Atomic Physics

Edmar G. Pantohan
Introduction
• A hot gas emits light of certain characteristic wavelengths that can be
used to identify it.
• These emitted characteristic wavelengths can be understood using
physical quantities called quantum number.
• Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can
have the same set of quantum numbers.
• Pauli exclusion principle is very important in understanding the
properties of complex atoms and the arrangement of elements in the
periodic table.
• Knowledge of atomic structure helps us to understand the production
of x-rays and the operation of a laser.
Early Models of the Atom
• J.J. Thomson (1856-1940) model of atom shown in Figure 28.1.
• Ernest Rutherford (1871-1837) and his students Hans Geiger and Ernest
Marsden planetary model of atom shown in Figure 28.2
Early Models of the Atom
• Comparison of Thomson’s and Rutherford’s model of the atom is
shown below.
Early Models of the Atom
• Two basic difficulties with Rutherford’s planetary model:
• First, an atom emits certain discrete characteristic frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation and no others;
• Second, the electrons undergo a centripetal acceleration.
According to Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism, centripetally
accelerated charges revolving with frequency f should radiate
electromagnetic waves of the same frequency. As the electron
radiates energy, the radius of its orbit steadily decreases and its
frequency of revolution increases.
• Rutherford’s model of the atom gave way to that of Niels Bohr.
 Atomic Spectra
• If the light source is a hot
solid or liquid, the
spectrum is continuous;
light of all wavelengths is
present.
• If the source is a heated
gas, the spectrum includes
only a few colors in the
form of isolated sharp
parallel lines
• The figure shows the emission line spectrum, and the lines are called
spectral lines.
Atomic Spectra
• Four important lines in the emission spectrum of
hydrogen occur at wavelengths 656.3 nm, 486.1 nm,
434.1 nm, and 410.2 nm.
• Each line in the absorption spectrum of H coincides
with a line in the emission spectrum.
Atomic Spectra
• The wavelengths of these spectral lines can be solved by Rydberg
equation.
• RH is the Rydberg constant.
• Balmer series for m=2 and n>2.
• Lyman series for m=1 and n>1 corresponds to far ultraviolet region.
• Paschen series if m=3 and n>3 corresponds to longer wavelengths
than the Balmer series.

(Eq.1) (Eq.2)
The Bohr Model
• In 1913 Bohr provided an explanation of the
spectra of hydrogen atom.
• His basic assumptions:
1. Electron moves in circular orbits about the
proton under the influence of the Coulomb force
of attraction.
2. Only certain electron orbits are stable and
allowed.
3. Radiation is emitted when the electron jumps
from more energetic initial state to a less
energetic state. The frequency of the radiation is
independent of the frequency of the electron’s
orbital motion.

(Eq.3)
The Bohr Model
• His basic assumptions:
4. The circumference of an electron’s orbit must contain an
integral number of de Broglie wavelengths,
(Eq.4)

Because de Broglie wavelength is λ= h/mev and ħ= h/2π,

(Eq.5)

• Solving the allowed energies and emission wavelengths of the H atom,

(Eq.6)
The Bohr Model
• Assuming the nucleus is at rest, the total energy E of the atom is
(Eq.7)

• By Newton’s 2nd law, F=ma

(Eq.8) (Eq.9)

• Putting eq.9 in eq.7,

(Eq.10)
The Bohr Model
• Using eq. 5 and eq. 8 for v2 and equating the results

(Eq.11) (Eq.12)

• The smallest orbit (n=1), called the Bohr radius a0

(Eq.13)

• Substituting eq.13 into eq.12

(Eq.14)
 The Bohr Model (Eq.12)

• Substituting eq.12 into eq. 10 (Eq.10)

(Eq.15)

• Substitute constants into eq.15

ke= 9.0x109 Nm2/C2, me= 9.109x10-31 kg, ħ= h/2π=1.054x10-34J·s, e= 1.602x10-19C

(Eq.16)

• The lowest-energy state, n=1, has energy of E1= -13.6eV

The Bohr Model
• E=0 and n→ ∞ is the state for which electron is
completely removed from the atom.
• In this state the electron’s KE and PE are both
zero, which means that the electron is at rest
infinitely far away from the proton.
• The minimum energy required to ionize the
atom, completely remove the electron, is
called the ionization energy.
• The ionization energy for H is 13.6 eV.
The Bohr Model
• If the electron jumps from one orbit with quantum number ni to a
second orbit with quantum number nf, it emits a photon of frequency f.
• RH is the Rydberg constant.
• Knowing that f= c/λ,

(Eq.17)

(Eq.18) (Eq.19)

• Bohr theory successfully predicts the wavelengths of all the observed

spectral lines of hydrogen.
The Bohr Model
The Bohr Model
The Bohr Model
• Bohr’s correspondence principle states that quantum mechanics is in
agreement with classical physics when the energy differences between
quantized levels are very small.
• Bohr theory is also successful when applied to hydrogen-like atoms by
substituting Ze2 for e2 in the hydrogen equations, where Z is the atomic
number of the element.
• However, attempts to extend Bohr theory to more complex, multi-
electron atoms, were unsuccessful.

(Eq.20)

(Eq.21)
The Bohr Model
Quantum Mechanics and Hydrogen Atom
• In addition to the principal quantum
number n, the orbital quantum number l,
and the orbital magnetic quantum number
ml also emerged from the solution of the
Schrodinger wave equation.
• According to quantum mechanics, when
the allowed energies depend only on n the
energies are in exact agreement with the
Bohr theory.
• The splitting of a single spectral lines into
three closely space lines when atom is
immersed in a magnetic field is called the
Zeeman effect.
Quantum Mechanics and Hydrogen Atom
• If n=1 then l=0 and ml=0
• If n=2 then l maybe 0 or 1; if l=0, then ml=0; but if l=1, then ml maybe
1,0, or -1.
Quantum Mechanics and Hydrogen Atom
• All states with the same principal quantum
number n are said to form a shell.
• The states with given values of n and l are
said to form a subshell.
• States that violate the rules given in Table
28.1 can’t exist.
• In general, for a given value of n, there are
n2 states with distinct pairs of values of l
and ml.
Spin
• In 1925 Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck
proposed the fourth quantum number to
describe atomic energy levels, ms, called the spin
magnetic quantum number.
• Spin isn’t found in the solutions of Schrodinger
equations; rather, it naturally arises in the Dirac
equation.
• The energy of the electron is slightly different for
the two spin directions.
• ms= ½ for spin-up state and ms= -½ for spin-down
state.
• Electrons in a subshell must have unique pairs of
the quantum numbers (ml, ms).
• There are 2(2l+1) unique pairs (ml, ms).
Spin
Spin
Electron Clouds
• If p is a point and Vp a very
small volume containing that
point, then ψ2Vp is
approximately the probability
of finding the electron inside
the volume Vp.
• Quantum mechanics predicts
that the wavefunction for H
atom in the ground state is
spherically symmetric.
The Exclusion Principle
• Pauli exclusion principle: No two
electrons in an atom can ever
have the same set of values for
the set of quantum numbers n, l,
ml, and ms.
• A general rule, once one subshell
is filled, the next electron goes
into the vacant subshell that is
lowest in energy.
• A subshell is filled when it
contains 2(2l+1) electrons.
The Exclusion Principle
• In 1871 Dmitry Mendeleyev
arranged the elements into a
table according to their atomic
masses and chemical similarities.
• The elements are arranged so
that all those in a vertical column
have similar chemical properties.
• He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn don’t
normally take part in chemical
reactions, joining other atoms to
form molecules.
• Alkali metals, all have a single
outer electron in an s subshell,
are highly active chemically.
Characteristic X-rays
• Characteristic x-rays occurs when a bombarding
electron collides with an electron in an inner
shell of a target atom with sufficient energy to
remove the electron from the atom.
• The vacancy created in the shell is filled when
an electron in a higher level drops down into
the lower-energy level containing the vacancy.
• Electron dropping from L to K shell emits a
photon, which referred to as Kα.
• If from M to K shell we have Kβ.
• Other characteristic x-ray are formed when
electrons drop from M to L shell, Lα. If from N to
L shell we have Lβ.
Atomic Transitions and Lasers
• Only photons with energy hf matching the
energy separation ΔE between two levels can be
absorbed by the atom.
Atomic Transitions and Lasers
• At ordinary temperatures, most of the
atoms in a sample are in the ground state.
• If gas is illuminated with a light beam
containing all photon frequencies (a
continuous spectrum), only photons of
energies E2-E1, E3-E1, E4-E1, and so on can be
absorbed.
• Once an atom is in an excited state, there is
a constant probability that it will jump back
to a lower level by emitting a photon.
 Atomic Transitions and Lasers
• The incoming photon increases the probability that
the excited atom will return to the ground state and
thereby emit a second photon having the same
energy hf
 Atomic Transitions and Lasers
• Intense, coherent (in-phase) light in a laser (light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) is a result of stimulated emission.
• In a laser, voltages are used to put more electrons in excited states than in the
ground state. This process is called Population inversion.
 Atomic Transitions and Lasers
• Applications of laser include the surgical
“welding” of detached retinas, “lasik” surgery,
precision surveying and length measurement,
source for inducing nuclear fusion reactions,
precision cutting of metals, and telephone
communication along optical fibers.