Rockwell scale

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material.

The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of
an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.[1]
There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or
indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc.,
where the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale (see below). When testing
metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.[2] This
important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk
metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held
Rockwell hardness testers.

Contents
History
A Rockwell hardness tester
Rockwell hardness tester classifications based on Rockwell scales
Operation
Scales and values
Typical values
Standards
See also
References
External links

History
The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by a Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book Die
Kegelprobe (crudely, "the cone test").[3] The differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical
imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was
developed earlier – in 1900 – but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, and left too large an impression to be considered
nondestructive.

Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940) from Connecticut in the United States co-invented the
"Rockwell hardness tester," a differential-depth machine. They applied for a patent on July 15, 1914.[4] The requirement for this
tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was subsequently approved on
February 11, 1919, and holds U.S. Patent 1,294,171. At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell worked for the New
Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT.[5] New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer which in 1916 became part of
United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp.

After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the original
invention on September 11, 1919, which was approved on November 18, 1924. The new tester holds U.S. Patent 1,516,207.[6][7]
Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an additional improvement in 1921.[7] Stanley collaborated with instrument
manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention and develop standardized
testing machines.[8] Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which still exists in Hartford,
CT. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, and was acquired by Instron
Corp. in 1993.[9]

Rockwell hardness tester classifications based on Rockwell scales

Rockwell hardness tester: HRA, HRB, HRC[10]

Superficial Rockwell hardness tester: 15N, 30N, 45N, 15T

, 30T, 45T, 15W, 30W, 45W, 15X, 30X, 45X, 15Y, 30Y, 45Y

Plastic Rockwell hardness tester: HRE, HRL, HRM

Twin Rockwell hardness tester (also named as Rockwell & superficial Rockwell hardness tester): HRA, HRB, HRC,15N, 15T, 15W,
15X, 15Y, 30N, 30T, 30W, 30X, 30Y, 45N, 45T, 45W, 45X, 45Y [11]

Operation
The determination of the Rockwell
hardness of a material involves the
application of a minor load followed by
a major load. The minor load establishes
the zero position. The major load is
applied, then removed while still
maintaining the minor load. The depth
of penetration from the zero datum is
measured from a dial, on which a harder
Force diagram of Rockwell test
material gives a higher number. That is,
the penetration depth and hardness are
inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display
hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness
measurement techniques.

The equation for Rockwell Hardness is , where d is the depth (from the zero
load point), and N and s are scale factors that depend on the scale of the test being used (see
following section).

It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its
speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.

Legacy Rockwell hardness testers operation steps:

A closeup of the indenter
1. Load an initial force: Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 10 kgf (98 N; and anvil on a Rockwell-type
22 lbf); superficial Rockwell hardness test initial test force is 3 kgf (29 N; 6.6 lbf). hardness tester.
2. Load main load: reference below form / table 'Scales and values'.
3. Leave the main load for a "dwell time" sufficient for indentation to come to a halt.
.[12]
4. Release load; the Rockwell value will typically display on a dial or screen automatically
In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.[13] Also,
readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be
[14]
used if the hardness of a convex surface is to be measured.

Scales and values

There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B" and "C" scales.
Both express hardness as an arbitrarydimensionless number.

A digital Rockwell tester

Various Rockwell scales[15]

Scale Abbreviation Load Indenter Use N s
60
A HRA 120° diamond spheroconical† Tungsten carbide 100 0.002mm
kgf

100 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm) Aluminium, brass, and soft

B HRB 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere steels

150
C HRC 120° diamond spheroconical Harder steels >B100 100 0.002mm
kgf
100
D HRD 120° diamond spheroconical 100 0.002mm
kgf

100 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm)

E HRE 8 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

60 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm)

F HRF 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

150 1⁄ -inch-diameter (1.588 mm)

G HRG 16 130 0.002mm
kgf steel sphere

60 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm)

H HRH 8 Aluminum, Zinc, Lead [16]
kgf steel sphere

150 1⁄ -inch-diameter (3.175 mm) Bearing alloy, tin, hard plastic

K HRK 8
kgf steel sphere materials [17]
†Also called a brale indenter

Except for testing thin materials in accordance with A623, the steel indenter balls have been replaced by tungsten
carbide balls of the varying diameters.When a ball indenter is used, the letter "W" is used to indicate a tungsten
carbide ball was used, and the letter "S" indicates the use of a steel ball. E.g.: 70 HRBW indicates the reading was
70 in the Rockwell B scale using a tungsten carbide indenter .[18]
The superficial Rockwell scales use lower loads and shallower impressions on brittle and very thin materials. The 45N scale employs
a 45-kgf load on a diamond cone-shaped Brale indenter, and can be used on dense ceramics. The 15T scale employs a 15-kgf load on
a 1⁄16-inch-diameter (1.588 mm) hardened steel ball, and can be used onsheet metal.

The B and C scales overlap, such that readings below HRC 20 and those above HRB 100, generally considered unreliable, need not
be taken or specified.
Typical values
Very hard steel (e.g. chisels, qualityknife blades): HRC 55–66 (Hardened High Speed Carbon and oTol Steels such
as M2, W2, O1, CPM-M4, and D2, as well as many of the newer powder metallurgy Stainless Steels such as S30V ,
CPMS-154, ZDP-189, etc.)[19]
Axes: about HRC 45–55
Brass: HRB 55 (Low brass, UNS C24000, H01 e Tmper) to HRB 93 (Cartridge Brass, UNS C26000 (260 Brass), H10
Temper)[20]
Several other scales, including the extensive A-scale, are used for specialized applications. There are special scales for measuring
case-hardened specimens.

Standards
International (ISO)

ISO 6508-1: Metallic materials—Rockwell hardness test—Part 1: est

T method (scales A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K,
N, T)
ISO 2039-2: Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2: Rockwell hardness
US standard (ASTM International)

ASTM E18: Standard methods for Rockwell hardness and Rockwell superficial hardness of metallic materials

See also
Brinell hardness test
Hardness comparison
Holger F. Struer
Knoop hardness test
Leeb Rebound Hardness Test
Meyer hardness test
Shore durometer
Vickers hardness test

References
1. E.L. Tobolski & A. Fee, "Macroindentation Hardness Testing," ASM Handbook, Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and
Evaluation, ASM International, 2000, pp. 203–211,ISBN 0-87170-389-0.
2. "Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels(http://www.springerlink.com/content/q8
6642448t84g267/)", E. J. Pavlina and C. J. Van Tyne, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance , Volume
17, Number 6 / December 2008
3. G.L. Kehl, The Principles of Metallographic Laboratory Practice
, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1949, p. 229.
4. H.M. Rockwell & S.P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Tester," U.S. Patent 1,294,171 (https://www.google.com/patents/US1294
171), Feb 1919.
5. S.W. Kallee: Stanley Pickett Rockwell - One of the Inventors of the Rockwell Hardnessesting
T Machine (https://ww
w.alustir.com/english/did-you-know/stanley-rockwell/). Retrieved on 21 November 2018.
6. S.P. Rockwell, "The Testing of Metals for Hardness, Transactions of the American Society for Steel Treating, Vol. II,
No. 11, August 1922, pp. 1013–1033.
7. S. P. Rockwell, "Hardness-Testing Machine", U.S. Patent 1,516,207 (https://www.google.com/patents/US1516207),
Nov 1924.
8. V.E. Lysaght, Indentation Hardness Testing, Reinhold Publishing Corp., 1949, pp. 57–62.
9. R.E. Chinn, "Hardness, Bearings, and the Rockwells(https://archive.is/20120718213601/http://www
.asminternationa
l.org/static/Static%20Files/IP/Magazine/AMP/V167/I10/amp16710p29.pdf?authtoken=22eedf26d8f9bf791016fbc116
3353f1ee8dd1a0)," Advanced Materials & Processes, Vol 167 #10, October 2009, p 29-31.
10. EBP R-150T digital Rockwell hardness testerhttp://www.hiebp.com
11. EBP RSR-45/150D digital Rockwell & superficial Rockwell hardness tester
http://www.hiebp.com
12. www.hiebp.com
13. Fundamentals of Rockwell Hardness T esting (https://web.archive.org/web/20100129101621/http://www .instron.us/w
a/library/streamfile.aspx?doc=1154), archived from the original (http://www.instron.us/wa/library/StreamFile.aspx?do
c=1154) on 2010-01-29, retrieved 2010-09-10
14. PMPA's Designer's Guide: Heat treatment(http://www.pmpa.org/technology/design/heattreatment.htm), retrieved
2009-06-19.
15. Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001),Foundations of Material Science and Engineering(4th ed.), McGraw-Hill,
p. 229, ISBN 0-07-295358-6
16. EBP company R-150T Rockwell hardness tester manual book.
17. EBP company R-150T Rockwell hardness tester manual book.
18. E18-08b Section 5.1.2.1 & 5.2.3
19. Knife blade materials (https://web.archive.org/web/20080531085629/http://www
.cutleryscience.com/reviews/blade_m
aterials.html)
20. matweb.com (http://www.matweb.com), accessed 2010-06-23

External links
Video on the Rockwell hardness test
Hardness Conversion Chart
Rockwell to brinell conversion chart
Hardness Conversion Table

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