REVISION MAP

Atoms

a-particle Scattering Bohr's Model of Hydrogen Atom j

Experiment by Rutherford
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave
In this experiment, a collimated beam of ex-particles of energy his theory in the form of three postulates .
5.5 MeV was allowed to fall on 2.1 x 10-'m thick gold foil. The • First postulate state that an electron could revolve in a
ex-particles were observed through a rotatable detector consisting of certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy.
zinc sulphide screen and microscope and it was found that • Second postulate tells that mvr = ;:
ex-particles got scattered, which produce scintillations on zinc
sulphide screen. • Third postulate tells that hv = £2 -£1

Rutherford's Model of Atom

r There are some essential features of this model.

• Every atom consists of a central core called the nucleus of an atom
15
and the size of the nucleus is of the order of 10- m.
• The atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons
and they revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits.
Energy Levels
The energy of an atom is the least when its electron is revolving
in an orbit closest to the nucleus.

Hydrogen Spectrum
• It consists of discrete bright lines in a dark background and is
Electron Orbits known as hydrogen emission spectrum.
• There is one more type of hydrogen spectrum that exists where
l The total mechanical energy Eof electron in a hydrogen atom is
E =-=!!_
2 we get dark lines on the bright background , it is known as
absorption spectrum.
81t£J
t de-Broglie's Comment on Bohr's
Drawbacks of Rutherford's Model
1. Regarding stability of atom. Second Postulate
2. Regarding explanation of line spectrum. According to de-Broglie astationary orbit is that which contains an
integral number of de-Broglie standing waves associated with the
revolving electron.
Distance of Closest Approach
At a certain distance r0 from the nucleus, whole of the kinetic 7
energy of ex-particles convert into electrostatic potential energy Radii of Bohr's Velocity of electrons in
and the ex-particles cannot go further close to the nucleus. Stationary Orbits Bohr's Stationary Orbits
2 2
n h £0 ze2 1
r ---'--
2 2
⇒ r oc n 2 V=---
2 h£o n
4n mle
Scattering Angle Impact Parameter
Angle by which ex-particles Perpendicular distance of the
get deviated from its original velocity vector of the Frequency of Electrons in Total Energy of Electrons in
path around the nucleus is ex-particles from the central line Bohr's Stationary Orbits Bohr's Stationary Orbits

r
4 2
called angle of scattering. of the nucleus of an atom is kle
2
1 -me Z
called impact parameter. v=-- ⇒ voc- E=--
nhr n Bn2c/h2

Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen-like Atom

A hydrogen-like atom consists of a tiny positively charged nucleus and an
electron revolving in a stable circular orbit around the nucleus.
• Bohr's radius, r = (h 2 £ 0 / nme2)
2
• Velocity of electron in stationary orbit, v = (e / 2h £ 0)
 REVISION lMAP
Nuclei

Nucleus and Its Composition ' Radioactivity and Nuclear Energ~

._ 7 ' J I

t
Composition of Nucleus Radioactivity
The nucleus was first discovered by Lord Rutherford. He found that A spontaneous nuclear phenomenon in which an unstable nuclei
the scattering results could be explained , if atoms consist of a small , undergoes a decay with the emission of some particles a, ~ and
central and positive core surrounded by orbiting electrons. electromagnetic radiations (y-rays) .
t + +
r
Discovery of
i
Atomic Mass Number
Properties of
a-particles
Properties of
P-particles
Properties of
y-rays
Neutron Number a-particles carry A ~-particle has a They have high energy
James Chadwick It is the total number electromagnetic
It is the number + 2e charge and charge of electron.
discovered the neutral of protons and radiation of nuclear origin
of protons mass is equal to These have high
radiation consists of a neutrons inside the and short wavelength
present inside that of proton. penetrating power
new type of neutral nucleus. and highest penetrating
the nucleus. and low ionising
particles. power. power.

Nuclear Density
The ratio of the mass of
nucleus and its volume .
So, it can be
Size of Nucleus
The radius R of the nucleus having
Law of Radioactive Decay
The rate of decay of radioactive atoms at any instant is proportional to the
number of atoms present at that instant.
7
mass number A can be given by,
R oc i ⇒ R = R0 i
~ i
13 13

given by, P = 7t
3m
R! 15
where, Ro= 1.2 X 10- m
t
4 Decay Constant Half-Life Average Life
The reciprocal of the Time during which Average life
time during the half the number of
Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy number of atoms in atoms present initially Total lifetime
I a radioactive in the sample of the
(1)
of all atoms
t substance reduces
to 36.8% of their
element decays.
T _ 0.6931
Total number
of atoms
Mass-Energy Nuclear-Binding Energy initial number. 112 - 'A.
Einstein showed that mass Minimum energy required to
is another form of energy. separate the nucleons (present
Einstein's mass-energy inside the nucleus) and place them Radioactive Displacement Laws ]~
equivalence equation is
E = mc •
2
at rest and infinite distance apart.
...,-------+--t-----,. .
a-Decay P-Decay y-Decay
In this decay, the In this decay, the mass In this decay, a
Average Binding Energy Per Nucleon of a Nucleus mass number of number remains same, photon is emitted
product nucleus is 4 only atomic number with energy equal to
Total binding energy
Binding energy per nucleon = times less than that goes up by 1 in case of the difference in the
Number of nucleons (A) of decaying nucleus, f-decay and down by two energy levels of
while the atomic the nucleus.
1 in case of f~decay.
number decreases
by 2.
Nuclear Stability Nuclear Force
The stability of nucleus is determined The strong attractive Nuclear Energy
by forces between It is the energy released during the transformation of a nuclei.
• value of its binding energy per nucleons. It is a non- • Nuclear fission It is phenomenon of splitting of a heavy nucleus into
nucleon. conservative force and two or more lighter nuclei by the bombardment of proton, neutron,
• its neutron to the proton ratio. does not obey inverse- a-particles, etc.
square law. • Nuclear fusion It is phenomenon of fusing of two or more lighter
nuclei forming a single heavy nucleus.
 REVISION
Semiconductor and Electronic Devices

Semiconductor, Diode and Its Application Junction Transistor

7
+
Classification of Metals, Conductors
i

I
It is a three terminal semiconductor device formed by a thin layer of
dopped semiconductor between two thick layers of opposite type.
Semiconductors and Insulators

r
Metals
-t
Semiconductor
r
Insulators
t
n-p-n Transistor
i
p-n-p Transistor
They have very They have resistivity or They have In this, two segments of n-type In this, two segments of
less resistivity (or conductivity intermediate high resistivity semiconductor are separated by a p-type semiconductor are
high conductivity). to metals and insulators. (or low segment of p-type semiconductor. separated by a segment of
conductivity) n-type semiconductor.

Energy Bands in Solids

Analog Signal and Transistor as an
Collection of closely spaced energy levels are called energy bands. Digital Signal Amplifier
• A continuous time varying voltage of There are two
+ i current signal is called analog signal.
• The signal which have two levels of
p-n junctions, one is
forward biased and
Valence Band Conduction Band
current and voltages, i.e. 0 and 1 are another is reversed
Valence band includes the energy It is the energy band above known as digital signals. biased. The signal is
levels of valence electrons. It may be valence band. This band can applied across the
partially or completely filled with the either be empty or partially forward biased and
electrons. It can never be empty. I
filled with the electrons. output current is almost
Logic Gate equal, output appears
~ A logic gate has one output and one or with a higher voltage
Semiconductors I

because of high output

more inputs. There are three basic
gates such as OR gate, AND gate and resistance .
NOT gate.
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Semiconductors Semiconductors
Valence band includes the energy It is the energy band above
levels of valence electrons. It may be valence band this band can
Optoelectronic Devices
partially or completely filled with the be either empty or partially
electrons. It can never be empty. filled with the electrons. • LED • Photodiode • Solar Cells
I

t t
n-type p-type
Majority charge carriers are Majority charge carriers are holes and I
Diode as a Rectifier
electrons and minority minority charge carriers are electrons.
charge carriers are holes. I
t i
p-n Junction Diode Half-Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier
It is a two terminal device and is represented by I~ In this, during the positive half In this, during the positive half
cycle of AC , p-n junction is cycle of AC input, 1st diode is
forward biased , the resistance in forward biased and 2nd diode is
t t p-n junction becomes low and
current flows. Hence, we get
reverse biased, so the current
flows through 1st diode. During
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing I
output in the load. During the the negative half cycle of AC input,
In this , positive terminal of a In this, positive terminal of a
negative half cycle of AC, 1st diode is reverse biased and
battery is connected top-type battery is connected to n-type and p-n junction is reverse biased ,
and negative terminal is negative terminal is connected to 2nd diode is forward biased , so
Current doesn't flow and hence, current flows through 2nd diode.
connected to n-type. p-type. no output in the load.
 REVISION fM,f\p!

Wave Optics

Huygens' Principle Interference of Light Diffraction and

t Polarisation of Light
+
Wavefront
It is the locus of points (wavelets) having the
Superposition Principle t
same phase of oscillations. According to this principle, at a Diffraction of Light
particular point in the medium, the Bending of light around the sharp
t resultant displacement produced by
r---
corners and spreading of light within
the geometrical shadow of opaque
Types of Wavefront the number of waves is the vector
• Spherical wavefront sum of the displacements produced I obstacles is called diffraction of
by each of the waves. light.
• Cylindrical wavefront
• Plane wavefront t
Difference between
Coherent and Incoherent Interference and Diffraction
Addition of Light Waves • The interference pattern has
Huygens' Principle • Coherent sources of light emit the number of equally spaced dark
It is essentially a geometrical construction, which light waves with a constant phase and bright bands while the
gives the shape of a wavefront at any time allows difference. diffraction pattern has central
us to determine the shape of the wavefront at a • Incoherent sources of light do not bright maximum.
later time. emit the light with a constant
phase difference. Resolving Power of
Optical Instruments
Doppler's Effect in Light It is the ability of the instrument to
According to this effect, whenever there is a Interference of Light Waves produce distinctly separate images
relative motion between a source of light and It is the phenomenon of of two close objects.
observer, then the apparent frequency of light redistribution of light energy in a • Resolving power of a

l
received by the observer is different from the true medium on the account of microscope is
frequency of light emitted from the light source. superposition of light waves from 1 2µsin~
two coherent sources . RP =M= 1.22A

r
Young's Double Slit Experiment
Relation between Intensity,
Amplitude of the Wave and
• Resolving power of a telescope

is
1 D
RP= !10= 1.221..
• For constructive interference (bright fringes), Width of the Slit
dY
path dI'ff erence = -=n1.. It is given by,
11
-
a' W1
-
D T,-tl-w 2 Polarisation
Y= nD1.. The phenomenon of restricting the
⇒
d vibration of light in a particular
• For destructive interference (dark fringes) , path Interference and Energy direction perpendicular to the
difference Conservation direction of wave motion.
dY 1.. D1.. Intensity of light is simply redistributed, i.e.
= D = (2n -1) 2 ⇒Y= (2n -1) d
2 energy is being transferred from the regions
Plane of Vibration
t t of destructive interference to the regions of
constructive interference. So, the principle It is the plane containing the direction
Intensity of Conditions for of energy conservation is obeyed in of libration of electric vector
Fringes Sustained interference process. and direction of propagation of light.
• For bright fringe, Interference
JR= J,+J, + 2W, The intensity at the
• For dark fringe, points of constructive Polaroids Law of Malus
JR= J, + J, - 2-Ji;i; and destructive It is a material which polarises light. According to this law, J oc cos'e
t interference must be
maintained maximum
Tourmaline crystal is a natural polarising
material.These are used in sunglasses and
where, J is the resultant intensity of
Fringe Shih light and e is the angle between the
It can be given by, and zero, respectively. also used to prepare filters. plane of transmission of analyser
(µ-1)t = n1.. and polariser.
 Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's Laws and Motional Electromotive Self and Mutual Induction __j
Force

r
Magnetic Flux
[ Inductance
e ratio of the flux to the current. It depends on the
geometry of the coil and intrinsic material properties.
The total number of magnetic field lines crossing through any surface,
normally when it is placed in a magnetic field is known as the magnetic
flux of that surface. Self-inductance Self-inductance
It is the property of a coil by of Long Solenoid
virtue of which the coil Self-inductance of a
Faraday's Law of EMI ~ opposes any change in the -+ long solenoid is given
strength of current flowing by, 2

~ through it by inducing an emf

in itself.
L = µ, NA
I
First Law Second Law
An emf is induced in a circuit The magnitude of induced emf in a
when the magnetic flux linked circuit is equal to the rate of change of
with circuit changes. magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mutual Inductance Mutual Inductance
The phenomenon according of Two Long

~
to which an opposing emf Coaxial Solenoid
is produced as a result of ---+ Mutual inductance of
change in current or two long _
coaxial
Induced Emf and Current magnetic flux linked with a solenoid 1s given by,
• Induced emf, e =-N d<t>a neighbouring coil. M µ, N1N/l
dt I
e _ -N d<t>a
• Induced current, I = Fl ⇒1- Rrft

AC Generator
Lenz's Rule L A generator produces electrical energy from mechanical
work, just opposite of what a motor does.
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current,
which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.

Induced Current in a Circuit

If induced current is produced in a coil rotated in a uniform
Fleming's Right Hand Rule magnetic field, then J = 10 sin wt.
If we stretch the thumb, the fore-finger, the central finger of our right hand
in such a way that all three are mutually perpendicular to each other, then if
the thumb represents the direction of force, fore-finger represent the Motional Emf and Faraday's Law
direction of magnetic field, then the central finger will represent the If e is the induced emf, then according to Faraday's law,
direction of current. e = (- d<j>/dt) and e = -Blv.

Undesirable Effects of Eddy Currents

• Eddy currents cause unnecessary heating and wastage of power.
• The heat produced by eddy currents may even damage the insulation of
coils.
Eddy Currents
The currents induced in the bulk pieces of conductors, when
- 4 - - - - - - the magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes are
known as eddy currents.
 REVISION ljf4lP:

Alternating Current
If the direction of current changes alternatively and its magnitude changes continuously
with respectto time is called Alternating Current.It is sinusoidal in nature.
The instantaneous value of AC is given by 1=1 0 sin rot and instantaneous
value of alternating emf is given by, E= E0 sinrot

Mean Value of AC AC Circuits Chok~ Coi'7

This value would send same charge through
a circuit in half cycle, which is sent by steady
t n electrical device which is used for controlling
urrent in AC circuits without wasting electrical energy.
current in same time . Through Resistor only
:. Im = 0.637 10 and Em = 0.637 E0 In this case, there is zero phase difference
where, lo and E0 are the peak values of
current and voltage, respectively.
between instantaneous alternating current
and instantaneous alternating emf. So,
t
Transformer
they are in same phase.
It is used to increase or decrease the alternating
Root Mean Square (RMS) voltage .
Value of AC
This value over a complete cycle generates Through Capacitor only
same amount of heat in the given resistor
that is generated by steady current in the
In this case, the current leads the voltage + i
same resistor. by a phase angle of rc/2 or the voltage Step-up Step-down
lags behind the current by the phase Transformer Transformer
lo d E - lo
:. ,,ms - --12 an rms - --12 angle of rc/2. Capacitive reactanc e, Ns > Np Ns < Np
1 Vs> Vp Vs< Vp
Xe = 2rcfC
Is< Ip Is> Ip
Through Inductor only The above mention The above mention
In this case , the current lags behind the conditions are for step- conditions are for step-
voltage by phase angle of rc/2 or the Average Power Dissipated up transformer. down transformer.
voltage leads the current by phase angle of in AC Circuit
rc/2 inductive reactance, XL = 2rcfl . Pav = Erms lrms COS 6
or Quality Factor
Eo lo It determines the sharpness of the resonance
pav = --12 . --12 cos e 1 IL
a-factor = R ✓ c
Through l-C-R Series Circuit
Impedance, Z = ✓ R '+(XcXd
XL-Xe l-C Oscillations
and tan <1> = - - - Wattless Current
R U= -½-LI ~
• Energy stored in inductor is,
The current which consumes no power
for its maintenance in the circuit is
called wattless current. • Energy stored in capacitor is, U = i;
 REVISION MAP

Electromagnetic Waves
r
Displacement Current Maxwell's Equations Electromagnetic Waves 1---~

When a capacitor is charged , then Maxwell 's equations are the basic laws of These waves produced due to change in
electric field is produced due to flow of electricity and magnetism. electric field and magnetic field
current inside the capacitor. This current is
called displacement current.
£ 0 dq>,
i sinusoidally and propagating through
space such that the two fields are
perpendicular to each other and also to the
.
I.e. JD= d (
Gauss's Law in Electrostatics
direction of wave propagation.
The total electric flux through any closed
. 1 .
...
Need for Displacement Current
Ampere's circuital law for conduction
surface Is always equal to - times the

i.e. ~s E -dS =.!}__

current during a charging of capacitor was
found inconsistent. Therefore, Maxwell
modified ampere's circuital law by
introducing displacement current.
£,
£,
net charge enclosed by the surface. 1
Source of EM Waves
This equation is called Maxwell's first EM waves are produced, when fast moving
electrons are suddenly stopped by metal
equation.
target of high atomic number. These
electromagnetic waves are called X-rays.

t
Gauss's Law in
i
Faraday's Law of EMI
Magnetostatics The induced emf produced
The net magnetic flux in a circuit is numerically
through any closed surface equal to the rate of change
is always zero .
of magnetic flux through it.
i.e. ~ B-ds = 0
This equation is called
. J.
1.e. 'Y E- di d~ .
=----at
Maxwell's second equation. This equation is called
Maxwell's third equation.
i
Ampere-Maxwell
1
Transverse Nature of EM Waves
Circuital Law Since, from Maxwell 's equations. It can be
The line integral of the shown that the electric and magnetic fields
magnetic field along in an electromagnetic wave are
a closed path is equal to µ 0 perpendicular to each other and also to the
direction of wave propagation. Hence,
times the total current
threading the surface
electromagnetic waves are transverse in
nature.
bounded by that closed path ,
i.e.~ B -di = µ(Jc+ Io)
This is called Maxwell's
fourth equation.

Radio Waves Electromagnetic Spectrum X-rays

Radio waves are
produced due to +----- wavelength or frequency is called electromagnetic spectrum. The range
oscillating charge
particles. This
frequency varies from
500 kHz to 1000 kHz.
Micro Waves
Microwaves are called
short wavelength radio
waves which are produced
by vacuum tubes .Their
frequencies lies in the
range of 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
The orderly arrangement of EM wave in increasing or decreasing order of
varies from 10·12 m to 10' m, i.e. from y-rays to radiowaves.
t
Infrared Waves
These waves are also
called heat waves.
These waves are
produced due to heat
radiating bodies and
molecules. Frequency
range is 3x 1011 Hz to
4x 1014 Hz.
These rays were
------+ discovered by German
professor Rontgen. Its
frequency ranges from
3x 101' Hz to 3x 1021 Hz.
t
Visible Rays
-~+_7
Ultraviolet Rays
It is that part of UV rays are produced I
spectrum which is by special lamps and t
visible to human very hot bodies. The Gamma (y) Rays
eye which ranges sun is an important y-rays travel with the speed
from 4x 10" Hz source of UV rays. of light and have high
to 7x 10" Hz. Frequency range is penetration power.
from 10" Hz to 10 11 Hz. Frequency ranges from
3 x 10" Hz to 5x 1022 Hz.
 REVISION MAP

Rays Optics and Optical Instrument

~ .
Ray Optics Refraction Refraction at Prism and Ootical
Spherical Surfaces Instruments
t It is the phenomenon of change and by Lenses I
in the path of light as it goes A prism is a portion of
Reflection of Light transparent medium bounded by
It is the phenomenon of
change in the path of light
from one medium to another
medium. T two plane faces inclined to each
other at a suitable angle.
without any change in t Refraction at
medium. Laws of Refraction Spherical Surfaces
The equation which holds
t
t • Incident ray, refracted ray and
good for any curved spherical
Refraction of Light
Through a Prism
Laws of Reflection the normal to the refracting
surface is given by,
• Incident ray, reflected ray surface at the point of The relation between angle of
incidence, all lies in the same n2 n1 - n2-n1 deviation and angle of prism is
and the normal to the v -Tf- - R
-
reflecting surface at the plane. 8 = (µ-1)A
point of incidence, all lies in • According to 2nd law, t
the same plane. (sin i I sin r) = aµb. This is Transverse Magnification Prism Formula
• Angle of incidence is always called Snell 's law of m =~ = n,x v
refraction. h0 n2 x u It is given by,
equal to the angle of
reflection. sin rA+ 8m1
µ = L 2 J
Plane Mirrors Index of Refraction Lens sin l1J
In a plane mirror, image The ratio of the speed of light in It is of two types ,
formed is virtual, erect and vacuum to material. • Convex lens is thicker at
at the same distance behind the centre and thinner at its Terms Related to Dispersion
the mirror as the object is in
front of it.
t ends. • Angular dispersion,
0 = (µ v- µ,) A
Principle of Reversibility • Concave lens is thinner at
the centre and thicker at its • Dispersive power, co = µ v- µ,
of Light (µ-1)
Mirror Formula When a light ray, after suffering
ends.
It can be given by, 1 + 1 =1 any number of reflections and
V U f
refractions, has its final path
reversed, it travels back along its
Refraction by Lens
Simple Compound
Linear Magnification
The ratio of size of the
entire initial path. 1
-, = ( n -1)
1
2 U-) )
1 2
Microscope
It forms the
Microscope
This is called Lens Maker's It consists of two
image formed by the large image of convex lenses
spherical mirror to the size formula.
close and coaxially
of the object is called Expression for Lateral minute
Displacement separated by
linear magnification. i.e. objects. It is a some distance.
= t sin (i,- rJ Power of a Lens converging
m=l=-::J.
0 u 0 It is the ability to converge
One is objective
cos r, lens of small and another is
or diverge the rays of focal length. eyepiece.
incident light.
•
Applications of TIR
Looming
+
Apparent Depth and P=t
•
•
Mirage
Optical fibres a
Real Depth
Real depth
_
Also, P = (µ-1) (J -) )
' 2
Refracting and
• Diamond µw- Apparent depth Reflecting Telescope
• Prism

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

i
Critical Angle
• Refracting telescope is used
for observing the distinct
images of heavenly bodies like
The angle of incidence in stars, planets, etc.
• The ray on the interface of two media should travel in the denser
medium. denser medium corresponds to • Reflecting telescope is an
which angle of refraction in improvement over refracting
• The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle for the
rarer medium is 90°. telescope.
two media.
 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
I
r
Photoelectric Effect Matter Wave
r
Electron Emission Work Function Dual Nature of Radiation
The phenomenon of It is the minimum energy required by an From photoelectric and Compton effects, it is clear that a
emission of electrons from electron to just escape from metal particle is colliding against the other particle. Due to this
metal surface is called surface, so as to overcome the attractive reason, it was concluded that in these effects, radiation
electron emission. pull of the ions. possesses particle nature. So, Louis de-Broglie suggested
that the particles like electrons, protons, etc., have dual
nature of radiation.
Definition of Photoelectric Effect
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface
when the radiations of suitable frequency falls on them. ' Wave Nature of Particles
[de-Broglie Hypothesis]
i According to de-Broglie, a wave is associated with moving
Hertz's Observation material particle which control the particle in every
Hertz observed that high voltage sparks across the detector loop respect. The wave associated with moving material
were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by UV light particle is called matter wave.
from an arc lamp.
i
Hallwachs and Lenard's Observations Common Features of Matter Waves
Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that UV light fall on the emitter Matter waves like EM waves can travel through vacuum
plate, no electrons were emitted at all when the frequency of incident and hence, they are not mechanical waves.
light was smaller than a certain minimum value which is called
threshold frequency. l
Relation between de-Broglie Wavelength
de-Broglie Wavelength of an Electron
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect and Temperature It is given by, "- = _ h _
t t It is given by, A= ~
-ffeVm
Effect of Intensity of Light Effect of Potential on
on Photoelectric Current Photoelectric Current
For a fixed frequency of incident For a fixed frequency and intensity t
radiation photoelectric current of incident light, photoelectric Davisson and Germer Experiment
increases linearly with increase in current increases with increase in
The objective of Davisson and Germer experiment is to
intensity of incident light. potential applied to the collector.
establish the wave nature of electron.

Relation between Stopping Einstein's Photoelectric

Potential and Threshold
Frequency
-+- Kmax= 21mv max
The relation between stopping
potential and threshold
frequency is eV0 = he [f-l]
Photocell
It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
Applications
• Used in counting devices.
• Used in fire alarm and burglar alarm.
• Reproduction of sound in cinema film.
• Used as photoelectric sensors.
Photoelectric Effect and Wave
Equation Theory of Light
2
= (hv- <l>o)
This equation is called T i-
Einstein's photoelectric equation. Particle Nature of
Light Photon
Characteristic
Properties of Photon
Photoelectric effect gave the • Photon has zero rest mass.
evidence that light consists • Photons travel in a straight line.
of packets of energy and • Photons may show diffraction
these packets of energy are under given conditions.
called light quanta that are The inertial mass of a photon
associated with photons.
ism= he
A
 REVISION MAP
Current Electricity
Flow of Current, Resistance and Electric Cells Kirchhoff's Laws and Its Applications

t t
Electric Current
It is defined as the rate of flow
of electric charge through any
cross-section of a conductor
i.e. I = (dq/dt)
t In the case of a liquid conductor,
Current Density
It is the ratio of current at a
point in conductor to the area
of cross-section of the
conductor at that point.
i.e. J = (I/A)
Relation Between Drift
Velocity and
Electric Field
7
Flow of Electric Charges Kirchhoff's Laws
in Metallic Conductors [
In case of solid conductor, the
large number of free electrons
t t
First Law Second Law
causes the strong current in (Junction Rule) (Kirchhoff's Voltage Rule)
them.
The algebraic sum of the The algebraic sum of changes in
positive and negative charged currents meeting at a point potential around any closed loop
in an electrical circuit is involving resistors and the cells in
ions movement cause the electric
always zero. the loop is zero.
current.
Wheatstone Bridge
Drift Velocity
It is an arrangement of four resistances used Potentiometer
The average velocity with
which the free electrons in
the conductor get drifted
to measure one of them in terms of another
three . The bridge is said to be balanced
It is an apparatus
used to compare
j
~ towards the positive end of when the galvanometer shows zero emf's of two cells or
the conductor under the deflection. to measure the
influence of an electric field The balance condition is ; = ~ internal resistance of

J
applied . a cell.

Mobility
It is the magnitude of drift Ohm's Law Resistivity --+ Effect of Temperature on Resistivity
velocity per unit electric field . It is the resistance of • For metals, resistivity increases with increase
According to this law, I oc V
=
r
a unit length with unit in temperature.
(µ=t=~n ⇒ V JR where, R is the
resistance of a conductor.
area of cross-section
of the material of the
• For semiconductor, resistivity decreases with
increase in temperature.
conductor. • For alloys, resistivity is very large but has a
weak dependence on temperature.
Effect of Temperature on Resistance
• For metals, resistance increases with rise in temperature.
• For insulators and semiconductors, resistance decreases with Conductance and Classification of Materials in Terms
rise in temperature. Conductivity of Conductivity
• For alloys, temperature coefficient of resistance is small. • Conductance is the • For insulators, electrical conductivity is
reciprocal of very small or nil.
Combination of Resistances resistance of • For conductors, electrical conductivity is
conductor. very high.
• In series combination , equivalent resistance of 'n ' number of
• Conductivity is the • For semiconductors, electrical conductivity
resistors is given by, Req = R1 + R2 + ... +Rn
reciprocal of the lies in between that of insulators and
• In parallel combination , equivalent resistance of 'n' number of resistivity of conductors.
resistances is given by, _j_ = 1 + 1 + .. .. 1 conductor.
Req R1 R2 Rn
Internal Resistance and Electromotive Force of a Cell
Electrical Energy and Power Combination of Cells -r 7 -f
Electrical energy is the total work done • In series combination , current is EMF Internal Terminal Potential
in maintaining the electric current in . b n£ It is the maximum Resistance Difference
the given circuit for a specified time. given y, I =(R + nr) potential The resistance
It is the maximum
Electrical power is the rate of electrical difference offered by the
• In parallel combination, current is potential difference
energy supplied per unit time to between the two electrolyte of the
. m£ between the two
given by, I =(r + mR) terminals of cell, to the flow of
maintain flow of electric current terminals of circuit,
through conductor. circuit, when current through it. when the circuit is
• In mixed combination , current is circuit is open.
closed.
. b mn£
given y, I (nr + mR)

Moving Charges and Magnetism
Magnetic Field and
Their Applications
The space in the surrounding of a magnet or
a current carrying conductor in which its
magnetic influence can be experienced is
called magnetic field.
Oersted's Experiment
HC Oersted by his experiment observed that a
current carrying conductor deflects magnetic
compass needle placed near it.
Ampere's Swimming Rule
If a man is swimming along the wire in the
direction of current with his face always
turned towards the needle so that the current
enters through his feet and leaves at his head,
then the N-pole of the magnetic needle will be
deflected towards his left hand.
Biot-Savart Law
This law deals with the magnetic field
induction at a point due to a small current
element. i.e. dB oc !di sine
r2
t 8=µ 0 nI.
Permittivity and Permeability
• Electric permittivity (e0) , the degree of
interaction of electric field with medium.
• Magnetic permeability, the ability of a
substance to acquire magnetisation in a
magnetic field .
Right Hand Thumb Rule
When the thumb of right hand is placed along
the direction of current, the fingers curl
around the conductor in the direction of
magnetic field lines.
Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field at
on the Axis of a the Centre of a
Circular Current Current Carrying
Carrying Loop +-- Loop
2 in parallel with the galvanometer.
8 = µ0Nla
B = µoNI
2(r 2+a ,312 2r
REVISION MAP
Ampere's Circuital Law
and Its Applications
According to this law, the line integral of
the magnetic field B around any closed
path in vacuum is equal to µ 0 times the
net current enclosed by the curve,
i.e. ~ Bx dl = µ/
t t
Magnitude of a Magnetic Field
of a Straight Wire
It is given by, B = µ/
2nr
t one another such that the fore-finger points in the
The Solenoid
It is an insulated long wire closely
wound in the form of a helix.
Magnetic Field due to
Straight Solenoid
• At any point inside the solenoid ,
8 = µ0 n!
• At points near the end of air closed
solenoid , 8 = (µ 0 nI /2)
The Toroid
An endless solenoid in the form of a
ring is called a toroid . Magnetic field is
Force on Moving Charge in a
Uniform Magnetic Field
When a charged particle (q) moves
with a velocity (v) inside a uniform
magnetic field , then force acting on it is
given by F = q(v x 8)
Lorentz Force
The sum of the electric force and
magnetic force that can be exerted on a
particle due to its electric charge (q) ,
is called Lorentz force.
It is F = q(E + v x B)
Cyclotron
It is used to accelerate the charged
particles or ions to high energy.
Electric and magnetic fields are used
in combination to increase the
energy.
Magnetic Force and Torque
between Two Parallel Currents
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
in a Uniform Magnetic Field
It is given by, F = BIi sine
Fleming's Left Hand Rule
If the fore-finger, middle finger and the thumb of the
left hand are stretched mutually at right angles to
direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the
direction of current, then thumb will point in the
direction of force on the conductor.
Force between Two Parallel
Current Carrying Conductors
It is given by,
F-
-~ o -21/2 ]
4n r'
Torque Experienced by a Current
Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field.
7
It is given by, , = BINA sin 0
Circular Current Loop as
Magnetic Dipole
The magnitude of the magnetic field on the axis
of a circular loop of radius R carrying a steady
7 current is
8
µ/R 2
= 2(x 2+R2)312
7
Moving Coil Galvanometer
It is an instrument which is based on the fact
that when a current carrying coil is placed in a
magnetic field , then it experiences a torque.
t
Conversion of a Galvanometer into
Ammeter and Voltmeter
To convert a galvanometer into ammeter, its resistance
needs to be lowered, so that the maximum current can
pass through it. A shunt (or low resistance is connected
~
To convert it into a voltmeter, its resistance needs to be
increased, so that with high resistance no current
passes through it. A high resistance is connected in
series with galvanometer.
 Magnetism and Matter

Bar Magnet and Magnetic Dipole c- The Earth's Magnetism

The phenomenon of attraction of small bits of iron, steel , cobalt, nickel,
etc. , towards the ore is called magnetism. r
Characteristics of Earth's Magnetic Field
t t
Force between Two The Magnetic Field Lines t
Magnetic Poles Geographic Meridian Magnetic Meridian
These are the imaginary lines
. . km,m, The vertical plane passing The vertical plane passing
It 1s given by, F =- - ,where which continuously represent the
r' direction of magnetic field. through the geographic North- through N-S line of a freely
k is magnetic force constant. South direction. suspended magnet.

Magnetic Field Strength at a Point due to Bar Magnet Magnetic Elements

The force experienced by a hypothetical unit North pole placed at that
point.

Magnetic
-=t-
Magnetic
t
Horizontal
t t Declination (0) Inclination or Component of
When Point Lies on When Point Lies on The angle between Dip (3) Earth's Magnetic
Equatorial Line Axial Line of a the geographic Field (BH)
meridian and It is the angle made by The component of
of a Bar Magnet Bar Magnet the direction of earth's
. µ02Md magnetic meridian. earth's magnetic field
I h. B µ,M total magnetic field with
n t 1s case, = 41t (d'+ !')•' In this case, B = 41t (d'- !'}' along the horizontal
the horizontal direction. direction.

Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid T t 7

Magnetic Intensity of Magnetic
In this case, B = ~ 2M
Intensity (H) Magnetisation (I) Induction (B)
41t r 2
The number of The magnetic It is defined as the
ampere moment M developed number of magnetic
turns flowing round per unit volume V, lines of induction
unit length of when a magnetic crossing per unit area
Torque on a Magnetic Potential Energy of a toroid to produce the specimen is through the magnetic
Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Dipole in magnetic subjected to a substances
Magnetic Field a Magnetic Field inductions B0• magnetising field , i.e. i.e.
, = MB sine U = -MB cos 0 i.e. H = ~ i=(M! V) B = µ0 (H + I}
µ.

Magnetism and Gauss' Law

The number of magnetic field lines leaving any closed surface is
Magnetic Magnetic Relative Magnetic
Susceptibility Permeability Permeability
always equal to the number of magnetic field lines entering it.
It is the ratio of the It is the ratio of the It is the ratio of the
intensity of magnetic magnetic permeability
magnetisation to the induction to the of the substance to the
magnetic intensity. magnetic intensity, permeability of free
Relation between Relative Permeability (µ,) and i.e. i.e. space.
Magnetic Susceptibility (xm) Xm= (f /H). µ = (8 /H} . i.e. µ, = (µ./µ,)
It is given by, µ, = 1 + Xm

Electric Charges and Fields
l
Electric Charge
The property of protons and
Coulomb's Law and Electrostatic Field
electrons, which gives rise to
electric force between them is
called electric charge.
1 and inversely proportional to the
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors are those
substances which conduct the
electricity, whereas insulators
are those substances which
cannot conduct the electricity.
Charging by Induction
The process of charging a
neutral body by bringing a
charged body nearby it without
making contact between the two
bodies is called charging by
induction.
Quantisation of Electric
Charge
The charge on any body can be
expressed as an integral
multiple of basic unit of charge,
i.e. charge on one electron.
It can be written as
q = ± ne , wheren = 1, 2,...
Properties of Electric
Field Lines
• Electric field lines of force
start from positive charges
and end at negative charges.
• Two field lines never intersect
each other.
• These are perpendicular to
the surface of charged
conductor.
+-- It is a path traversed by a test ,
• These do not pass through a
conductor.
REVISION ,· MAP,
Coulomb's Law
The force of interaction
(attraction or repulsion) between
two stationary point charges in
vacuum is directly proportional
to the product of the charges
square of distances between
them.
i.e. F = kQ1Q2
r2
Superposition Principle
Force on any charge due to the
number of charges is the vector
sum of all the forces on that
charge due to other charges,
taken one at a time .
Electrostatic Force due to
Continuous Charge
Distribution
• "' =9_ ; where "' is a linear
l charge density.
• cr =g_ ; where cr is a surface
A charge density.
• p =i; where pis a volume
charge density.
Electric Field
It is space around the given
charge in which another charge
experiences an electrostatic
force of repulsion or attraction.
Electric Field Intensity
It is the force experienced per
unit positive test charge placed
at that point without disturbing
source charge.
i.e. E = (F/q0)
Electric Field Lines
charge around the given charge.
Electric Dipole
It is a pair of point charges
Electric Flux
It is defined as the total number of
electric lines of force passing
normally through the surface.
with equal magnitude and
opposite in sign separated t
by a very small distance. Area Vector
The vector associated with area
element of a closed surface is
i
Dipole Moment
taken to be in the direction of
outward normal.
It is the product of the
charge and separation
Gauss Theorem
between the charges . The surface integral of the electric
i.e. p = 2a-q field intensity over any closed
surface in free space is equal to e
1
times the net charge enclosed 0
Electric Field
within the surface.
Intensity due to
an Electric Dipole <i>t =,r. E-dS =!!_
.·r''EJ"'
'fs Eo
t
Application of Gauss
Theorem
• At a point on
• Field due to an infinitely long
equatorial line.
straight char[ged wire:"' l
[f = (x2~ 2t~ £-~-
- 21tEof
• Field due to thin infinite sheet of
Electric Field Intensity
charge:
f= _cr l
[ 2£0
at any Point due to
Short Electric Dipole • Field due to a uniformly charged
Electric field intensity at thin spherical shell:
2
any point due to short
electric dipole is
-e;r
Outside the shell , f - crR
If I p ✓=3c-o---.,s2-0+
,- - -----;1 ] • On the surface of shell, f =e
(J
[ 4itEof
3 0
Inside the shell , f =0
Dipole in a Uniforml+J
Electric Field _J-------+
J Torque on an Electric Dipole
in a Uniform Electric Field
t It is given by, , = pE sin 0
• If 0 = 0°, then , = 0.
Work done on Dipole in a
Uniform Electric Field The dipole is in stable
Total work done in rotating the equilibrium.
dipole from orientation 01 to 02 is • If 0 = 90°, then , = pE.
W = pE (cos 01 - cos 02) The torque will be maximum.
• If 0 = 180°, then, = 0.
The dipole is in unstable
equilibrium.
 REVISION MAP

Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electrostatic Potential, Electrostatic Potential

Difference and Electrostatic Potential Energy
-r
Electrostatic Potential (V)
It is the amount of work done in
moving a unit positive test charge
without acceleration from infinity
to that point against the
electrostatic force without
acceleration.
Electric Potential due to
a Point Charge
It can be given as, V =4nqE, r
Electric Potential due
to a System of Charges
It can be given as,
V=-1-£ !J1-
4nE, ; =1 r;,
Equipotential Surfaces
Any surface which has same
electrostatic potential at every
point is called an equipotential
surface.
Dielectric and Capacitance -1
T
Electrostatic Potential
Conductors
These are those materials through
Insulators
Insulators are those materials
Difference which electric charge can flow through which electric charge
Electrostatic potential difference easily. cannot flow.
between two points P and Q is
equal to the work done by external
l electrics and Polarisa~
force in moving a unit positive
charge against the electrostatic
force from point Q to P along any Dielectric Constant Polarisation
path between these two points. It is the ratio of the strength of applied The induced dipole moment
electric field to the strength of reduced developed per unit volume in a
value of electric field on placing the dielectric slab on placing it is
dielectric between the plates of a an electric field is called
Electrostatic Potential capacitor. polarisation.
due to an Electric Dipole
Electrostatic potential due to an
electric dipole can be given as, Dielectric Strength Electric Susceptibility
v.
P
=(P case,
4nEor 2)
The maximum electric field
that a dielectric can withstand,
Since, polarisation density of a
dielectric slab is directly proportional to
without breakdown is called the reduced value of electric field.
its dielectric strength. i.e. P = XE,£; where X is called
electric susceptibility.
Equipotential Surfaces
in Different Cases
The equipotential surface can be
obtained for different cases: Capacitors and Capacitance
---+ A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulating
• For a point charge.
• For two positive charges. medium, i.e. C = ~ where, C is the capacitance of the capacitor.
• For an electric dipole.

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Relation between Electric Field and Electrostatic Potential
Capacitance between of a parallel plate
ldV I . gradient)
.
It can be given as , E= ar = - (Potential

Electrostatic Potential Energy of a System of Charges

capacitor can be given by, C = Eo/

Effect of Dielectric on Parallel Plate Capacitor

7
It is defined as, the total work done in bringing the different charges to On introducing dielectric between the parallel plates,
their respective positions from infinitely large mutual separations. capacitance can be given by, C = ~

t t
Combination of Capacitors
Due to System of Two Due to System of
Point Charges Three Point Charges ----+ • In parallel combination, C,0 = C,+C 2 + ... + C,
It can be given by, U = W = kq,q1 It can be given by, 1 1 1 1
( AB
3 3
• In series combination, C = c+ C + ... + C
eQ 1 2 n
u = IA- _I _I q,q2]
Potential Energy of a Dipole t.:: , =1 1=1 r;; Loss of Energy in
j,~i Energy Stored in Common Potential Sharing Charges
in an External Field a Capacitor
Potential energy of a dipole in an It can be given as , --+ It can be given as ,
It can be given as,
external field can be given as, V = C, V, + C,V, t:.U = hf,_ (V,- V,)'
U = pE (COS0 0 - COS 0 1) V = _Q'.__ =_1__ CV ' C,+C, 2 2(C,+ C,)
2C 2