Masters Review Course Program

THERMODYNAMICS

Lecturer: Engr. R. R. Renigen

Thermodynamics is that branch of the physical science that treats of various phenomena of energy and the
related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice
versa.

System of Units
Newton’s law states that “the acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting
on it and inversely proportional to the mass”.

kF ma ma
a F k
m k F
where k is a
Systems of unitsproportionality
where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system:constant.
1 dyne force accelerates 1 gm mass at 1 cm/s2
gm .cm
k1
dyne. s2
mks system: 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2
kgm .m
k1
Newton. s2
fps system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2
slug. ft
k 1
lb f. s 2
F M a K
cgs Dyne gm cm/s2
g m .cm
k1
dyne..s 2
mks Newton kgm m/s2
kg m .m
k1
newton..s 2
fps lb slug ft/s2 slug. ft
k1
lb ..s 2
f
System of units where k is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in a given system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.

cgs system: 1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s2

g .cm
k  980.66 gm . s 2
f

mks system: 1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg

mass at 9.8066 m/s2
kg .m
k  9.8066 kgm. s2
f

fps system:1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass

at 32.174 ft/s2
lb . ft
k  32.174 lbm. s 2
f

1
 F M a K
cgs gf gm 980.66 cm/s2 g m .cm
k  980.66
g . s2
f

mks kgf kgm 9.8066 m/s2 kg m .m

k  9.8066
kg . s 2
f

fps 32.174 ft/s2 lbm . ft

lbf lbm k  32
lb . s 2
f

Basic SI (metric) units

Dimension Units
Physical Parameter Symbol Name Abbreviation
Length L Meter m
Mass M Kilogram Kg
Time T Second S
Electric current I Ampere A
Temperature T Kelvin K
Luminous intensity I Candela Cd
Amount of Substance ɱ Mole Mo

Secondary SI (metric) units used in Thermodynamics

Dimension Units
Physical Parameter Abbreviation Name Equivalences
Force N Newton Kg.m/s2
Pressure Pa Pascal N/m
Energy, heat, work, Enthalpy J Joule N.m
Power, heat transfer rate W Watt Joule/s = N.m/s

Prefixes to SI (metric) units

Name Symbol Multiply by
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
Kilo k 103

Submultiples
Name Symbol Multiply by
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico P 10-12
femto ρ 10-15
atto a 10-18

Intensive Properties of Thermodynamic Substances

An intensive property is one that is independent of the mass of the substance.

① Density, ρ
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume and thus is the inverse of specific volume, v.

2
  m
V
or:
 1
v

Where:
 density in slug / ft 3 or kg / m 3
m  mass in slug or kg
V  volume in ft 3 or m 3
v  specific voulme in ft 3 / slug or m 3 / kg
② Pressure, P
Pressure is defined as a force per unit area.
F
P
A
Where:

P  pressure in lb / ft 2 or N / m 2
F  force in lb or N
A  area in ft 2 or m 2

From a consideration of potential energy, we can develop principle of hydrostatic pressure as follows:

P  wh
Where:
P  hydrostatic pressure in lb / ft 2 or N / m2
w  specific weight in lb / ft 3 or in N / m3 h
 height in ft or m
Note: The sign convention for height is positive if the liquid surface is above (increased elevation) the point of
reference; and is negative if the liquid surface is below the point of reference. Consequently submerged objects,
such as in the ocean, can be subjected to large hydrostatic pressure when the object is submerged at great depths.

Measuring Pressure
① By using manometers
a) Absolute pressure is greater than atmosphere pressure.

P  P0  Pg

Where:
P  absolute pressure
P0  atmosphericpressure
Pg  gage pressure , the pressure due to the liquid column h
b) Absolute pressure is less than atmosphere pressure.

3
 P  P0  Pg

Note: The gauge reading is called vacuum pressure or the vacuum.

②By using pressure gages

A pressure gage is a device for measuring gauge pressure.

This picture shows the movement in one type of pressure gage, known as the
single-tube gage. The fluid enters the tube through the threaded connection. As the
pressure increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to straighten the end that
is nearest the linkage moving toward the right. The linkage causes the sector to
rotate. The sector engages a small pinion gear. The index hand moves with the
pinion gear. The whole mechanism is of course enclosed in a case, and a graduated
dial, from which the pressure is read, is placed under the index hand.

③Temperature, T
Temperature is an indication of the amount of internal energy in a substance.

Temperature Scales

1. t(°F) = 9/5 °C + 32
2. t(°C) = 5/9(°F - 32)
3. T(°R) = °F + 460
4. T(K) = °C + 273
4
International Temperature Scale – Basic Points
Element Melting or Boiling Point at 1 atm °C K
Oxygen Boiling -182.97 90.18
Sulphur Boiling 444.60 717.75
Antimony Melting 630.50 903.65
Silver Melting 960.8 1,233.95
Gold Melting 1,063.0 1,336.15
Water Boiling 100.0 373.15
Water (ice) Melting 0.0 273.15
- (absolute - -273.15 0.0
zero)

④Specific Volume (v)

Specific volume is defined as the volume occupied by a unit mass.

V
v
m
Where:
v  specific volume in ft 3 / slug or m 3 / kg
V  volume in ft 3 or m 3
m  mass in slug or kg

⑤Specific weight (w)

Specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume.
W
w
V
Or:
mg
w
V
Or:
w  g
Where:
w  specific weight in lb / ft 3 or N / m 3
W  weight in lb or N
V  volume in ft 3 or m 3
m  mass in slug or kg
g  gravitaional acceleration  32.174 ft / s 2 or 9.8066m / s 2
 density in slug / ft 3 orkg / m 3

⑥ Specific gravity (sp. gr.)

This property is the ratio of the density of any fluid to the density of water at
40C for liquids.
subs tan ce
sp. gr.  H O 2

⑦ Specific Internal Energy (u)

Specific internal energy is a form of energy in transit across a system boundary.

Internal energy (U) is the energy within the molecules.

U
u
m
Where:
u  specific int ernal energy in ft  lb / slug or joule / kg (N  m / kg )
5
 U  int ernal energy in ft  lb or Joule
m  mass in slug or kg

Examples:
1. Calculate the density of a homogeneous fluid such as
water whose mass is 53.2 kg within a volume of
0.053 m3.

Given:
m = 53.2 kg
V = 0.053 m3
Required:
ρ
Solution:

m
V

2. The mass of a fluid system is 0.311 slug; its density is 30 lb/ft3 and g is 31.90 ft/s2. Find (a) the specific
volume, (b) the specific weight, and (c) the total volume.

Given:
m  0.311 slug
 30 lb / ft 3
g  31.90 ff / s 2

Required:
(a) v
(b) w
(c) V
1
1  0.0333 ft 3 / lb
v 
Solution:
 30 lb / ft 3
31.9 ft / s 2
w  g  (30 lb /m ft 3 )x )  29.74 lb /f ft 3
lb . ft
32.174 lbm.s 2
f

32.174 lb
(0.311 slug )( 1 slugm )
m  0.3335 ft 3
V 
 30 lb / ft 3

3. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1,500 kg/m3, ρ2= 500 kg/m3) are poured together into 100-L tank, filling it. If
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find
the weight of the mixture; local gravity = 9.675 m/s2.

Given:
ρ1 = 1,500 kg/m3 ρ2=

300 kg/m3
V = 100 L x
m3/1,000 L=
0.100 m3
ρm = 800 kg/m3

Required:
V1 , V2 and Fgm
m m  mVm  (800 kg / m 3 )(0.100 m 3 )  80
Solution:
kg
6
Mass of mixture, mm:
 mm  m1  m2  1V1 2V2
80  1,500V1  500V2 Eqn. 1
V  V1  V2
0.100  V1  V2
V1  V2  0.100
V2  0.100  V1 Eqn. 2
Substituting Eqn. 2 in Eqn. 1 and solve for V1:
80  1,500V1  (500)(0.100 V1 )
80  1,500V1  50  500V1
1,000V1  30

V1 = 0.03 m3
Substituting value of V1 in Eqn. 2:
V2  0.100  0.03

m21
V V11 3(1,500 kg / m 3 )(0.03 m 3 )  45 kg
= 0.07m
m 2 V  (500
2 2 kg / m )(0.07 m )  35 kg
3 3

Weight of mixture, Fgm:

 m 
 9.675 
g m
 s2 
Fg m  m m  (800 kg )   78.93 kg f
K kg .m
 9.8066 m

 kg .s 2  
f

4. Convert:
a) 122 °F to °C and K
b) -40 °C to °F and °R
c) 942 °R to °C and K
d) 373 K to °F and °R

Extensive Properties of Thermodynamics Substances

Extensive properties are those properties which are dependent on the magnitude of the mass of the
substances in the thermodynamic system.

Note:
Any intensive property can be converted to an extensive property by multiplying the intensive property
by the mass within the system.

Example:

V  mv
Where:
V  total volume in ft 3 or m 3 an extensive property ) v 
specific volume in ft 3 / slug an int ensive property )
m  total mass of the system in slug or kg (an extensive
property )
1. Mass (m)
Mass is a property of matter to which a substance owes its
inertia.

2. Weight (W)

W  mg
Where:
W  weight in lb or N
m  mass in slug or kg
7
 g  gravitaional acceleration in ft / s 2 or m / s 2
3. Volume (V)
Volume is the amount of space within an identified boundary.

1 liter = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3

4. Energy (E)
Energy is the capacity of a given body to produce physical effects to that body.
Em  P  K

Where:
Em  mechanical energy
P  potential energy
K  kinetic energy

Equivalence of Work
and Heat
First Law of
Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics equates the various forms of energy and relates the transformation
from one form of energy to another.

Three forms of energy involved in a thermodynamic system

1. Work W, output or input
2. Heat Q, input or output
3. Total energy E in the system substance
 The first law of thermodynamics states that “the sum of the energies going out of the system must equal the sum
of the energies going into the system”.

Win out=
Energygoing  QEnergy
in  Q out   inE in  E out
going
W out
Eout 
W Q   W
Wout  Ein  Qin  Win
out  Wout
in net

Qin  Qout  Qnet

Ein  Eout E
E J
Wnet  Qnet

If no heat transfer is involved, Q  0.
W  E (J )
If no work output or input is involved, W  0.
E  Q (J )
Note:
The total energy of the system substance increases or decreases with heat transfer into or out of the
system.

Forms of Energy
1. Kinetic Energy (K)
2. Potential Energy (P)
3. Internal Energy (U) – for closed systems
4. Internal energy plus the flow work entering or leaving the system (U  pV ) – for open systems.

EKPU (J )  closed system

8
 E  K  P  (U  pV ) (J )  open system
But:
K  P  Em
E  Em  U  for closed system
(J )  for open
(J ) system
Gravitational
E  Em Potential
(U  pV ) Energy (P)
The gravitational energy of a body is its energy due to its position or elevation.

Example: Determine the potential energy of 3 kg of steam at an elevation of 8 m above a datum (reference
plane).

Given:
m = 3 kg
z=8m

Required:
P

Solution:
P  Fg z
 mgz
P
(3kg)
(9.8066
m / s 2)
(8m) 
235.36 J

Kinetic m2
K 
Energy (K) 2k
The energy or
stored capacity
K  K2  K 1 
for performing
m
2k
 
2 2  1 2
work
Where: possessed
by a moving
K  change in kinetic energy
body, by virtue
of its
Example: Determine the kinetic energy of a jet of steam whose mass is 3kg traveling at a speed of 1,500 meters
momentum.
per second.
Given:

9
 m = 3 kg
υ = 1,500 m/s

Required:
K
Solution:
m2
K
2k
(3kg)(1,500m / s) 2
K  3,375,000 J  3.375
2 MJ
Total Mechanical Energy (Em)
Em  K  P J 

Example: Determine the total mechanical energy of the steam described in the two previous example problems.

Given:
K = 3.375 MJ
P = 235.36 J

Required:
Em

Solution:

Em  K  P 
3,375,000 
235.36 
3,375,235.36
J

Internal
u =Energy
specific internal energy (unit mass) u  u 2  u1
(U, u) U = mu = total internal energy (m mass)
U  U 2  U
The energy stored within a body or substance by virtue
1
of the activity and configuration of its molecules and of
the vibration
Various of the atoms
components of within theEnergy
Internal molecules.
a. Translation of kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in random motion.
Where:
b. Vibrational energy of the individual molecules due to straining of the atomic bonds.
c. Rotational energy of those molecules which spin about their axis.
d. Chemical energy.

U  U 2  U 1
Where:
ΔU = change in internal energy between states 1 and 2
U1 = internal energy at state 1
U2 = internal energy at state 2

Work (W)
Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in the direction of the
displacement. Work is energy in transition that is, it exists only when a force is “moving through a distance.”

Energy Sign Conventions

+W = work is done by the system on something in the surroundings.
-W = work is done on the system by something in the surroundings.
+Q = heat is transferred into the system.
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-Q = heat is transferred out of the system.
+U = energy level higher than tabulated datum.
-U = energy level lower than tabulated datum.
Qnet = |Qin| - |Qout|

Working on a moving boundary on a system

A substance that expands against a resistance (or is compressed) does work (or has work does on it). Let
the system be a quantity of an expansible fluid, such as a gas or vapor, enclosed within a cylinder and piston. This
is a closed system in which nonflow processes may occur. The volume of the fluid is V1 and its pressure is P1. If we consider the
state of the fluid on the PV plane, the particular coordinates P1 and V1 locate point 1. If the working substance expands and
moves the piston against a variable resistance, work will be done by the fluid. In a typical expansion of this sort,
the pressure drops and the state of the substance changes as suggested by the curve 1-of-2, the path of the state
point, a process.
Consider a change of state from e to f, so small that the pressure is essentially constant during the
change. The
force acting on the piston will be the uniform pressure times the area of the piston, Fx = pA. The distance that the
piston moves is dL , and the work for this infinitesimal motion is:

Which is the area

dWunder thecurve
 FX dx e-f 
( pA)dL onp(the PV plane.
AdL) pdV Therefore, the total work done as the piston moves from
1 to 2 is:
2
 dW  1 pdV
Or:  2
W   pdV
1

Which is the area under the curve 1-e-f-2.

.
Note:
The area under the curve of the process on the pV plane represents the work done during a nonflow
reversible process.

Reversible process – a process in which no frictional or other dissipative effects

occur. Closed system – is one in which mass does not cross its boundaries.
Open system – is one in which mass crosses its boundaries.

11
Sign convention:
Work done by the system is positive (outflow of energy).
Work done on the system is negative (inflow of energy).

Examples:
1. Work is done by a substance in reversible nonflow manner in accordance with V  100 / p ft 3 , where p in
psia. Evaluate the work done on or by the substance as the pressure increases from 10 psia to 100 psia.

Given:
V  100 / p ft 3
p  100 / V psia
p1  10 psia p2
 100 psia

Required:
W

Solution:
2 2100 2 dV
W   pdV  1 dV  1001 
1 V V
 (100x144) V 1  (14,400)(ln V 2 ln V )1
2

ln
 100 
 V 2  p2   p1  
 10 
 (14,400) ln   (14,400) ln 100   (14,400) ln   (14,400) ln 
    100 
 V1   p2 
 p1 
W  33,157.2 ft  lb

2.Evaluate the nonflow work in terms of p1, V1, p2, V2, of a fluid undergoing a reversible state change in accordance
with each of the following defining relations:
a. p=C
b. V=C
c. pV = C
d. pV3 = C
e. pV(lnv) = C
f. p = 200/V2 + 2 psia

Solution:

a. pc
C  2 pdV  C
W 2
dV 
V 1  C V2  V1   p 2V2 
2
 1 1
p1V1
b. V  C
2
W   pdC 
1
0
c.
pV  C
pC/
W   pdV
V 1
22 C 2 dV V V
 Cln V 1 Cln V2  ln V1   C ln 2  p 1V1 ln 2
2
W dV  C 
1 1 V  V1 V1
V
C
p
V3

12
 2 2 dV
W   pdV  C 
1 1 V3
2 2  1 1  1
1 
2
W   pdV  C V 3 dV  C V   
2
V 2   p1 1V  2 V1  
3
2
1 1 1  2  1 C  2  V2
2
e. pV (ln V ) 
C 2 dV
W   2 pdV  C
1 1 V ln V

let : u  ln
dV
V du 
V
dV 2
 Cln(ln V )1  ln(ln V2 )  ln(ln V1)  p1V 1(ln V1) ln(ln V2 )  ln(ln V1)
2
WC
V ln V
1
C

WpV
1 (ln
1   ln V2 
V )1 ln
  ln 1 
V
200
f. p 2
V2
 (144) 200 V 2 dV  21 dV 
2 2 2
W   2 pdV    2002  
1 1 2 dV  1 
V 
 200 
2
 200   1 200 
W  (144)  V  2V  (144) 2V2     2V  V
 1 V 1 
 2  

Flow Work (Flow Energy)

Flow work or flow energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of a
system.

Let some small quantity V of this substance be on the point of crossing boundary 1 and entering the system. For
it to get unto the system, work must be done on it in an amount sufficient to move it against the resistance (at p
= P1, uniform cross section B) offered by the system. The constant resisting force F is PA, and the work done against this
resistance in pushing a quantity of fluid of length L across the boundary is FL = pAL = pV, where
V = AL is the volume of fluid pushed across the boundary. An energy quantity equal to p1V1 thus crosses the boundary and
enters the system. Similarly, there is an outgoing energy quantity p2V2 if a substance leaves the system, say, at boundary 2. Let
the symbol for this energy quantity be Wf = pV. To get other forms, use the specific volume v and find Wf = mpv.

Example: The flow energy of 0.142 m3 of a fluid passing a boundary to a system is 108.5 kJ. Determine the
pressure at this point.

Given:
Wf = 108.5 kJ
V = 0.142 m3

Required:
p

13
 Solution:
W f  pV

Wf 108.5 kJ
p   764.085 kPa V
0.142 m 3

Heat (Q)
Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another solely because of a
temperature difference between the bodies or systems.

“Sign convention”
Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.
Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.

Problem: A closed system executes a series of processes for which two of the three quantities W, Q, and
Δu are given for each process. Find the value of the unknown quantity in each case.

(a) W = +10 hp, Q =500 Btu/min, Δu = ?

(b) W = +65 Btu, Q = ?, Δu = -25 Btu
(c) W = ?, Q = 25 kW, Δu = 0
(d) W = -389 ft-lb, Q = -1.5 Btu, Δu = ?

CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
(1) A closed system is one in which mass does not cross its boundaries.
(2) An open system is one in which mass crosses its boundaries.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of the conservation of energy states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed.

The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be converted into another.

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Characteristics of steady state flow system

1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.
2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.
3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.

Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving System

P1 K1  W f  U 1  Q  P2  K 2  W f  U 2  W
1 2

P1 K1  p1V1  U 1  Q  P2  K 2  p2 V2  U 2  W
U  ( pV )  P  K  Q  W
Q  P  K  W f  U  W (Steady Flow Energy Equation)

14
 Enthalphy (H,h)
Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by
h  u  pv
and
H  mh  U  pV
The steady flow energy equation becomes
P1 K1  H 1  Q  P2  K 2  H 2  W

Q  P  K  H  W

Example No. 1: During a steady flow process, the pressure of the working substance drops from 1.4 MPa to
137.82 kPa, the speed increases from 61 m/s to 305 m/s, the internal energy of the open system decreases
2.kJ/kg, and the specific volume increases from 0.062 m3/kg to 0.620 m3/kg. No heat is transferred. Sketch the
energy diagram. Determine the work per kg. Is it done on or by the substance?
Determine the work in kW for 4.54 kg/min.

Given:
P1 = 1.4 MPa = 1,400,000 Pa P2 =
137.82 kPa = 137,820 Pa
υ1 = 61 m/s
Δu = -58.2 kJ/kg
v1 = 0.062 m3/kg
v2 = 0.620 kJ/kg Q
=0

Required:
a) W per kg
b) W in kW for
4.54 kg/min

Solution:

P1 K1  W f  U 1  Q  P2  K 2  W f  U 2  W
1 2

Q  (P2  P1)  (K 2  K1 )  (W f  W f )  (U 2  U 1 )  W
2
1

W  Q  (P2  P1)  (K 2  K1 )  (W f  W f )  (U 2  U 1 )
2
1

W  Q  P  K  W f  U
Q  02 and P  0
K1  1
2k
Example No. 2: Begin with the definition of enthalpy, h  u  pv , and show that for a reversible process,
vdp  Tds  dh .
Solution:
h  u  pv
Differentiating both sides.
15
 dh  du  d ( pv)
dh  du  pdv  vdp Eqn.1
For reversible process:
du  dP  dK  dQ  dW
dP  0 and
dK  0.
du  dQ  dW Eqn.2
du  dQ  pdv
Substituting Eqn. 2 in
Eqn. 1.
dh  dQ  pdv
 pdv  vdp
dh  dQ  vdp
But,
dQ  Tds
Substituting,
dh Gas
The Ideal Tds 
vdp
An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect-gas laws.
 vdp  Tds 
Ideal GasdhEquation
pv  RT
Where:
p = pressure
v = specific volume
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature

1. Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of gas varies inversely with the
absolute pressure during a change of state.

If T = C,

pV  C
or:
p1V1  p2 V2
p 2 V1

p1
V2

2. Charles’
Law
a.) If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of state, the volume will
vary directly as the absolute temperature.

If p = C,
V
C
T
Or:

V1

V2
T1

T2 16

V 2 T2

V
If V = C,

p
C
T
or:

p1

p2
T1

T2

p 2 T2

p1

T1

17
3. The Equation of State or characteristic equation of a perfect gas
Combining Boyle’s and Charles’ laws,

When P = C,

V 
Ta T 1 a 
 V1 
Since,
V a  V2

Ta T 1 V2 
 V1 
When V = C,
p2 T2

pa
Ta T 2  pa  
Ta  p2 
Since,
p a  p1

Ta T 2  p1  
 p2 
Equating for Ta:

 V   p  
T1 V2   T2 p1
 1  2

p1V1 p2V2
T 1  T2

pv
R
T
pv
T R
pv  RT (unit mass)
p(1/ )  RT
p  RT
pV  mRT
Where:
R = specific
gas constant
or simply gas
constant

18
General Form

P
v
ft  lb
R  1,545.32
 pmole 0 R
or:
R Btu
T 1,545.32
R  778.16 1.9859 pmole 0 R
W
h
4. SpecificeHeat of Ideal Gas
rc dh dh  c p dT
e p  ,
and : dT

cV  du , du  c v dT
Since dT
dh  du  d ( pv)

dh  du  RdT
Subst.,
cP dT  cv dT  RdT
Dividing both sides by dT:
c P  cv  R
But,
cp
k
cv
Then,
kcv  cv  R
cv (k  1)  R
R
cv 
k1
kR
cP 
k1

Examples:
1. For an ideal gas expanding according to Boyle’s law, integrate the expressions (a) ∫pdV and (b) - ∫Vdp.
(c) Sketch the process on the PV plane and shade the areas which represent these integrals.

Solution:
(a)  pdV  ?
When T = C,

pV  C
C
p
V
Subst.,
2
2 dV 2 dV V
 pdV  1  C  Cln   p V ln V
1 1 2  ln V1   p1V1 ln 2
C V 1 V V 1

V1

19
 (b)  Vdp  ?

pV  C
C
V
p
Subst., 2 dp 2 dp
2
p1
  Vdp    C   Cln p    p1V1ln p 2 ln p  1 p V1  1 ln p 1 ln p 2  p1V1 ln
C
1 p 1
1
p p2

2. The temperature of an ideal gas remains constant while the absolute pressure changes from 103.4 kPaa to
2. kPaa. (a) If the initial volume is 80 liters, what is the final volume? (b) For 160 grams of the gas,
determine the change of density expressed as a percentage of the initial density.

Given:
p1 = 103.4 kPaa
p2 = 827.2 kPaa
V1 = 80 liters m
= 160 grams

Requi
red:
(a)V2
(b) Δρ

Solution:

(a) If  p 
 V 1 p1   80 827.2 
 103.4   10
V2=
T  2 liters
C:
p1V1
20

p 2 V2
 (b) Δρ = ?

 1 mV 16080liters
gm
 2 gm / l
1

 2 mV 16010liters
gm
 16 gm / l
2
2  1 16  2
  x100  x100  700 %
1 2

Specific Heat Parameters

The specific heat of a solid or liquid is usually defined as the heat (thermal energy) required to change
the temperature of a unit mass per degree.

Q
c
mT
Where:
c = specific heat
Q = heat required (energy units)
m = mass
ΔT = change of temperature
In differential quantities,
dQ
c
mdT
dQ  mcdT
and for a particular mass m,
2
 dQ  m 1 cdT
  m 12 cdT specific heat equation
Q
If the mean or instantaneous value of specific heat is used,
2
Q  mc  dT  mcT 1  mcT2  T1
2
cons tan t specific heat
1

Constant Volume Specific Heat (cv)

Btu kJ
c v   U  or
 v lb0 R kg  K
T
Qv  U  W
Where:
W   pdV 0
Then,
2
Qv  mc
v
1 dT
Qv  U  mc v T2  T1
 21
Constant Pressure Specific Heat (cp)

Btu kJ
c p   h  or
  lb R
0
kg  K
T
Q p  pU  W
2 2
Q p  U   pdV  p  dV  pV 2  V1

1 1

Q p  U 2  U1  p2V2  p1V1
Since,
H  U  pV
H 2  H1  U 2  U1  p2V2  p1V1
2
Q p  H  H 2  H 1  mc p 
1
dT
Q p  mc p T2  T1 
Where:
H = enthalphy

Ratio of
Specific Heats
cp
k  1
cv
c p  kcv
cv  c p
k
Examples:
1. Assume 8 lb of a substance receive 240 Btu of heat at constant volume and undergo a temperature change of
150°F. Determine the average specific heat of the substance during the process.

Given:
m = 8 lb
Qv = 240 Btu dT
= 1500F
Required:
cv
Solution:
mc v  dQ
dT 240Btu Btu
c v  dQ   0.2
mdT (8 lb)(150 0 lbo F
F)
22
 2. For a constant pressure system whose mass is 80 lb, 1 hp-min is required to raise its temperature 1°F.
Determine the specific heat for the system , Btu/lb-0F.

Given:
m = 80 lb
1Btu
Q p  1hp  min x 33,000 ft  lb / min x  42.41
1hp 778 ft  lb Btu
dT = 10F
Required:
cp
Solution:
mc p  dQ
dT 42.41Btu Btu
c p dQ   0.53
mdT (80 lb)(1 0 lbo F
Problems: F )
c
1. The ratio of specific heat is k  cp and, for an ideal gas, their difference is c  cpv R , a constant.
v
R kR
Combine these two equations and show that c v and c p  .
k1 k
1
ft.lb
2. For a certain ideal gas R  25.8
lb 0 R and K  1.09.(a) What are the values of cp and cv? (b) What mass of
this gas would occupy a volume of 15 cu ft at 75 psia and 80°F? (c) If 30 Btu are transferred to this gas at
constant volume in (b), what are the resulting temperature and pressure?

3. For a certain gas R  320 J / kg and cv  0.84 kJ / kg. (a) Find cp and k. (b) If 5 kg of this gas undergo a reversible
non-flow constant pressure process from V  1.133 m3 and p  690 kPa to a state where
t 2  555 C, find U and H .
0

INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN IDEAL GAS

Joule’s law states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only the temperature
change. Therefore, ΔU is given by the formula,

U  mc v T2  T1 
whether the volume remains constant or not.

Enthalpy of an ideal gas

The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula,

H  mc p T2  T1 
whether the pressure remains constant or not.

Relation between cp and cv

From h  u  pv and pv  RT
dh  du  RdT
c p dT  cv dT  RdT
c p  cv  R

23
Entrophy (S,s)
Entropy is a certain property of a substance which remains constant if no heat enters or leaves the
substance while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or diminishes should a small amount of
heat enter or leave.
The change of entropy of a substance receiving (or delivering) heat is defined by

dQ
dS 
T

or:
2 dQ
S  1 T
Where:

dQ  heat transferred at the temperaature T

.
S  total change of entropy
Since,
dQ  mc dT
Then, 2 mc dT
S  
1 T
S  mc ln T 1  mc ln T2  ln T 1
2

S  mc ln T 2

T1

Temperature – Entropy Coordinates

dQ  T dS
2
Q   T dS
1
The area under the curve of the process on the TS plane
represents the quantity of heat transferred during the process.

Other Energy Relation

2
  V dp  W s K
1

Note: For reversible steady flow, P  0.

The area behind the curve of the process on the pV plane
represents the work of a steady flow process when K  0, or it
represents K whenWs  0. .

Reversible process - any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal
change in the conditions.

Irreversible process - any process that is not reversible.

24
Problems:
1. A gas initially at 15 psia and 2 cu ft undergoes a process to 90 psia and 0.60 cu ft, during which the enthalphy
increases by 15.5 Btu; cv = 2.44 Btu/lb-0R. Determine (a) U , (b) c p and (c) R.
Ans. (a) U  11.06 Btu, (b) c p  3.42 Btu / lb  R and (c) R  762.4 ft  lb / lb R
0
0

2.For a certain gas, R  0.277 kJ / kg  K and k  1.384. (a) What are the value of cp and cv? (b) What mass of
this gas
would occupy a volume of 0.425 cu m at 517.11 KPa and 26.7°C? (c) If 31.65 KJ are transferred to this gas
at constant volume in (b). what are the resulting temperature and pressure?
Ans. (a) c p  0.7214kJ / kg  K and cv  0.994 kJ / kg  K (b) m  2.647 kg (c) T  43.27 C and
0

P  545.75 kPa

First Law of Thermodynamics

When a system undergoes a cyclic change, the net heat to or from the system is equal to the net work from or to
the system.
Qin  Win  Qout  Wout
Qin  Qout  Wout  Win
Q  W
Q   dQ

W   dW
Where the circle on the integral sign means that the integration (sum) is made entirely around the cycle (along a
closed path) a symbol that will often be convenient. Thus,
 dQ   dW

 dQ   dW  0

 dQ  dW   0

Internal Energy – a consequence of the first law

Let a closed system change by some process A from state 1 to state 2 and by some process B from state 2 to
state 1. Then,

Now let a process C be a different means by which the system may change from state 2 to state 1. For the cyclic
change 1A2C1 we may also write
Eqn.2
 dQ  dW  
 A2C1 1 and Eqn. 2:1 A2 dQ  dW   2C1 dQ  dW 
Equating1 Eqn.
0
1 A2 dQ  dW   2 B1 dQ  dW   1 A2 (dQ  dW )  2C1 (dQ  dW )

2 B1 dQ  dW   2C1 dQ  dW 

Then,
2 B dQ  dW   2C dQ  dW 
Since the two quantities involve (dQ and dW ) are both energy values, we shall call this integral energy and
designate it by the symbol E. Therefore,
E   dQ  dW 
E  Q  W
E2  E1  Q  W
25
 Since,
E  U  EP  EK
Therefore:
E  U  EP  EK  Q  W

Example:
1. During a reversible process executed by a nonflow system, the pressure increases from 344.74 kPaa to
1,378.96 kPaa in accordance with pV = C, and the internal energy increases 22,577 J; the initial volume is
V1=85 liters. Find the heat.

Given:
p1  344.74 kPaa
p2  1,378.96 kPaa
pV  C
U  22,577 J
V1  85 l
Required:
Q
Solution:
pV  C
p1V1   344.74   21.25 l
p 
Vp22V2V 1 p1   85 1,378.96 
 2
Q  U  W
Q  U   pdV
dV2
 U  C lnV 1  U C lnV2  lnV 1
2
Q  U  C 
1 V
21.25 
V2    18.05 kJ

Q  U  p V ln V  22.577 kJ  (344.74 kPaa)(85x0.001)ln 85
1 1
1
 

PROCESSES OF IDEAL GAS

CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS
An isometric process is a reversible constant volume process. A constant volume process may be
reversible or irreversible.

(1) Relation between p and T.

26
 T2 p2

T1
(2) Nonflow
p1 work.
2
Wn   pdV  0
1
(3) The change of internal energy.
U  mcv T2  T1 
(4) The heat transferred.
Q  mc v T2  T1 
(5) The change of enthalpy.
H  mc p T2  T1 
(6) The change of entropy.
T
S  mc vln 2
T1
(7) Reversible steady flow constant volume.
(a) Q  U  K  W f  Ws  P

Since,
Q  U
Ws  (W f  K  P)
2
(b)   Vdp  Ws  K   V ( p2 p )1  V ( p 1 p ) 2
1

(8) Irreversible nonflow constant volume process.

Q  U  Wn
(Wn  0)
Wn  nonflow work
Ws  steady flow work
Examples:
1. Ten cu ft of air at 300 psia and 4000F is cooled to 1400F at constant volume. What are (a) the final pressure,
(b) the work, (c) the change of internal energy, (d) the transferred heat, (e) the change of enthalpy and (f) the
change of entropy?

Given:
V1=V2 =300 psia

p1 = 300 psia
T1 = 4000F + 460 = 8600F T2
= 1400F+460 = 6000F

Requ
ired:
(a)p2
(b) W
(c) Δ
U
(d) Q
(e) Δ
H
(d)
ΔS

27
 Solution:

(a) p p1T2 (300)(600)

2  T 860  209 psia
1

(b) W  0

p1V1 (300x144)(10) RT1

(c) m    9.417 lb
(53.342)(860)

U  mc v T2  T1   (9.417)(0.1714)(600  860)  420

BTU (d ) Q  mc v T2  T1   (9.417)(0.1714)(600  860) 

420 BTU (e) H  mc p T2  T1   (9.417)(0.24)(600  860) 

T2 
588 BTU
( f ) S  mcv ln T  (9.417)(0.1714)ln
600 
  0.581 BTU
0
R
1
  680 

2. There are 1.36 kg of gas, for which R=377 J/kg.K and k = 1.25, that undergo a nonflow constant volume
process from p1 = 551.6 kPa and t1 = 600C to p2= 1,655 kPa. During the process the gas is internally stirred and there are

also added 105.5 kJ of heat. Determine (a) t2, (b) the work input and (c) the change of entropy.

Given:
m = 1.36 kg
R=377 J/kg.K
k = 1.25
p1 = 551.6 kPa
t1 = 600C
p2= 1,655 kPa

Required:

(a)t2
(b)Wn
(c) ΔS

Solution:

28
 T1 60  273  3330 K

(a) T 2  T1 p 2  (333)(1,655)  9990 K

p1 551.6

R 377 J
(b) c v  
k  1 1,508
1.25  1
U  mcv T2  T1   (1.36)(1.508)(999  333)  1,366
kg .k
KJ

Wn  Q  U  105.5  1,366  1,260.5 kJ

T2 
999 
(c) S  mcv ln T  (1.36)(1.508)ln   2.253 kJ K
1
  333 

ISOBARIC PROCESS
An isobaric process is an internally reversible process of a substance during which the pressure remains
constant.

(1) Relation between V and T.

T2 V2

T1 V1
(2) Nonflow work.
2
Wn   pdV  p (V 2 V ) 1
1
(3) The change of internal energy.
U  mcv T2  T1 
(4) The heat transferred.
Q  mc p T2  T1 
(5) The change of enthalpy.
H  mc p T2  T1 
(6) The change of entropy.
T
S  mc ln
p 2
T1
(7) Steady flow isobaric.
(a) Q  P  K  H  WS
Since,
Q  H
Ws  (K  P)
2
(b)   Vdp  Ws  K
1

0  Ws  K
Ws  K

29
Examples:
1.A certain gas, with cp = 0.529 Btu/lb. R and R = 96.2 ft.lb/lb. R, expands from 5 cu ft and 80 F to 15 cu ft while the
0 0 0

pressure remains constant at 15.5 psia. Compute (a) T2, (b) ΔH, (c) ΔU and d) ΔS. (e) For an internally reversible
nonflow process, what is the work.

Given:
cp = 0.529 Btu/lb.0R
R = 96.2 ft.lb/lb.0R
V1 = 5 ft3

t1 = 800F

V2 = 15 ft3
p = 15.5
psia

Req
uire
d:
(a)T2
(b) Δ
H
(c) Δ
U
(d) Δ
S
(e)W
n

T1 80  460  5400 R

Solution:
(a) T 2  T1V2  (540)(15)  1,6200 R
V1 5

pV (15.5x144)(5)
(b) m  1RT
1
1  0.2148 lb
(96.2)(540)
H  mc p T2  T1   (0.2148)(0.529)(1,620  540)  122.7
Btu
96.2
(c) c v c  pR  0.529   0.4053 Btu / lb .0 R
778
U  mc v T2  T1   (0.2148)(0.4053)(1,620  540)  94
(d ) Btu
T
S  mc ln 2  (0.2148)(0.529)ln 1,620 
 
p
T1   0.1249 Btu / 0R
  
(e) W n p(V 2  V540
1) 
(15.5x144)(15  5)
778  28.7 Btu

2. A perfect gas has a value of R = 319.2 J/kg.K and k = 1.26. If 120 kJ are added to 2.27 kg of this gas at
constant pressure when the initial temperature is 32.20C, find (a) T2, (b) ΔH, (c) ΔU, (d) ΔS, and (e) work for a nonflow
process.

Given:
R = 319.2 J/kg.K k
= 1.26
Q = 120 kJ
m = 2.27 kg
t1 = 32.20C
30
 Required:
(a)T2
(b) Δ
H
(c) Δ
U
(d) Δ
S
(e)W
n

Solution:

T1  32.2  273  305.2 K

kR
(a) c p (1.26)(0.3192)
k  1.26   1.5469 kJ / kg . K
1 1
Q  mc p T2  T1

T2 
Q
 T1 
120
 305.2  339.4 K
mc p (2.27)(1.5469)

(b) H  mc p T2  T1   (2.27)(1.5469)(339.4  305.2)  120

kJ
R
(c) c v 0.3192
k 1  1.26  1.2277 kJ / kg . K
 mc v T2  T1   (2.27)(1.2277)(339.4  305.2)  95.3
U 1
kJ T
(d ) S  mc ln 2  (2.27)(1.5469)ln 339.4 
 
p
T1   0.3730 kJ / K
  
305.2  mRT2
(e) Wn  p(V2  V1 )  p  mRT1   mR T2  T1   (2.27)(0.3192)(339.4  305.2)  24.78
 p 2 kJ p1 

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
An isothermal process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a substance.

(1) Relation between p and V.

p1V1  p2V2
31
(2) Nonflow work.
2
CdV 2 V V
Wn   pdV   C ln 2  p 1V1 ln 2
1 V V1 V1
(3) The change1 of internal energy.
U  0
(4) The heat transferred.
V p
Q  U  W n  p1V1 ln 2  mRT ln 1 , sin ce U  0.
V1 p2
(5) The change of enthalpy.
H  0
(6) The change of entropy.
Q p1
S   mR ln
T
(7) Steady flow
p2 isothermal.
(a) Q  P  K  H  WS
Since,
H  0
Ws  Q  P  K
2
(b)   Vdp  Ws  K
1

From pV  C, pdV  Vdp  0, pdV

dp   V
2
  Vdp   V  pdV    pdV
1
 V 
p1V1  Ws  K

Example:
1. During isothermal process at 880F, the pressure on 8 lb of air drops from 80 psia to psig. For an internally
reversible process, determine (a) the ∫pdV and the work of a nonflow process, (b) the -∫Vdp and the work of a
steady flow process during which ΔK = 0, (c) ΔU and ΔH, and (e) ΔS.

Given:
T = 880F + 460 = 5480R
m = 8 lb
p1 = 80 psia

p2 = 5 psig + 14.7 = 19.7 psia

Required:
(a) ∫pdV
(b) -∫Vdp and WS when ΔK = 0
(c) ΔU and ΔH
(e) ΔS

Solution:

32
 V p
80    421.2 Btu
(a)  pdV  p1 1V ln 2  mRT ln 1  (8)(53.342)(548)   ln
V1 p2  778   19.7
 
2  
Wn   pdV  421.2 Btu
1

V
(b)  Vdp  p 1V1 ln 2  421.2
Btu V1
(c) Q  U  Wn  421.2 Btu
(d) ) U  0
H  0
Q 421.2
(e) S  T 548 0 .7686 Btu / R
0

ISENTROPIC PROCESS
An isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process. Adiabatic simply means no heat. A reversible
adiabatic is one of constant entropy.

(1) Relation between p, V and T.

(a) Relation between p and V.

p V k p V k c
1 1
2 2
(b) Relation between T and V.
From p V k  p V k and p1V1 p2V2
T1  :
1 1
2 2

T k 1
T2
1V 
T1  
2

 V2 
(b) Relation between T and p.
k 1

T2 2 p  k

T1  
 p1 

(2) Nonflow work.

From pV k  c, p  cV  k
2 2 2
Wn   pdV  1 cV k dV  c  V k dV
1 1

Wn  p2V2  p1V1  mRT2  T1

1k 1
 ofk internal energy.
(3) The change
U  mcV T2  T1 
(4) The heat transferred.
Q0
(5) The change of enthalpy.
H  mcP (T2  T1 )

33
(6) The change of entropy.
S  0

(7) Steady flow isentropic.

(a) Q  P  K  H  WS
Since Q  0 and (P  K  0),
WS  H
2
(b)   Vdp  WS  K
1
1


1
2 
2 
1 k(pVpV 1 1)
2
 LetVdp
c  p kV kor
cp V  cp 2k 2  k  pdV
1
dp 
1 1k 1

Examples:
1. From a state defined by 300 psia, 100 cu ft and 2400F, helium undergoes an isentropic process to 0.3 psig.
Find (a) V2 and t2, (b) ΔU and ΔH, (c) ∫pdV, (d) -∫Vdp, (e) Q and ΔS. What is the work (f) if the process is nonflow, (g) if

the process is steady flow with ΔK = 10 Btu? R = 386.04 ft.lb per lb.0R, cv = 0.745 Btu/lb.0R, cp = 1.241 Btu/lb.0R, and k =

1.666

Given:
p1 = 300 psia
p2 = 0.3 psig + 14.7 = 15 psia V1
= 100 cu ft
T1 = 240 0F + 460 = 700 0R
R = 386.04 ft.lb per lb.0R
cv = 0.745 Btu/lb.0R

cp = 1.241 Btu/lb.0R k
= 1.666

Required:

(a)V2 and t2
(b) ΔU and ΔH
(c) ∫pdV
(d) -∫Vdp
(e) Q and ΔS
(f)Wn
(g)WS with ΔK = 10
Btu

Solution:

1 1

p
1.666
k  300   603.4 ft 3
(a) V 2 V 1 1 p (100)
 2  15 

34
 k 1 1.6661

p k
 15    211.3 0R
1.666

T2  T1  2   (700)
 p1   300 
t 2 T 2 460  211.3  460  248.7 0F

p1V1 (300x144)(100) RT1

(b) m    15.99 lb
(386.04)(700)

H  mc P (T2  T1 )  (15.99)(1.241)(211.3 
700)  9,698 Btu

U  2mcV T2 p2T

V12  p(15.99)(0.745)
1V (15x144)(603.4)  (300x144)(100) 1 Btu
(c)  pdV  1
 x  5,822 Btu
1(211.3  700)
1  5,822 Btu 1 1.666 778 ft.lb
k
2 2
(d )   Vdp  k  pdV  (1.666)(5,822)  9,698 Btu
1 1

(e) Q  0 , S  0

( f ) Q  U  Wn

Wn  Q  U  0  (5,822)  5,822 Btu

2
(g)   Vdp  WS K
1

2
WS    Vdp  K  9,698 10  9,688 Btu
1

2. An adiabatic expansion of air occurs through a nozzle from 828 kPa and 710C to 138 kPa. The initial kinetic
energy is negligible. For an isentropic expansion, compute the specific volume, temperature and speed at the
exit.

Given:
p1 = 828 kPa

T1 = 710C + 273 = 344 K

p2 = 138 kPa k
= 1.4
cv = 0.7186 kJ/kg.K cp =

1.0062 kJ/kg.K R =
287.08 J/kg.K

Required:
v1,v2, T2, υ2

35
Solution:

k 1.41
1

p k
 138   206 K
1.4

T2  T1 2   (344)
 p1   828 
t 2 T 2 273  206  273  67 0C

RT1 (0.28708)(344)
v1    0.1193 m 3/ kg
p1 828
1
1

v2 v 1 p1    (0.1193) 828   0.429 m3/ kg

k 1.4

 p2   138 
H  cP (T2  T1 )  (1.0062)(206  344)  138.9 kJ / kg

Q  P  K  H  WS

K  H  138,900 J / kg

2
K  K 2  K1  22k

kg.m N.m
2  2k K 2  K1  (2)(1 )(138,000 )  527.1m / s
N.s 2
kg


POLYTROPIC PROCESS
A polytropic process is an internally reversible process during which
pV n  C or p V1 n1 p V2 2n
where n is any constant.

(1) Relation among p, V and T.

(a) Relation between p and V.

p1V1 n  p V n  c 2 2
(b) Realtion between T and V.
T  V  n1
T1  
2 1

 V2 

36
 (c) Relation between T and p.
n1

T2 2 p  n

T1  
 p1 
(2) Nonflow work.
p2V2  p1V1 mR T2  T1
Wn   pdV  1 n

1
(3) The change of internalnenergy.
U  mcV T2  T1 
(4) The heat transferred.
Q  U  Wn
mR(T2 T 1)
Q  mcV(T 2 T )1 
1 n
m(cV  cV n)(T2  T1 )  mR(T2 
Q 1
T1 )
m(cV  cV n  R)(T
n 2  T1
Q
1
 mc (c nc n)(T 
Q V P V 2

T1 ) 
k  n  n2
Q  mcV( 1  1)(T  T )1
Q  mcn (Tn2  T1 )

Where c n  c Vk  n  , the polytropic specific heat

1 
n
(5) The change of enthalpy.
H  mcP (T2  T1 )
(6) The change of entropy.
T
S  mc nln 2
T1
(7) Steady flow Polytropic.

(a) Q  P  K  H  WS

Since P  K  0,

WS  Q  H
2
(b)   Vdp  WS  K
1
1


2 n( 1p V  p V 2
  Vdp  k 2 2 1 1
 nk pdV
Let
1 c  p V1orn V  cp 1

Example: During a polytropic process, 10 lb of an ideal gas, whose R = 40 ft.lb/lb.0R and cP = 0.25 Btu/lb.0R, changes state
from 20 psia and 400F to 120 psia and 3400F. determine (a) n, (b) ΔU and ΔH, (c) ΔS, (d) Q,
(e) ʃpdV, (f) -ʃVdp, (g) If the process is steady flow during which ΔK = 0, what is WS? What is ΔK if WS = 0?
(b) What is the work for a nonflow process?

Given:
m = 10 lb
R = 40 ft.lb/lb.0R
cP = 0.25 Btu/lb.0R

p1 =20 psia
37
T1 = 400F + 460 =

5000R
 p2 = 120 psia

T2 = 3400F + 460 =8000R

Required:
(a) n
(b) ΔU and ΔH
(c) ΔS,
(d) Q
(e) ʃpdV
(f) -ʃVdp
(g)WS if ΔK = 0
(h) Wn

Solution:
n1

(a) T2  2 p  n

T1
 p1  n1

T p n

ln 2T1 ln 2 
 p1  n1

T p n

ln 2T1 ln 2 
 p1 
ln T2 
n T
  1
1 ln
 p2  
n  p1 

 T2  
 ln  
T
n 1  n  1  
 p2  
ln   
p 1

1  1
n  

 T2     800   1.356
 ln  ln  
  T1   1   500 
1 
  ln
 p2   120  
ln   
 p    20 
  1 
1
 ft.lb  0.1986 Btu / lb.0
(b) cV  c P R  0.25 Btu / lb.0 R  40 lb.0 xR 778
Btuft.lb
R
U  mcV T2  T1   (10)(0.1986)(800  500)  595.80
Btu
H  mcP T2  T1   (10)(0.25)(800  500)  750 Btu
0.25
c  0.1259
(c) k  PcV 0.1986

cn c V  k  n   1.259 1.356  0

 1    (0.1986)  1   0.0541 Btu / lb. R
n T 1.356
2
800 
S  mcn ln T  (10)(0.0541)ln   0.2543 Btu / R
0
1
  500 
(d ) Q  mcn (T2  T1 )  (10)(0.0541)(800  500)  162.3
Btu
(e) p V  p V mR T  T  (10)(40)(800  500)
 pdV  2 21 n1 1  12 n 1  (778)(11.356)  433.3 Btu

38
 2 2
(f)   Vdp  n pdV  (1.356)(433.3)  587.6 Btu
1 1
2
(g )   Vdp  WS  K
1
2
WS    Vdp  K  587.6  0  587.6
1
Btu 2
K    Vdp  WS  587.6  0  587.6
1
Btu
(h) Wn   pdV   433.3 Btu

Problems:
1. One pound of an ideal gas undergoes an isentropic process from 95.3 psig and a volume of 0.6 ft3 to a final
volume of 3.6 ft3. If cP = 0.14 and cV = 0.09 3 Btu/lb.0R, what are (a) t2, (b) p2, (c) ΔH and (d) W? Ans. (a) t2 =

-243.10F,,(b) p2 = 10.09 psia, (c) ΔH = -21.96 Btu, (d) W = 16.48 Btu

2.A certain ideal gas where whose R = 278.6 J/kg.K and cP = 1.015 KJ/kg.K expands isentropically from 1,517 KPa, 2880C to

965 kPa. For 454 g/s of this gas determine, (a) Wn, (b) V2, (c) ΔU and (d) ΔH.

Ans. (a) Wn = 21.9 kJ/s, (b) V2 = 0.06495 m3/s, (d) ΔH = -30.18 kJ/s

3.A polytropic process of air from 150 psia, 300 F, and 1 ft occurs to p2 = 20 psia in accordan with pV
0 3 1.3
= C. Determine (a) t2

and V2, (b) ΔU, ΔH and ΔS, (c) ʃpdV and -ʃVdp. (d) Compute the heat from the polytropic specific heat and check by the
equation Q = ΔU + pdV. (e) Find the nonflow work and (f) the steady flow work for ΔK =0.
Ans. (a) t2 = 14.40F, V2 = 4.711 ft3; (b) ΔU = -25.81 Btu, ΔH = -36.14 Btu, ΔS = 0.0141 Btu/0R; (c) ʃpdV= 34.41

Btu, -ʃVdp = 44.73 Btu; (d) Q = 8.6 Btu, (e) Wn = 34.41 Btu, (f) WS = 44.73 Btu

4. The work required to compress a gas reversibly according to pV1.30 = C is 67,750 J, if there is no flow.
Determine ΔU and Q if the gas is (a) air, (b) methane. For methane, k = 1.321, R = 518.45 J/kg.K,
cV = 1.6187 , cP = 2.1377 kJ/kg.K.
Ans. (a) ΔU = 50.91 kJ, Q = -16.88 kJ; (b) ΔU = 63.50 kJ, Q = -4.29 kJ

GAS CYCLES

Heat engine or thermal engine is a closed system (no mass crosses its boundaries) that exchanges only
heat and work with its surrounding and that operates in cycles.
Elements of a thermodynamic heat engine with a fluid as the working substance.
(1) a working substance, matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work;
(2) a source of heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source), from which the working
substance receives heat;
(3) a heat sink (also called a receiver, a cold body, or just sink), to which the working substance can
reject heat; and
(4) an engine, wherein the working substance may do work or have work done on it.

A thermodynamic cycle occurs when the working fluid of a system experiences a number of processes
CYCLE WORK
that eventually AND
return theTHERMAL EFFICIENCY
fluid to its initial state.

39
 Where:
QA = heat added QR

= heat rejected W =
net work

Available energy is
that part of the heat
that was converted
into mechanical
work.
Unavailable energy
is the remainder of
the heat that had to
be rejected into the
receiver (sink). (Algebraic sum)
W = QA + (-QR)

THE SECOND LAW OF

W = QA - |QR| (Arithmetic difference)
THERMODYNAMICS
“ All energy
(b) The net
received as work of a cycle is the algebraic sum of the works done by the individual processes.
heat by
heat-engine cycle
W =beƩW
cannot converted
intoWmechanical
= W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + . . .
work.”
THE CARNOT CYCLE
WORKThe OFCarnot
A CYCLEcycle is the most efficient cycle conceivable. There are other ideal cycles as efficient as the
Carnot cycle, but none more so, such a perfect cycle forms a standard of comparison for actual engines and
(a) Wand
actual cycles = ƩQalso for other less efficient ideal cycles, permitting as to judge how much room there might be
for improvement.

OPERATION OF THE CARNOT ENGINE

A cylinder C contains m mass of a substance. The cylinder head, the only place where heat may enter or
leave the substance (system) is placed in contact with the source of heat or hot body which has a constant
temperature T1, Heat flown from the hot body into the substance in the cylinder isothermally, process 1-2, and the
piston moves from 1’ to 2’. Next, the cylinder is removed from the body and the insulator I is placed over the
head of the cylinder, so that no heat may be transferred in or out. As a result, any further process is adiabatic. The
isentropic change 2-3 now occurs and the piston moves from 2’ to 3’. When the piston reaches the end of the
stroke 3’, the insulator I is removed and the cylinder head is placed in contact with the receiver or sink, which
remains at a constant temperature T3. Heat then flows from the substance to the sink, and the isothermal compression 3-4
occurs while the piston moves from 3’ to 4’. Finally, the insulator I is again placed over the head and the
isentropic compression 4-1 returns the substance to its initial condition, as the piston moves from 4’ to 1’.

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Analysis of the Carnot cycle.

QA  T1 S 2  S1 
QR  T3 S 4  S 3   T3 S 3  S 4   T3 S 2 
S1  W  QA  QR  T1 S 2  S1  T3 S 2  S1 
W  T1  T3 S 2 
S1  W T1  T3
e 
QA

The Tthermal
1 efficiency, e, is defined as the fraction of the heat applied to thermodynamic cycle that is
converted into work.

Work from the TS plane.

V2
Q A mRT ln
1
V1
V V V
QR  mRT 3 ln 4  mRT3 ln 3  mRT3 ln 2
V3 V4 V1
V
W  Q A Q R mR T1  T 3ln 2
V1
W T 1  T3
e 
QA T1

Work from the pV plane.

W  W  WV12  W
p323
V3  pWV
34  W41 V p1V1  p 4V4
W  p1 V
1 ln 2 22
 p3V3 ln 4
 V1 1  V3 1
k k
MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE (pm or mep)
pm  W
VD
Where:
VD = displacement volume, the volume swept by the piston in the stroke.

Mean effective pressure is the average constant pressure that, acting through one stroke, will do on the
piston the net work of a single cycle.

RATIO OF EXPANSION, RATIO OF COMPRESSION

41
 volume at the end of exp ansion
Expansion ratio 
volume at the beginning of exp ansion
V2
Isothermal exp ansion ratio 
V1
V3
Isentropic exp ansion ratio 
V2
V3
Overall exp ansion ratio 
V1

volume at the beginning of compression

Compression ratio  volume at the end of compression
V3
Isothermal compression ratio 
V4
V4
Isentropic compression ratio, r k
V1
V3
Overall compression ratio 
V1

Isentropic compression ratio, rK, is the compression ratio most commonly used.

Examples:
1. A Carnot power cycle operates on 2 lb of air between the limits of 700F and 5000F. The pressure at the
beginning of isothermal expansion is 400 psia and at the end of isothermal expansion is 185 psig. Determine
(a)the volume at the end of isothermal compression, (b) ΔS during an isothermal process, (c) QA, (d) QR,
(e) W, (f) e, (g) the ratio of expansion during isothermal heating and the overall ratio of expansion, and
(h) the mean effective pressure.

Given:
m = 2 lb
p1 = 400 psia

T1 = 5000F + 460 = 9600R

p2 = 185 psig + 14.7 = 199.7 psia T3

= 700F + 460 = 5300R

Required:
(a)V2
(b) ΔS
(c)QA
(d)QR
(e) W
(f) e
(g) Isothermal expansion ratio
and overall expansion ratio
(h)Pm

Solution:
42
 Point 1:
mRT1 (2)(53.34)(960) 3
V1    1.778
p1 (400)(144) ft
Point 2:
V2  mRT2  (2)(53.34)(530)  3.561 ft 3
p 2 (199.7)
Point 3: (144)
k/k 1.4
1
p3 p 2 T3   (199.7) 530 1.41  24.97 psia
T
 2  960 
mRT3 (2)(53.34)(530)
V3   15.72 3
p3 (24.97)(144) ft
Point 4:
 V   1.778  3
(a) V4  V3 V 1   (15.72) 3.561   7.849 ft
 2

(b) S12  mR ln V2 (2)(53.34)778  ln  3.561   0.0952 Btu /0R
 V     1.778
1   
(c) QA  T1 (S )  (960)(0.0952)  91.43 Btu
(d ) QR  T3 (S )  (530)(0.0952)  50.46
Btu (e) W  QA  QR  91.43  50.46  40.97
Btu
QA 91.43
W 40.97
(f) e  x100  44.81 %
V 3.561
(g ) Isothermal exp ansion ratio  V2 1 1.778
2

V 15.72
Overall exp ansion ratio  V3
1 1.778

8.84 (40.97)(778)
(h) pm  W    15.88 psi
VD V3  V1 (15.72 1.778)
W(144)

2.A Carnot engine operating between 775 K and 305 K produces 54 kJ of work. Determine (a) QA, (b) ΔS during heat
rejection, and (c) e.

Given:
T1 = 775 K

T3 = 305 K
W = 54 kJ
Required:
(a)QA
(b) ΔS
(c) e
Solution:
43
 T1  T3 775  305
(a) e  x100  60.65 %
T1 775
54
W  89.04
Q  e 0.6065
A
kJ
(b) QR  QA  W  89.04  54  35.04 kJ
Q  35.04
S 34  T R  305  0.115 kJ / K
3

THREE-PROCESS CYCLE
Examples:
1. Ten cu ft of helium at 20 psia and 800F are compressed isentropically 1-2 to 80 psia. The helium is then
expanded polytropically 2-3 with n = 1.35 to the initial temperature. An isothermal 3-1 returns the helium to
the initial state. Find T2, V2, p3, QA. QR, W, ΔS3-1, and pm.

Given:
p1 = 20 psia
T1 = 800F + 460 = 5400R
V1 = 10 cu ft
p2 = 80 psia T3

= 5400R

cP = 1.241 kJ/kg.K cV =

0.745 kJ/kg.K k =
1.666
R = 386.04 J/kg.K

Required:
T2, V2, p3, QA. QR, W,

ΔS3-1, and pm

Solution:

Point 1:

p1V1 (20 x144)(10)

m   0.1382 lb
RT1 (386.04)(540)

Point 2: 44
 k 1.6661
1
T2 T 1 p2  k  (540) 80 1.666  939.90 R
 p1   20 
1/ k 1/1.666
p  20   4.351 cu ft
V2  V1  1   (10) 
 p2   80 

Point 3:
n 1.35

 (20) 540  
1.351
p3 p 2 T3 n1  9.435 psia
 T2   939.9 
1/ n 1/1.35
p  80 
V3  V2  2   (4.351)   21.2 cu ft
 p3   20 
cn c V  k  n   1.666 1.35  0
 1  n   (0.745)  1   0.6808 Btu / lb. R
T3  T2   (0.1382)(0.6808)(540  939.9)  37.63
Q A  mcn1.35
Btu
V1   10 
QR  mRT 3ln V  (0.1382)(386.04)(540)ln   27.82 Btu
3 21.2 
W  QA  QR  37.63  27.82  9.81 Btu
Q  27.82
S 31  T R  540  0.0515 Btu / R
0
1
W (9.81)(778)
W
p m V    3.15
D V3  V2 (21.2  4.351) psi
(144)

2. Two and a half kg of an ideal gas with R = 296.9 J/kg.K and cV = 0.7442 kJ/kg.K at a pressure of 827.4 kPa and a
temperature of 6770C reject 132.2 kJ of heat at constant pressure. The gas is then expanded according to
pV1.25 = C to a point where a constant volume process will bring the gas back to its original state. Determine
p3, QA, and the power in kW for 100 Hz.

Given:
m = 2.5 kg
R = 296.9 J/kg.K
cV = 0.7442 kJ/kg.K p1 =

827.4 kPa
T1 = 6770C +273 = 950 K QR =
-132.2 kJ

Required:
p3, QA, and the power in kW

for 100 Hz

Solution:

cP  cV  R  0.7442  0.2969  1.0411 kJ / kg.K

45
 c 1.0411
k  cPV  0.7442
 1.399
Point 1:
mRT1 (2.5)(0.2969)(950)
V1   0.8522 m 3
p1 827.4

Point 2:
QR  mc P T2  T1
 QR  T  132.2  950  899.2 K
T2  1
mc P (2.5)(1.0411)

 T   899.2  3
V2  V1 T2   (0.8522)  950   0.8066 m
 1
Point 3:
n1
V  1.251
 0.8066   886.9 K
T3  T 2  2   (899.2)(
 V1   0.8522 
1.25
n  0.8066 
p3  p2 2 V   (827.4)   772.4 kPa
 V3   0.8533 
 1  
cn c V  1   (0.7442)  1 1.25
k 1 1.399
0.4435 kJ / kg.K
Q A  mcnn T3  T2  mcv T1  T3   (2.5)(0.4435)886.9  899.2  (2.5)(0.7442)950  886.9  
131 kJ W  QA  QR  131 132.2  1.2 kJ
0

W  (1.2 kJ / cycle)(100 cycles / s)  120 kW

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Internal combustion engine is a best engine deriving its power from the energy liberated by the explosion
of a mixture of some hydrocarbon, in gaseous or vaporized form, with atmospheric air.

SPARK IGNITION (SI) OR GASOLINE ENGINE

The four-stroke cycle is one wherein four strokes of the piston, two revolutions, are required to complete
a cycle.

46
OTTO CYCLE
The Otto cycle is the ideal prototype of spark-ignition engines.

47