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Laex Indian Geography Ready Reckoner PDF
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INDEX
R
E 1. Geographical Extent and Frontiers ........................................................ 2-3
R 8. Agriculture ............................................................................................. 33
K
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• Indira Point in Great Nicobar Island in the Andaman Zoji La it is in Zaskar range,
Jammu and Kashmir
Sea. kanyakumariis southernmost in Indian mainland. Banihal pass
• India has 15106.7 Km of land border and a coastline Shipki La ,Bara-Lacha Pass,
Himachal Pradesh
of 7516.6 Km. Rohtang pass
Tropic of Cancer lies at 23.50 degree North in India passes Although the night temperature in winter at several
through 8 states and nearest cities to it are. places in North India may come down to the level of
those prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear skies
1. Gandhinagar (Gujarat) - 23.10 N
and intense insolation raise the day temperatures to a
2. Jaipur (Rajasthan) - 26.55 N
tropical level.
3. Bhopal (M.P) - 23.16 N
4. Raipur (Chattisgarh) - 21.16 N
Cultural Reasons:
5. Ranchi (Jharkhand) - 23.11 N
• Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary
6. Kolkata (W.B) - 22.34 N
economic activities are all tropical in nature.
7. Agartala (Tripura) - 23.51 N
8. Aizawl (Mizoram) - 23.36 N • Hence, It is primarilybecause of Himalayas that India
is a tropical country.
Indian Standard Time: GMT + 05:30 or 82.5° longitude
East of Greenwich passing through Mirzapur of Uttar
Pradesh is Indian Standard line which passes through 5
states of India.
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Chhattisgarh
4. Odhisa
5. Andhra Pradesh
Physical Reasons:
• The country is separated from the rest of Asia by
Himalayas.
• It is primarily through the interplay of these • The Peninsula is formed by a great complex of very
endogenic and exogenic forces and lateral ancient gneisses and granites, which constitutes a
movements of plates that present geological major part of it.
structure and geomorphologic processes active in the • As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been
Indian subcontinent came into existence. subjected to various vertical movements and block
• Based on the variations in its geological structure and faulting. The rift valleys of the Narmada, the Tapi and
formations, India can be divided into three geological the Mahanadi and the Satpura block mountains are
divisions. These divisions follow the physical features: some examples of it.
(i) The Peninsular Block • The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual
mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills,
(ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, the Palkonda
range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
• The river valleys here are shallow with low gradients. • The north has a vast expanse of rugged topography
Most of the East flowing rivers form deltas before consisting of a series of mountain ranges with varied
entering into the Bay of Bengal. The deltas formed by peaks, beautiful valleys and deep gorges.
the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the
• The south consists of stable table land with highly
Godavari are important examples.
dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and developed
(ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular series of scarps.
Mountains • In between these two liesvast north Indian plain.
• The Himalayas are young, weak and flexible in their Based on these macro variations, India can be divided
geological structure unlike the rigid and stable into following physiographic divisions:
Peninsular Block.
A) The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
• Consequently, they are still subjected to the interplay B) The Northern Plain
of exogenic and endogenic forces, resulting in the C) The Peninsular Plateau
development of faults, folds and thrust plains. D) The Indian Desert
• These mountains are tectonic in origin, dissected by E) The Coastal Plains
fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful stage. F) The Islands.
• The third geological division of India comprises the • The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain
plains formed by the river Indus, Ganga and ranges.
Brahmaputra. The general orientation of these ranges is from
northwest to the southeast direction in the
• Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depression which northwestern part of India.
attained its maximum development during the third • Himalayas in the Darjiling and Sikkim regions lie in an
phase of the Himalayan mountain formation east west direction, while in Arunachal Pradesh they
approximately 64 million years ago. are from southwest to the northwest direction.
• Since then, it has been gradually filled by the
• In Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, they are in the
sediments brought by the Himalayan and Peninsular
north south direction.
rivers.
• The approximate length of the Great Himalayan
• The relief and physiography of India has been greatly
range, also known as the central axial range, is 2,500
influenced by the geological and geomorphological
km from east to west, and their width varies between
processes active in Indian subcontinent.
160-400 km from north to south.
Physiography: • Himalayas stand almost like a strong and long wall
• Physiography of an area is the outcome of structure, between the Indian subcontinent and the Central and
process and the stage of development. East Asian countries. Himalayas are not only the
physical barrier, they are also a climatic, drainage and
cultural divide.
• Some of the important ranges are the Greater Middle Himalayas or Himachal:
Himalayan range (which includes the Great Himalayas • In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Greater
and the Trans-Himalayan range), the Middle Himalayas in the north.
Himalayas and the Shiwalik.
• The Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and
about 2400 km in length.
Great Himalayas:
• Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or
Himadri.
• It is mainly formed of the crystallines (granites and
Shiwalik Range: gneisses) overlaid by metamorphosed sediments
• Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser (limestone). This mountain arc convexes to the south
Himalayas.The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 just like the other two ranges.
metres. • The Himadri terminates abruptly at the syntaxial
bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in the north-west
• Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar
Plateau (west) to the Brahmaputra valley (east). and the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
• It lies betweenthe Indus and the ravi river. Comprise a • It lies between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a
series of ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh, tributary of Ghaghara) in the east.
Zaskar and PirPanjal.
• Drained by two major river systems of India, i.e. Indus
• The northeastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is a and Ganga.
cold desert, which lies between the Greater
• Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh cold desert,
Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
which lies in the Spiti subdivision of district Lahul and
• Between the Great Himalayas and the PirPanjal range, Spiti.
lies the world famous valley of Kashmir and the
• All the three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in
famous Dal Lake.
this section also.
• Important glaciers of South Asia such as the Baltoro
• These are the Great Himalayan range, the Lesser
and Siachen are also found in this region.
Himalayas (which is locally known as Dhaoladhar in
• The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Karewa Himachal Pradesh and Nag tibha in Uttarakhand) and
formations, which are useful for the cultivation of the Shiwalik range from the North to the South.
Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
• The two distinguishing features of this region from
• Some of the important passes of the region are Zoji the point of view of physiography are the Shiwalik and
La on the Great Himalayas, Banihal on the PirPanjal, ‘Dun formations‘.
Photu La on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the
• Some important duns located in this region are the
Ladakh range.
Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun,
Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc.
• The Barak is an important river in Manipur and • South of the Bhabar is the Taraibelt, with an
Mizoram. approximate width of 10-20 km where most of the
streams and rivers re-emerge creating marshy and
• The physiography of Manipur is unique by the
swampy conditions known as the Tarai.
presence of a large lake known as ‘Loktak‘ lake at the
centre, surrounded by mountains from all sides. • Bhangar old alluvium deposit and khaddar new
Mizoram which is also known as the ‘Molassis basin‘ alluvium deposit.
which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
• These plains have characteristic features of mature
• Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms
the Brahmaputra. such as sand bars, meanders, ox- bow lakes and
braided channels. The Brahmaputra plains are known
• While two rivers of Mizoram and Manipur are the
for their riverine islands and sand bars.
tributaries of the Barakriver, which in turn is the
tributary of Meghna. • Most of these areas are subjected to periodic floods
and shifting river courses forming braided streams.
• Rivers in eastern part of Manipur are tributaries of
• The mouths of these mighty rivers also form some of
Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady
the largest deltas of the world, for example, the
of Myanmar.
famous Sunderbans delta.
B. The Northern Plains: C. The Peninsular Plateau
• Formed by the alluvial deposits brought by the rivers
• Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains
– the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Extend
up to an elevation of 600-900m is the irregular
approximately 3,200 km from the east to the west.
triangle known as the Peninsular plateau.
Average width of these plains varies between 150-300
km. • Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis),
the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west
• From the north to the south, these can be divided into
and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the
three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the
outer extent of the Peninsular plateau.
alluvial plains.
• However, an extension of this is also seen in the
• The alluvial plains can be further divided into the
northeast, in the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong
Khadar and the Bhangar.
plateau.
• Some of the important ranges include the Javadi hills, • This area receives maximum rainfall from the south
the Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the west monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau
Mahendragiri hills, etc. has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji displays a
bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent
• The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other
vegetation cover.
at the Nilgiri hills.
D. The Indian Desert:
2. The Central Highlands:
• To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great
• They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range. Indian desert. It is a land of undulating topography
• The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
plateaus on the south, This forms the northernmost
• This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per
boundary of the Deccan plateau. It is a classic
year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation
example of the relict mountains which are highly
cover. It is because of these characteristic features
denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
that this is also known as Marusthali. Low
• The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen precipitation and high evaporation makes it a water
as far as Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been deficit region.
covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-
• Luniriver flowing in the southern part of the desert is
shaped sand dunes called barchans.
of some significance.
• This region has undergone metamorphic processes in
• There are some streams which disappear after
its geological history, which can be corroborated by
flowing for some distance and present a typical case
the presence of metamorphic rocks such as marble,
of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa.
slate, gneiss, etc.
• The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is
3. The North-Eastern Plateau:
the main source of obtaining salt.
• It is an extension of Peninsular plateau.It is believed
E. The Coastal Plains:
that due to the force exerted by the north-eastward
movement of the Indian plate at the time of the • On the basis of the location and active geomorpho-
Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between logical processes, it can be broadly divided into two:
the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau. a. Western coastal plains.
• Later, this depression got filled up by the deposition b. Eastern coastal plains.
activity of the numerous rivers. Today, the Meghalaya
a. Western Coastal Plains:
and Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from the
main Peninsular Block. • Submerged Coastal Plain. It is believed that the city of
Dwaraka which was once a part of the Indian
The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three: mainland situated along the west coast is submerged
(i) The Garo Hills; (ii) The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills, under water.
named after the tribal groups inhabiting this region. • Because of this submergence it is a narrow belt and
• An extension of this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong provides natural conditions for the development of
hills of Assam. Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port
Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are
like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. some of the important natural ports located along the
west coast.
b. Eastern Coastal Plains. • However, some smaller islands are volcanic in origin.
The eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example Barren island, the only active volcano in India.
of an emergent coast. • These islands receive convectional rainfall and have
an equatorial type of vegetation.
• There are well- developed deltas here, formed by the
rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal.These The islands of the Arabian Sea:
include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the • Include Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These are
Krishna and the Kaveri. scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E
longitude, they are coral origin.
• Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of
ports and harbours. (The continental shelf extends up
to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the
development of good ports and harbours).
F. The Islands:
• There are two major island groups in India – one in
the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea.
• The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of about 572 • Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq.
islands/islets. km.
• These are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and • The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the
92°E -94°E. Eleventh degree channel, north of which is the Amini
Island and to the south of the Canannore Island.
• The boundary line separating one drainage basin from their waters in the Arabian Sea.
the other is known as the watershed. • On the basis of the size of the watershed, the
• The catchments of large rivers are called river basins drainage basins of India are grouped into three
(larger area) while those of small rivulets and rills are categories:
often referred to as watersheds (Smaller Area).
(i) Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km
• The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins
tree is known as Dendritic Ex: the rivers of northern such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna,
plain. the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the
• When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
directions, the drainage pattern is known as Radial.
(ii) Medium river basins with catchment area
Ex: Amarkantak range
between 2,000-20,000 sq. km includes 44 river
• When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the
each other and secondary tributaries join them at Meghna, etc.
right angles, the pattern is known as Trellis.
(iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of less
• When the rivers discharge their waters from all
than 2,000 sq. km include fairly good number of
directions in a lake or depression, the pattern is
rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall
known as Centripetal.
• On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and
characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be
classified into,
A) Himalayan Drainage
B) Peninsular Drainage.
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2. The Ganga System valley and finally joins the Hugli. The Barakar is its
main tributary. Also known as the sorrow of Bengal.
• It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900
m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is • The Mahananda is another important tributary of the
known as the Bhagirathi. Ganga rising in the Darjiling hills.
• At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; • The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga,
hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The Alaknanda originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
has its source in the Satopanth glacier above
Badrinath. The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
The figure given below shows various regions where
confluence places of initial rivers which form Ganga as
a whole:
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• Major tributaries -Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta, River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage:
Meghna (Barack in Assam), Manas
• The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son,
• The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of
originating in the northern part of the Peninsula
Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisha to discharge its
belong to the Ganga river system.
water into the Bay of Bengal. It drains through
• The other major river systems of the peninsular Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
drainage are – the Mahanadi the Godavari, the
• The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system. It
Krishna and the Kaveri.
is also called the Dakshin Ganga. It rises in the Nasik
• Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into
absence of meanders and non- perennial flow of the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the
water. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
the rift valley are, however, exceptions. Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System: The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the
Manjra are its principal tributaries.
Three major geological events in the distant past have
shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India: • The Krishna is the second largest east- flowing
Peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in
1. Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula
Sahyadri. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and the Bhima
leading to its submergence below the sea during the
are its major tributaries. It drains through Maharastra,
early tertiary period.
Karnatakaand Andhra Pradesh.
2. Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank
of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence • The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills of Kodagu district
and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada in Karnataka. Since the upper catchment area receives
and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original rainfall during the southwest monsoon season
cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a (summer) and the lower part during the northeast
lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers. monsoon season (winter), the river carries water
3. Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest throughout the year.
to the south-eastern direction gave orientation to the
It drains through Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal
Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani
during the same period.
and the Amravati.
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The surface winds blowing out of the high pressure centre All of Western and Central Asia remains under the
over Central Asia reach India in the form of a dry influence of westerly winds along the altitude of 9-13 km
continental air mass. from west to east. These winds blow across the Asian
continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly
These continental winds come in contact with trade winds
parallel to the Tibetan highlands. These are known as jet
over north-western India.
streams.
Jet streams are fast-moving winds in the upper
atmosphere which influences the global atmospheric
phenomenon.
A Tibetan highland acts a barrier in the path of Jet
streams as a result it gets bifurcated. One of its branches
blows north of Tibetan highland and southern branch
blows in an eastward direction, south of the Himalayas
there by influencing winter weather in India.
After withdrawal of westerly jet streams, easterly jet EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon:
stream sets in at 15 degree N, thereby resulting in burst of
EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once
monsoon in India. every three to seven years, bringing drought, floods and
Entry of Monsoon into India: other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
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(iii) The cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and
Turkmenistan bring cold wave along with frost and
fog over the north-western parts of India.
1. Cold weather season 2. Due to anti cyclonic circulation on land, the possibility
of rainfall from them reduces. So, most parts of India
2. Hot weather season
do not have rainfall in the winter season.
3. Southwest monsoon season
However, there are some exceptions to it:
4. Retreating monsoon season
(i) In North-western India, some weak temperate
cyclones from the Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
1. The Cold Weather Season:
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh.
Temperature:
• The cold weather season sets in by mid-November in (ii) During October and November, northeast monsoon
northern India. December and January are the while crossing over the Bay of Bengal, picks up
coldest months in the northern plain. moisture and causes torrential rainfall over the Tamil
Nadu coast, southern Andhra Pradesh, southeast
• There are three main reasons for the excessive cold in
Karnataka and southeast Kerala.
north India during this season:
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Pressure and Winds: After crossing the equator, they follow a south-westerly
direction. That is why they are known as southwest
The summer months are a period of excessive heat and
monsoons.
falling air pressure in the northern half of the country.
Because of the heating of the subcontinent, the ITCZ The rain in the southwest monsoon season begins
moves northwards occupying a position centred at 25°N abruptly, there by brings down the temperature
in July. substantially. This sudden onset of the moisture-laden
winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is
A sudden contact between dry and moist air masses give often termed as the break or burst of the monsoons.
rise to local storms of great intensity associated with
violent winds, torrential rains and hailstorms. The monsoon approaches the landmass in two branches:
Towards the end of summer,there are pre monsoon (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
showers common in Kerala and Karnataka locally,they are
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea:
known as mango showers ,since they help in the early
ripening of mangoes The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea
further split into three branches:
2. Blossom Shower:
With this shower coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats.
nearby areas These winds climb the slopes of the Western Ghats
from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool, and as a
3. Nor Westers:
result, the windward side of the Sahyadris and
These are dreaded evening thunderstorm in Bengal and Western Coastal Plain receive very heavy rainfall
Assam .Their notorious nature can be understood from ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm.
the local nomenclature of ‘kalbaisakhi. These showers are
useful for tea, jute rice cultivation. In Assam,these storms After crossing the Western Ghats, these winds
are known as Bardolichheerha descend and get heated up. This reduces humidity in
the winds. As a result, these winds cause little
4. Loo:
rainfall east of the Western Ghats. This region of low
Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the northern rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity. (orographic)
Narmada and Tapiriver valleys, these winds cause • By the end of September, the southwest monsoon
rainfall in extensive areas of central India. becomes weak as the low pressure trough of the
Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains and mingle Ganga plain starts moving southward in response to
with the Bay of Bengal branch. the southward march of the sun.
(iii) A third branch of this monsoon wind strikes the • The retreating southwest monsoon season is marked
Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then by clear skies and rise in temperature. The land is still
passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravalis, moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature
causing only a scanty rainfall. and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive. This is commonly known as the October
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal:
heat.
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of Myanmar
• The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north
and part of southeast Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills
India but it is associated with rain in the eastern part
along the coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this
of the Peninsula. Here, October and November are
branch towards the Indian subcontinent.
the rainiest months of the year.
• The monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and
• The widespread rain in this season is associated with
Bangladesh from south and southeast instead of
the passage of cyclonic depressions which originate
south-westerly direction. From here, this branch splits
over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
into two under the influence of the Himalayas and
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.These
the thermal low in northwest India.
tropical cyclones are very destructive.
• Its one branch moves westward along the Ganga
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall:
plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.
(i) Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is
• The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in
seasonal in character, which occurs between June
the north and the northeast, causing widespread
and September.
rains.
(ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or
• Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of
topography.
Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi
hills, receives the highest average annual rainfall in (iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with
the world. increasing distance from the sea.
• Here it is important to know why the Tamil Nadu (iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days
coast remains dry during this season. There are two duration at a time. The wet spells are interspersed
factors responsible for it: with rainless interval known as Monsoonal breaks.
(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the (v) The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour
Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoon. leading to considerable run off and soil erosion.
(ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea (vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy
branch of the south-west monsoon. of India because over three-fourths of the total rainin
the country is received during the south- west
4. Season of Retreating Monsoon
monsoon season.
• The months of October and November are known for
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges
retreating monsoons.
from 12 cm to more than 250 cm.
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• The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, (iv) Cool temperate climates, where mean temperature
but it has great spatial variations. of the warmest month is over 10°C, and mean
temperature of the coldest month is under minus 3°C
• Areas of High Rainfall: The highest rainfall occurs
along the west coast, on the Western Ghats, as well (v) Ice climates, where mean temperature of the
as in the sub-Himalayan areas is the northeast and the warmest month is under 10°C.
hills of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall exceeds 200 cm.
In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall
exceeds 1,000 cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the
adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200 cm.
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Natural Vegetation Nicobar Islands found in warm and humid areas with
an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has annual temperature above 22degree C.
been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow its
individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil • Well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and
conditions as fully as possible. are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of trees up to
Himalayan heights are marked with temperate height of 60cm.
vegetation; the Western Ghats and the Andaman
Nicobar Islands have tropical rain forests. The deltaic • There is no definite time for trees to shed their
regions have tropical forests and mangroves. The desert leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests
and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii, a appear green all the year round.
wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation • Species found in these forests include rosewood,
Types of Forests: mahogony, aini, ebony, etc.
• Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood etc. are At many place in this zone temperate grass lands are
the common trees of these forests. found. But in the higher reaches there is a transaction to
alpine forests and pastures. Silverfirs, junipers, pines,
3. Tropical Thorn Forests
birch and rhododendrons, etc., occur between used
• Found in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 extensively for transhumance by tribes like the Gujjars,
cm. the Bakarwals, the bhotiyas and the gaddis.
• These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It Southern slopes of the Himalayans carry a thicker
includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and than the drier north –facing slopes at higher altitudes,
Uttar Pradesh. mosses and lichens from part of tundra vegetation.
• Plants remain leafless for most part of the year and b. Southern Mountain Forests:
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
• Found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz;
• Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris.
palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m
as the under growth. above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the
4. Montane Forests: higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu
• In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature and Karnataka.
with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
• The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
change in natural vegetation.
Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other trees of
Mountain forests can be classified into two types, this forest of economic significance includemagnolia,
a. The Northern mountain forests laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also
b. The Southern mountain forests found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
a. Northern Mountain Forests: 5. Littoral and Swamp Forests
• The Himalayan ranges show a succession of • India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70
vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which per cent of this comprises areas under paddy
changes with the altitude. cultivation. Two sites — Chilika Lake (Odisha) and
Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as
Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the
water-fowl habitats under the Convention of
Himalayas.
Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
It is succeed by the wet temperate type of forests
Convention).
between an altitude of 1000-2000m in the higher hill
areas of west Bengal and Uttaranchal, Evergreen broad Forest Cover in India:
leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant. • The forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land
area of the country.
Between 1500-1750m, Pine forests are well developed,
with Chir pine as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a • The forest area is the area notified and recorded as
highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the the forest land irrespective of the existence of trees,
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar is a durable while the actual forest cover is the area occupied by
wood mainly used in construction activity, similarly the forests with canopy.
chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir
handicrafts belong to this zone blue pine and spruce
appear at altitude of 2225 -3048 m.
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Soils
• The mixture of rock debris and organic materials
which develop on the earth‘s surface.
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide
Nadu. and aluminium compound are left behind.
• These soils are also known as the ‘RegurSoil‘ or the • Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria
‘Black Cotton Soil‘. Generally clayey, deep and that thrives well in high temperature.
impermeable.
• Poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and
• They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink calcium, while iron oxide and potash are in excess.
when dried. So, during the dry season, these soil Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation.
develop wide cracks like‘self ploughing‘.
• Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
• Because of this character of slow absorption and loss Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a cashewnut.
very long time, which helps the crops, especially, the
• The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka,
rain fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly
• Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, areas of Odisha and Assam.
magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But
5. Arid Soils
they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic
matter. The colour of the soil ranges from deep black • Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
to grey.
• They are generally sandy in structure and saline in
3. Red and Yellow Soil nature.
• Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas • They lack moisture and humus. Nitrogen is insufficient
of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the and the phosphate content is normal. Lower horizons
Deccan Plateau. Yellow and red soils are also found of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar‘ layers because of
in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern the increasing calcium content downwards.
parts of the middle Ganga plain.
• The ‘Kankar‘ (calcium)layer formation in the bottom
• The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and as such
diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is
It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form. readily available for a sustainable plant growth.
• The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally • Arid soils are characteristically developed in western
fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid
upland areas are poor in fertility. topography. These soils are poor and contain little
humus and organic matter.
• They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and
humus 6. Saline Soils
Agriculture • Wheat, barley, pulses and some oil seeds are grown
in rabi season.
Crop Temperature Rainfall Soil
150-300 2. Kharif
Rice Not above 35°C Clayey or loamy
cm • Season begins with onset of monsoons in June -July .
19°-15°C
Well-drained • The crops grown in the rainy season and harvesting
(winter),
Wheat 80 cm loams and clay takes place after the retreat of monsoon in
21°-26°C
loam
(Summer) September – October.
21°-26°C, but not
Black soil (regar), • Rice,maize, millets, Groundnuts,cotton and jute are in
below
Cotton 50-75 cm alluvial or the Kharif season.
21°C, 200 frost
laterite soils
free days 3. Zaid
Any type of soil
100-150 • This is the summer season for growing crops which
Sugarcane 20°-26°C that can retain
cm
moisture remain till April, May, and June.
Variety of soils • Products are mainly vegetables and fruits.
100 cm
Jowar Not below 16°C including clayey
and sandy Major Crops and Producing States
Rainfall of
Crop Type Crop Name Major Producers
150cm, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Madhya
Light sandy or Wheat
Jute 24°-35°C Pradesh
with 90% clayey loams
Rice West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh
humidity Cereals Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Barley
Rajasthan
Well-drained,
125-375 Bajra Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan
deep friable
cm,
Tea 24°-30°C loams or forest Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra
grown on
soils, rich in Cash Crops
hill slopes Uttar Pradesh and Himachal
organic water Poppy
Pradesh
Rich, well-
Coconut Kerala and Tamil Nadu
drained friable
150-200 Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
Coffee 15°-28°C loams containing Linseed
cm Haryana
good amount of
vegetable mould Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Groundnut
Sandy loams, red Oil Seeds Nadu
Bajra 25°-30°C 40-50 cm Rape seed Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and
and black soils
Red, sandy and Mustard Haryana
50-100
Ragi 20°-30°C loams and light Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
cm Sunflower
black Maharashtra
Pulses 20°-25°C 50-75 cm Dry, light soil Cotton Maharashtra and Gujarat
150-200 Rich, well-
Rubber 25°-35°C Jute West Bengal and Bihar
cm drained soils Fibre crops
Well-drained Silk Karnataka and Kerala
50-100 loamy soil, Hemp Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
Tobacco 16°-40°C
cm alluvial or black
soils Coffee Karnataka and Kerala
Rubber Kerala and Karnataka
Plantations
Tea Assam and Kerala
Three cropping seasons of India
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya
1. Rabi: Tobacco
Pradesh
Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
• This season starts after the rainy season sowing
Spices Ginger Kerala and Uttar Pradesh
begins in September -October and harvesting takes
place in February – march. Turmeric Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
It is used for smelting of Iron and also for making Non Metallic Minerals:
alloys containing Manganese. Non metallic minerals are used in a large variety of
industries; the major industries being cement, fertilizers,
India has second largest manganese reserves after
Zimbabwe. electricals, etc.
Major share of Copper production comes from Bituminous carries 60 to 80 per cent of carbon content
and a low level of moisture content. It is widely used and
Madhya Pradesh(58%), Rajasthan(32%) and
has high calorific value. It is found in Jharkhand, West
Jharkhand(11%). Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
Major copper mining centres are at Singhbhum Lignite is often brown in colour. It carries 40 to 55 per
(Jharkhand), Malanjkhand(MP), Khetri-Singhana and cent carbon content. It is an intermediate stage which
Alwar(Rajasthan),Kho- Dariba and Delwara-Kirovli. happens during the alteration of woody matter into coal.
It has high moisture content so it gives smoke when
Bauxite:
It is the ore of Aluminium.
Ports of India:
• Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved to 3. Moderate damage risk zone
be the most devastating and their area of influence is 4. Low damage risk zone
also quite large.
5. Very low damage risk zone
• These earthquakes result from a series of earth
movements brought about by a sudden release of
energy during the tectonic activities in the earth‘s
crust.
• Some of the most vulnerable states are Jammu and Most of the areas that can be considered safe are from
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and the stable landmass covered under the Deccan plateau.
the Darjeeling and subdivision of West Bengal and all Earthquake Hazard Mitigation:
the seven states of the northeast
(i) Establishing earthquake monitoring centres
• Recently, some earth scientists have come up with a (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and
theory of emergence of a fault line and energy build- fast dissemination of information among the people
up along the fault line represented by the river in the vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical
Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and
monitoring the movement of tectonic plates. India etc.
the tropical cyclones in India also originate in these of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of
two important locations. soil erosion.
• Though most of the cyclones originate between 10°- • Though floods occur frequently over wide
15° north latitudes during the monsoon season, yet in geographical area having disastrous ramifications in
case of the Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop many parts of the world, floods in the South,
during the months of October and November. Southeast and East Asian countries, particularly in
China, India and Bangladesh, are frequent and equally
• Originate between 16°-2° N latitudes and to the west
disastrous.
of 92° E. By July the place of origin of these storms
shifts to around 18° N latitude and west of 90°E near • RashtriyaBarhAyog (National Flood Commission)
the Sunderban Delta. A surge is generated due to identified 40 million hectares of land as flood-prone in
interaction of air, sea and land. The cyclone provides India Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are among the
the driving force in the form of very high horizontal high flood-prone states of India.
pressure-gradient and very strong surface winds. The
sea water flows across the coast along with strong
winds and heavy downpour.
Droughts:
• Meteorological Drought: It is a situation when there A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock,
is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked debris, or earth down a slope
with mal-distribution of the same over time and
space. Landslide Vulnerability Zones
• Agricultural Drought: It is also known as soil moisture
drought, characterised by low soil moisture that is
necessary to support the crops, thereby resulting in
crop failures.
• Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most River Projects and Their Beneficiary States
common in states like Jharkhand, Orissa, Beneficiary
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra River Purpose
States
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala. Punjab,Himachal
Sutlej Power and irrigation Pradesh, Haryana
Mitigation of landslides: and Rajasthan
• It is always advisable to adopt area-specific measures Power, irrigation and Jharkhand and
Damodar
flood control west Bengal
to deal with landslides.
Mahanadi Power and irrigation Odisha
• Restriction on the construction and other Andra Pradesh
Tungabhadr Power and irrigation
developmental activities such as roads and dams, a and Karnataka
limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with Andhra Pradesh
moderate slopes, and control on the development of Krishna Power and irrigation
and Telangana
large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, Bihar, Uttar
should be enforced. This should be supplemented by Pradesh,
some positive actions like promoting large-scale Gandak Power and irrigation Nepal(joint
afforestation programmes and construction of bunds venture of India
to reduce the flow of water. and Nepal)