in to produce blue
NH4Cl. solution.

Fe2+ Dirty green Dirty green precipitate, Dirty green Blue precipitate. Black precipitate. (a) K3Fe(CN)6(aq): dark blue precipitate.
precipitate. soluble in NH4Cl. precipitate. (b) KMnO4/H+: decolourisation at room
temperature.

Fe3+ Brown precipitate. Brown precipitate. Brown precipitate. Dark blue Yellowish white Yellow precipitate. Black precipitate. (a) SCN : blood red solution.
precipitate. precipitate, soluble (b) K3Fe(CN)6: brown solutin.
in mineral acids, (c) KI: brown solution/yellow/black
insoluble in precipitate.
CH3COOH. (d) K2CrO4: orange brown precipitate.
(e) CH3COONa: red solution, brown
precipitate when heated.
 Lampiran A
Jadual bagi Tindak Balas Kation
Reagen H2S dalam medium
H2S dalam medium beralkali atau
NaOH(ak) NH3(ak) Na2CO3(ak) K4Fe(CN)6(ak) Na2HPO4(ak) berasid Reagen lain
(NH4)2S
Kation
Al3+ Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. (a) Reagen Aluminon: mendakan
larut dalam larut dalam asid merah.
berlebihan. mineral dan NaOH, (b) CH3COONa: tiada mendakan;
tak larut dalam mendakan putih apabila dididihkan.
CH3COOH. (c) K2CrO4: mendakan kuning jingga,
larut dalam asid mineral.

Ba2+ Mendakan putih Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih, (a) H2SO4 cair atau CaSO4(ak):
dalam larutan pekat. larut dalam HNO3 mendakan putih.
atau HCl. (b) (NH4)2C2O4: mendakan putih, larut
dalam CH3COOH panas.
(c) K2CrO4: mendakan kuning.

Ca2+ Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih (NH4)2C2O4: mendakan putih, tak larut
dalam berlebihan. dalam CH3COOH.
135

Cr3+ Mendakan hijau Mendakan hijau Mendakan hijau Mendakan hijau, Mendakan hijau (a) NaOH berlebihan + H2O2: larutan
kelabu, larut dalam kelabu, larut dalam kelabu. larut dalam asid kelabu. kuning.
berlebihan berlebihan membentuk mineral. (b) Asidkan larutan + H2O2: larutan
membentuk larutan larutan ungu. biru mendakan biru larutan
hijau. kuning.

Cu2+ Mendakan biru, Mendakan biru, larut Mendakan biru, Mendakan coklat Mendakan biru. Mendakan hitam, Mendakan hitam. (a) SCN-: mendakan hitam.
menjadi hitam dalam berlebihan menjadi hitam kemerahan, larut larut dalam HNO3 (b) KI: mendakan putih dalam larutan
apabila dipanaskan. membentuk larutan apabila dalam NH3 (ak) panas. coklat.
biru tua. Larut dalam dipanaskan. berlebihan
NH4Cl. membentuk larutan
biru.

Fe2+ Mendakan hijau Mendakan hijau kotor, Mendakan hijau Mendakan biru. Mendakan hitam. (a) K3Fe(CN)6: mendakan biru tua.
kotor. larut dalam NH4Cl. kotor. (b) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan pada
suhu bilik.
-
Fe3+ Mendakan coklat. Mendakan coklat. Mendakan coklat. Mendakan biru tua. Mendakan putih Mendakan kuning. Mendakan hitam. (a) SC larutan merah darah.
N:
kekuningan, larut
(b) K3Fe(CN)6: larutan coklat.
dalam asid mineral,
(c) KI: larutan coklat/ kuning/
tak larut dalam
mendakan hitam.
CH3COOH.
(d) K2CrO4: mendakan coklat jingga.
(e) CH3COONa: larutan merah,
mendakan coklat apabila dididihkan.
 Reagent
H2S in alkaline
NaOH(aq) NH3(aq) Na2CO3(aq) K4Fe(CN)6(aq) Na2HPO4(aq) H2S in acid medium Others reagent
Cation medium or (NH4)2S

Mg2+ White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate, (a) Magneson reagent + NaOH: blue
soluble in NH4Cl. soluble in NH4Cl. soluble in NH4Cl. soluble in mineral precipitate.
acid. (b) Na3PO4: white precipitate.

Mn2+ White precipitate, White precipitate, Yellowish brown Yellowish brown Yellowish brown (a) Sodium bismutate + HNO3: violet
turns brown. turns brown, soluble in precipitate. precipitate turns precipitate. solution.
NH4Cl. brown when heated. (b) PbO2 + HNO3 (conc): violet
solution.
(c) K2S2O8 + AgNO3: violet solution.
(d) NaClO + NaO: dark brown
precipirate.

Ni2+ Green precipitate. Green precipitate, Green precipitate. Green precipitate. Green precipitate. Black precipitate. (a) Dimetilglioksima reagent + NH3:
soluble in excess red precipitate.
forms blue solution. (b) NaClO + NaOH: black precipitate.
Soluble in NH4Cl.
136

Pb2+ White precipitate, White precipitate. White precipitate. White precipitate. White precipitate. Black precipitate. Black precipitate. (a) Dilute HCl: white precipitate,
soluble in excess. soluble when heated; reforms when
cool.
(b) Dilute H2SO4: White precipitate,
soluble in (NH4)2C2O4.
(c) KI: yellow precipitate, soluble
when is heated, reforms when cool.
(d) K2CrO4: yellow precipitate.
(e) NaClO: dark brown precipitate.

Zn2+ White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate. White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate. K3Fe(CN)6: orange brown precipitate.
soluble in excess. soluble in excess, soluble in alkali, soluble in NaOH,
soluble in NH4Cl. insoluble in mineral acid or
mineral acid. NH4Cl.

+
NH4 Pungent gas Pungent gas liberated (a) Nessler reagent: brown precipitate.
liberated when when heated. (b) Heated with NaOH, gases evolved
heated. tested with concentrated HCl: white
fume.
 Reagen H2S dalam medium
NH3(ak) Na2CO3(ak) K4Fe(CN)6(ak) Na2HPO4(ak) H2S dalam medium beralkali atau
NaOH(ak) Reagen lain
berasid (NH4)2S
Kation
Mg2+ Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, (a) Reagen Magneson + NaOH:
larut dalam NH4Cl. larut dalam NH4Cl. larut dalam NH4Cl. larut dalam asid mendakan biru.
mineral. (b) Na3PO4: mendakan putih.

Mn2+ Mendakan putih Mendakan putih Mendakan coklat Mendakan coklat Mendakan coklat (a) Natrium bismutat + HNO3:
bertukar menjadi bertukar menjadi kekuningan. kekuningan menjadi kekuningan. larutan ungu/lembayung.
coklat. coklat. Larut dalam coklat apabila (b) PbO2 + HNO3 pekat: larutan ungu/
NH4Cl. dipanaskan. lembayung.
(c) K2S2O8 + AgNO3: larutan ungu/
lembayung.
(d) NaClO: mendakan coklat tua.

Ni2+ Mendakan hijau. Mendakan hijau, larut Mendakan hijau. Mendakan hijau. Mendakan hijau. Mendakan hitam. (a) Reagen dimetilglioksima + NH3:
dalam berlebihan mendakan merah.
membentuk larutan (b) NaClO + NaOH: mendakan hitam.
biru muda. Larut
137

dalam NH4Cl.

Pb2+ Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih. Mendakan hitam. Mendakan hitam. (a) HCl cair: mendakan putih, larut
larut dalam apabila panas; terbentuk semula
berlebihan. apabila disejukkan.
(b) H2SO4 cair: mendakan putih,
larut dalam (NH4)2C2O4.
(c) KI: mendakan kuning, larut
apabila panas; terbentuk semula
apabila disejukkan.
(d) K2CrO4: mendakan kuning.
(e) NaClO: mendakan coklat tua.

Zn2+ Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. K3Fe(CN)6: mendakan coklat jingga.
larut dalam larut dalam berlebihan. larut dalam alkali, larut dalam NaOH,
berlebihan. Larut dalam NH4Cl. tak larut dalam NH4Cl, atau asid
asid mineral. mineral

+
NH4 Gas berbau hancing Gas berbau hancing (a) Reagen Nessler: mendakan
dibebaskan apabila dibebaskan apabila coklat.
dipanaskan. dipanaskan. (b) Panaskan dengan NaOH, uji gas
dengan HCl pekat: wasap putih.
 Appendix B

Table of Anion Reactions

Reagent
Dilute HCl or BaCl2(aq) or Pb(NO3)2(aq) atau
H2SO4 Concentrated H2SO4 Ba(NO3)2(aq) AgNO3(aq) Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) FeCl3(aq) Others reagent
Anion

Choking gas is Gas burned with a blue White precipitate turns Dark red solution; brown (a) KMnO4/H+: decolouration.
HCOO
liberated. flame is liberated. black. precipitate when heated. (b) CH3CH2OH + a little concentrated H2SO4:
fragrant smell

Gas smell of vinegar is Gas of vinegar smell is White precipitate in Red solution; brown (a) CH3CH2OH + a little concentrated H2SO4:
CH3 COO
released when heated. released. concentrated solution, precipitate when heated. fragrant smell.
soluble in HNO3 or (b) Sodalime: gas burned with blue flame
NH3(aq). without soot.

White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate, White precipitate. Yellowish-brown (a) CH3CH2OH + a little concentrated H2SO4:
C6 H5 COO
soluble in hot water, soluble in hot water; soluble in hot water or precipitate. fragrant smell.
white crystal formed white crystal formed NH3(aq). (b) Sodalime: gas burned with yellow flame
upon cooling. upon cooling. without soot.
138

Gas burned with blue White White precipitate, White precipitate, (a) KMnO4/H+: decolourised when heated.
C2 O 2
4 flame and gas turned lime precipitate, soluble in HNO3 or soluble in HNO3. (b) CaCl2(aq): when precipitate.
water chalky when soluble in HCl, NH3(aq).
heated. HNO3 or H2SO4.

White fume is formed. White precipitate, White precipitate, MnO2(s) + H2SO4 (conc): greenish-yellow gas
Cl
insoluble in HNO3 but soluble in hot water; or is liberated.
soluble in NH3(aq). concentrated HCl; white
crystal formed upon
cooling.

Redish-brown gas is Light yellow White precipitate, (a) MnO2(s) + H2SO4 (conc): redish-brown gas
Br
liberated. precipitate, insoluble soluble in hot water, is liberated.
in dulute HNO3 or white crystal formed (b) Cl2 /NaOCl(aq) + CCl4: redish-brown
NH3(aq). upon cooling. colouration at the bottom layer.
(c) Concentrated HNO3 and heated: redish-
brown gas is liberated.

Brown fume is formed; Yellow precipitate, Yellow precipitate, Redish brown solution. (a) Cl2 water/NaOCl(aq)/Br2 water + CCl4:
I
purple fume formed when insoluble in dilute soluble in hot water; redish violet colouration formed at the
heated. HNO3 or NH3(aq). yellow crystal formed bottom layer.
upon cooling. (b) NaNO2(aq) + dilute asid: brown solution
and brown gas is liberated.
 Lampiran B

Jadual bagi Tindak Balas Anion

Reagen
HCl cair atau BaCl2(ak) atau Pb(NO3)2(ak) atau
H2SO4 cair H2SO4 pekat Ba(NO3)2(ak) AgNO3(ak) Pb(CH3COO)2(ak) FeCl3(ak) Reagen lain
Anion

Gas berbau sengit Gas terbakar Mendakan putih Larutan merah tua; (a) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan.
HCOO
dibebaskan. dengan nyalaan biru menjadi hitam. mendakan coklat (b) CH3CH2OH + sedikit H2SO4 pekat:
dibebaskan. apabila dipanaskan. bau buah-buahan/wangi.

Gas berbau cuka Gas berbau cuka Mendakan putih Larutan merah; (a) CH3CH2OH + sedikit H2SO4 pekat:
CH3 COO
dibebaskan apabila dibebaskan. dalam larutan pekat, mendakan coklat bau buah-buahan/wangi.
dipanaskan. larut dalam HNO3 apabila dididihkan. (b) Kapur soda: gas terbakar dengan
atau NH3(ak). nyalaan biru tanpa jelaga.

Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih. Mendakan coklat (a) CH3CH2OH + sedikit H2SO4 pekat:
C6 H5 COO
larut dalam air panas; larut dalam air panas; larut dalam air panas kekuningan. bau buah-buahan/wangi.
hablur putih apabila hablur putih apabila atau NH3(ak). (b) Kapur soda: gas terbakar dengan
disejukkan. disejukkan. nyalaan kuning berjelaga.
139

C2 O 2 Gas terbakar dengan Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, (a) KMnO4/H+: dinyahwarnakan apabila
4 nyalaan biru dan gas larut dalam HCl, larut dalam HNO3 larut dalam HNO3. dipanaskan.
mengeruhkan air kapur HNO3 , atau atau NH3(ak). (b) CaCl2(ak): mendakan putih.
apabila dipanaskan. H2SO4.

Wasap putih dibebaskan. Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, MnO2(p) + H2SO4 pekat: gas kuning
Cl
tidak larut dalam larut dalam air panas kehijauan dibebaskan.
HNO3 tetapi larut atau HCl pekat;
dalam NH3(ak). hablur putih apabila
disejukkan.

Gas coklat kemerahan Mendakan kuning Mendakan putih, (a) MnO2(p) + H2SO4 pekat: gas
Br
dibebaskan. pucat, tidak larut larut dalam air panas; coklat kemerahan dibebaskan.
dalam HNO3 cair hablur putih apabila (b) Air Cl2 /NaOCl(ak) + CCl4: lapisan
atau NH3(ak). disejukkan. bawah berwarna coklat kemerahan.
(c) HNO3 pekat dan panas: gas coklat
kemerahan dibebaskan.

Wasap coklat dibebaskan; Mendakan kuning, Mendakan kuning, Larutan coklat (a) Air Cl2/NaOCl/air Br2 + CCl4: lapisan
I
wasap ungu dibebaskan tidak larut dalam larut dalam air panas; kemerahan. bawah berwarna ungu.
apabila dipanaskan. HNO3 cair atau hablur kuning apabila (b) NaNO2(ak) + asid cair: larutan coklat
NH3(ak). disejukkan. dan gas coklat dibebaskan.
 Reagent
Dilute HCl or BaCl2(aq) or Pb(NO3)2(aq) or
H2SO4 Concentrated H2SO4 Ba(NO3)2(aq) AgNO3(aq) Pb(CH3COO)2(aq) FeCl3(aq) Others reagent
Anion

CO2 Gas liberated can turn Gas liberated can turn White White precipitate White precipitate, Brown precipitate; MgSO4(aq)/MgCl2(aq): white precipitate.
3
lime water chalky. lime water chalky. precipitate, turned yellow in excess; soluble in dilute HNO3. gas liberated which turn
soluble in HCl become brown when lime water chalky.
or dilute HNO3. heated.

SO2 Brimstone smell gas/ Brimstone smell gas/ White White precipitate, White precipitate, Red solution; brown (a) I2: decolourisation.
3
burnt sulphur, burnt sulphur, gas precipitate, soluble in HNO3, soluble in dilute HNO3. precipitate when heated. (b) KMnO4/H+: decolourisation.
gas decolourise decolourise KMnO4/H+. soluble in HCl NH3(aq), or SO 32 in (c) K2Cr2O7/H+: green solution.
KMnO4/H+. or HNO3. excess; turn black
precipitate when heated.

S2 O 2 Yellow precipitate;
3 brimstone smell gas/
burnt sulphur, gas
decolourise KMnO4/H+.
140
Yellow precipitate; White White precipitate turn to White precipitate, Purplish solution (a) I2: decolourisation.
brimstone smell gas/ precipitate in yellow and then brown soluble in excess S2O32 ; decolourise. (b) KMnO4/H+: decolourisation.
burnt sulphur, gas concentrated and finally black; white turn black precipitate (c) K2Cr2O7/H+: green solution.
decolourise KMnO4/H+. solution. precipitate soluble in when heated. (d) Ammonium molybdate + H2SO4:
excess S2O 2 . blue ring.
3

S2 A foul (rotten egg), A foul (rotten egg) Black precipitate, Black precipitate. A yellow sediment in an (a) KMnO4/H+: decolourisation,
smell was liberated, smell was liberated, soluble in hot HNO3. acidic medium. A black yellow precipitate.
blackening blackening sediment in an alkaline (b) K2Cr2O7/H+: green solution,
Pb(CH3COO)2 paper. Pb(CH3COO)2 paper, medium. yellow precipitate.
yellow precipitate.

SO2 White White precipitate,

4
precipitate, soluble in aqueous
insoluble in ammonium ethanoate.
HCl or HNO3.

NO2 Brown fume liberated. Brown fume liberated. White precipitate in Redish brown (a) KMnO4/H+: decolourisation.
concentrated solution, precipitated/solution (b) K2Cr2O7/H+: green solution.
soluble in HNO3 or when heated. (c) FeSO4 + H2SO4: brown ring.
NH3. (d) Devarda alloy: pungent gas.
(e) KI + dilute acid: brown sol.

NO3 Brown fume liberated. (a) FeSO4 + H2SO4: brown ring.

(b) Devarda alloy: pungent gas.
(c) Concentrated H2SO4 pekat + Cu: brown
fume, blue solution.
- - - -
C O 2 SO 2 O 2 NO with H+:
MnO4 (a) 2 4 / 3 /S2 3 / 2
decolourisation.
(b) S2-: decolourisation, yellow precipitate.
 Reagen
HCl cair atau BaCl2(ak) atau Pb(NO3)2(ak) atau
H2SO4 cair H2SO4 pekat Ba(NO3)2(ak) AgNO3(ak) Pb(CH3COO)2(ak) FeCl3(ak) Reagen lain
Anion

CO2 Gas yang mengeruhkan Gas yang mengeruhkan Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih Mendakan putih, Mendakan coklat; MgSO4(ak)/MgCl2(ak): mendakan putih.
3
air kapur dibebaskan. air kapur dibebaskan. larut dalam HCl menjadi kuning dalam larut dalam HNO3 cair. gas yang mengeruhkan
atau HNO3 cair. berlebihan; menjadi air kapur dibebaskan.
coklat apabila
dididihkan.

SO2 Gas berbau belerang/ Gas berbau belerang/ Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih, Larutan merah; (a) I2: penyahwarnaan.
3
sulfur terbakar, sulfur terbakar, larut dalam HCl larut dalam HNO3, NH3, larut dalam HNO3. mendakan coklat (b) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan.
gas menyahwarnakan gas menyahwarnakan atau HNO3. atau SO 32- berlebihan; apabila dididihkan. (c) K2Cr2O7/H+: larutan hijau.
KMnO4/H+. KMnO4/H+. mendakan hitam
apabila dididihkan.

S2 O 2 Mendakan kuning; gas Mendakan kuning; Mendakan putih Mendakan putih kepada Mendakan putih, Larutan ungu luntur (a) I2: penyahwarnaan.
3
berbau belerang/sulfur gas berbau belerang/ dalam larutan kuning kepada coklat larut dalam S2O32- apabila dibiarkan. (b) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan.
terbakar, sulfur terbakar, pekat. kepada hitam; berlebihan; (c) K2Cr2O7/H+: larutan hijau.
gas menyahwarnakan gas menyahwarnakan mendakan putih larut mendakan hitam (d) Ammonium molibdat + H2SO4 pekat:
KMnO4/H+. KMnO4/H+. dalam S2O32- berlebihan. apabila dididihkan. cincin biru.
141

S2 Gas berbau telur busuk Gas berbau telur busuk Mendakan hitam, Mendakan hitam. Mendakan kuning (a) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan,
dibebaskan, dibebaskan, larut dalam HNO3 dalam medium berasid. mendakan kuning.
gas menghitamkan gas menghitamkan panas. Mendakan hitam (b) K2Cr2O7/H+: larutan hijau,
kertas Pb(CH3COO)2. kertas Pb(CH3COO)2, dalam medium beralkali. mendakan kuning.
mendakan kuning.

SO2 Mendakan putih, Mendakan putih,

4
tidak larut dalam larut dalam ammonium
HCl atau HNO3. etanoat akueus.

NO2 Wasap coklat Wasap coklat Mendakan putih Mendakan/larutan coklat (a) KMnO4/H+: penyahwarnaan.
dibebaskan. dibebaskan. dalam larutan pekat, kemerahan apabila (b) K2Cr2O7/H+: larutan hijau.
larut dalam HNO3 atau dipanaskan. (c) FeSO4 + H2SO4 cair: cincin coklat.
NH3. (d) Aloi Devarda: gas berbau hancing.
(e) KI + asid cair: larutan coklat.

Wasap coklat (a) FeSO4 + H2SO4 pekat: cincin coklat.

NO3
dibebaskan. (b) Aloi Devarda: gas berbau hancing.
(c) H2SO4 pekat + Cu: wasap coklat;
larutan biru.
2- 2- 2- -
dengan H+:
MnO4 (a) C2O4 /SO3 /S2O3 /NO2
penyahwarnaan.
(b) S2-: penyahwarnaan, mendakan kuning.