LRFD AND STANDARD AASHTO

DESIGN OF CONCRETE BRIDGES

12.1 INTRODUCTION: SAFETY AND RELIABILITY

As discussed in Section 4.10.l, a load­resistance factor design metbod (LRFD) is a

reliability­based approacb for evaluating probability­based factored design criteria (Ref.
12.1 ). lt is in tended for proportioning structural members based on the load types such that
the resisting strength levels are greater than tbe factored load or moment distributions.
Figures 12.l{a) and (b), as in Figure 4.36 of Chapter 4, show a plot of separare fre­
quency distributions of tbe actual load W and the resistance R with mean value R. Figure
12.l(c) gives the two distributions superimposed and intersecting at point C in tbe diagram.
The safety and reliable iotegrity of tbe structure can be expected to exist if the load
effect W falls ata point to tbe Jeft of intersection Con the resistance curve. Failure, oo
the other hand, would be expected to occur if the load effect on the resistaoce curve falls
within the shaded area in Fig. 12.l{c). [f 13 is a safety index, then:

R-W
13 = --;:=== (12.1)
V~+ a?v
where, <TR and <Tw are the standard deviations of the resistance and tbe load, respectively.

West Kowloon Expressway Viaduct, Hong Kong.1997. A 4.2­Km dual 3­lane causeway connecting
Western Harbor Crossing to new airport ( Courtesy Institution of Civil Engineers, London)

742
12.1 lntroduction: Safety and Reliability 743

1 1
i--R-W-
1 1
1 ­2crR 1 +2crR
1

R
Resistance, R
(a)

­2crw +2crw

w
Load, U
(b)

1 1
i--R-W-
1 1
1 1
1 1
~
~
1
1
1
1
>, 1 1
o 1
e 1
Q)
::::, 1 R
O" 1
~
u.
w

w R
Load, U
(e)

Figure 12.1 Frequency Distribution of Load vs. Resistance

744 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Table 12.1(a) LRFD Resistance Factors el>

el>

Flexure and tension of reinforced concrete 0.90

Flexure and tension in prestressed concrete 1.00
Shear and torsion:
normal density concrete 0.90
low­density concrete 0.70
Axial compression with spirals of ties 0.75
Bearing on concrete 0.70
Compression in strut and tie models 0.70
Compression in anchorage zones:
normal density concrete 0.80
low­density concrete 0.65
Tension in steel in anchorage zones 1.00
For partially prestressed components in flexure with or without tension, 0.90 + O.lO(PPR)
where PPR = Ap/pyl(Aps Ípy + As Íy)

The different load combinations in Eq. 4.29, Chapter 4, are based on giving a rea­
sonable difference between R and W as dictated by economical considerations.
The reliability of safe performance of the structure is, hence, controlled by the load­
resistance considerations in the load factors used in the design.
AASHTO's LRFD approach (Ref. 12.2­12.3) is intended to extend the load­
resistance considerations to the expressions for deformations and forces and modified
load resistance factors <!> from those used by ACI 318 (Ref. 12.4) where necessary. Those
LRFD <!> factors are listed in Table 12.l(a).
This chapter presents, and uses in design examples, the LRFD expressions where
they differ from the standard AASHTO and ACI­318 expressions. Otherwise, the ex­
pressions used in the previous Chapters 3, 4, and 5 and the principies enunciated would
apply. The student and the design engineer will easily recognize these expressions. Hence
the need for redefining them becomes unnecessary.
It should be noted that most state DOTs have already mandated the use of the
LRFD Design Method. However, other state DOTs and users of AASHTO standards in
the United States and elsewhere still use the LFD Design Method. In addition, evalua­
tion of bridge performance designed prior to 2008 by the LFD procedures requires use of
the same criteria applied in the original design for comparison and conflict resolution.
Hence, this chapter retains the LFD Design Method but fully presents the current
AASHTO LRFD procedures.

12.2 AASHTO STANDARD (LFD) ANO LRFD TRUCK LOAD SPECIFICATIONS

The design of prestressed concrete elements of a bridge is governed by requirements of

the American Association of Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The
traffic lanes and the loads they contain for the design of the bridge superstructure have to
be chosen and placed in such numbers and positions on the roadway that they produce
the maximum stress in the constituent members.
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 745

The bridge live loadings should consist of standard truck or lane loads that are
equivalent to truck trains. For railway bridges, the requirements are set by the American
Railway Engineering Association (AREA). Requirements far the structural proportion­
ing of the supporting members usually follow the ACI and PCI standards.

12.2.1 Loads
There are four standard classes of highway loading: H 20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Load­
ing HS 15 is 75 percent of HS 20. If loadings other than these are to be considered, they
should be obtained by proportionally adjusting the weights far the standard trucks and
the corresponding lane loads. Bridges supporting interstate highways should be re­
designed far HS 20­44 loading or an alternate military loading of two axles 4 ft apart,
with each axle weighing 24,000 lb, whichever loading produces the larger stress value.
Figure 12.2 shows the standard H truck loading, while Figure 12.3 shows the stan­
dard HS truck loading giving wheel spacing and load distribution. Figure 12.4 gives the
equivalent lane loading far both the H and HS 20­44 and the H and HS 15­44 categories
(Ref. 12.1). Figure 12.5 gives an overview of the different bridge deck systems in common
use.
Figure 12.5 gives typical deck bridge structures.

(i) lmpact. Movable loads require impact allowance as a fraction of the live load stress.
lt can be expressed by standard AASHTO (LFD):
50
I = < 3001 (12.2)
L + 125 ­ /O

where I = Impact fraction

L = Length in feet of the portian of the span that is loaded resulting in maximum
stress in that member.

Clearance and
load lane width
10'-0'

Curb

~
H 20-44
H 15-44
8,000 LBS.
6,000 LBS.
32,000 LBS.
24,000 LBS.
_¡
2'-0'
1-
6'-0"
., ~
2'-0'

1 14'-0" 1
~ • W = Total weight of
truck and load I ci
.. ~

­­­­­~

­$­­­­­$­
Figure 12.2 Wheel loads and geometry for H trucks
746 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges ,,

Clearance and
load lane width
10'-0"
¡
l
-i
\

l
l'

HS 20-44 8,000 LBS. 32,000 LBS. 32,000 LBS.

HS 15-44 6,000 LBS. 24,000 LBS. 24,000 LBS.

~I ~I ~
00
o

W • Combined weight on the first two axles which is the same

as for the corresponding H (M) truck.
V • Variable spacing - 14 feet to 30 feet inclusive. Spacing to be
used is that which produces maximum stresses.

Figure 12.3 Wheel loads and geometry for HS trucks

The loaded length L for transverse members, such as floor beams, is the span length
of the member center to center of the supports.

(ii} Longitudinal Forces. Provision should be made for the effect of a longitudinal
force of 5 percent of the live load in all lanes carrying traffic headed in the same direc­
tion. All lanes should be loaded in the case of bridges which could likely become one­
directional in the life of the structure. The load area, without impact, should be as
follows:

Concentrated load_ 18,000 lbs for moment*

26,000 lbs for shear

H20-44 Loading
HS20-44 Loading

Concentrated load _ 13,500lbs for moment*

19,500lbs for shear

H15-44 Loading
HS15-44 Loading

Figure 12.4 Equivalent lane loading for H and HS trucks

12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 747

SUPPORTING
COMPONENTS TYPE OF DECK TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION
Closed Steel or Precast Casi-in-place concrete

~- -~
a
1
Concrete Boxes slab

fj o
(b)

Open Steel or Precast Casi-in-place concrete

~-
u ID
1
Concrete Boxes slab, precast concrete
~
V
deck slab

(e)
Precast Solid, Voided or Casi-in-place concrete
Cellular Concrete Boxes overlay
with Shear Keys
[]10101010101
~ 1 ~

(f)

Precast Solid, Voided or

Cellular Concrete Box
Integral concrete
l )'---
with Shear Keys and with
or without Transversa DIDIDOD¡ost
Post-Tensioning tension
(g)
Precast Concrete Casi-in-place concrete
Channel Sections with overlay
Shear Keys
~
(h)

Precast Concrete Double Integral concrete

Tee Section with Shear
Keys and with or without
Transverse Post- ~ st
Tensioning tension
(i)

~.
Precast Concrete Tee Integral concrete
Section with Shear Keys
and with or without
Transverse Post-
Tensioning ü) tension

Precast Concrete Ior Casi-in-place concrete,

Bulb-Tee Sections precast concrete
~- -~
1f 1f 1f 1f
(k)

Figure 12.5 Cross sections of Typical Bridge Deck Structures (Ref. 12.11)
748 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Lane load + concentrated load so placed on the span as to produce maximum stress. The
concentrated load and uniform load should be considered as uniformly distributed over a 10
foot width on a line normal to the centerline of the Jane. The center of gravity of the longitu­
dinal force is to be assumed located 6 feet above the floor slab.
A reduction factor should be applied when a number of traffic lanes are simultane­
ously loaded, as in Section (iv) to follow.

(iii) Centrifuga! Horizontal Force. This force is produced by vehicle motion on

curves. It is a percentage of the live load, without impact, as follows:
6·~S2
C = 0.00117S2D = (12.3)

where C = centrifugal force in percent of the live load without impact

S = design speed in miles per hour
D = degree of curve
R = radius of curve in feet.

(iv) Reduction in Load lntensity. When maximum stresses are produced in any
member by loading a number of traffic lanes simultaneously, a reduction in the live load
intensity can be made as follows:

Percent
One or two lanes 100
Three lanes 90
Four lanes or more 75

12.2.2 Wheel Load Distributionon Bridge Decks: Standard AASHTO

Specifications(LFD)
(i) Shear. No longitudinal distribution of wheel loads can be made for wheel or axle
load adjacent to the end when computing end shears and reactions in transverse or longi­
tudinal beams.

(ii) Bending Moments: LongitudinalBeams. In computing bending moments in

longitudinal beams or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel loads is permit­
ted. In the case of interior stringers, the live load bending moment for each stringer
should be determined by applying to the stringer a fraction of the wheel load as follows
for prestressed concrete elements

Bridgedesignedfor one Bridge designed for two

traffic lane or more trafficlanes

Prestressed concrete girders S/7.0 S/5.5

if S > 6 ft.* if S> 10.*
Non­attached Concrete Box girders S/8.0 S/7.0
if S > 12 ft.* if S > 16 ft. *
*If S exceeds denominator, the load on the beam should be the reaction of the wheel loads assuming the floor­
ing between beams to act as a simple beam.
S = spacing of floor beams in feet.

(iii) Side by Side Precast Beams in Multi-Beam Decks.12·2 A multi­beam bridge is

constructed with precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are placed side by
side on the supports. The interaction between the beams is developed by continuous lon­
gitudinal shear keys used in combination with transverse tie assemblies which may, or
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 749

may not, be prestressed, such as bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, or other mechanical
means. Full­depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to ensure proper load distribution
for channel, single­ and multi­stemmed tee beams.
In computing bending moments in multi­beam precast concrete bridges, conven­
tional or prestressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall be assumed. The
live load bending moment for each section is determined by applying to the beam the
fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined by the following equation:

Load Fraction = ~

where,
S = width of precast member;
D = (5.75 ­ 0.5NL) + 0.7NL(l - 0.2C)2 when C::; 5
D = (5.75 ­ 0.5NL) when C > 5
NL = number of traffic lanes
C =K(W/L)

where,
W = overall width of bridge measured perpendicular to the longitudinal
girders in feet;
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal girders in feet; for gird­
ers with cast­in­place end diaphragms, use the length between end di­
aphragms;
K = {(1 + µ) //J}!

If the value of viji exceeds 5.0, the live load distribution should be determined
using a more precise method, such as the Articulated Plate Theory or Grillage Analysis.

where,
I = moment of inertia;
J = Saint­Venant torsion constant;
µ = Poisson's ratio for girders.

In lieu of more exact methods, "J" may be estimated using the following equations:

For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee Beams:

J = L{(l/3)bt3(1 ­ 0.630t/b)}

where,
b = the length of each rectangular component within the section,
t = the thickness of each rectangular component within the section.

The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are considered as separate rectan­
gular components whose values are summed together to compute "J". Note that for
"Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids" the value of "J" can usually be approximated
by using the equation above for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.

For Box-Section Beams:

2tt¡(b - t)2(d - t¡)2

J=-------
bt + dt¡ - t2 - P¡
750 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

where
b = the overall width of the box,
d = the overall depth of the box,
t = the thickness of either web,
t¡ = the thickness of either flange.

The formula assumes that both flanges are the same thickness and uses the thickness of
only one flange. The same is true of the webs.
For preliminary design, the following values of K may be used:

Bridge type BeamType K

Multi­beam Non­voided rectangular beams 0.7
Rectangular beams with circular voids 0.8
Box section beams 1.0
Channel, single­ and multi­stemmed tee beams 2.2

{iv) Stresses in Concrete

Case I: All Loads including Prestress (D + L + PIS)
fe= 0.60f;
fr=6~

Case II: Prestress + Ali Dead Loads (D + PIS)

fe= 0.40f;
fr=6~

Case III: !Prestress + Dead) + Live Load [0.5 (D +PIS)+ L]

fe= 0.40 f;
fr=6~

12.2.3 Bending Moments in Bridge Deck Slabs:

Standard AASHTO Specifications{LFD)
There are two categories for bending moment calculations: category A and category B
for reinforcement perpendicular and parallel respectively to the traffic.

S = effective span length in feet

E = width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is distributed
P = load on one rear wheel of truck (P15 or P20)
P15 = 12,000 lbs. for H 15 loading
P20 = 16,000 lbs. for H 20 loading

(a) Case A-Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic (spans 2 to 24 feet)

The live load moments for simple spans are to be determined in accordance with
the following expressions:
H 20 Loading,

(12.4a)
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 751

H 15 Loading,

(12.4b)

where M Lis in ft­lb/ft of slab width

In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a continuity factor of 0.8 should be
applied to Equations 12.4(a) and 12.4(b)
(b) Case B-Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, should be= 4 + 0.06S::; 7.0 ft. Lane loads
are distributed over a width 2E as follows:
H 20 Loading
S :s 50 ft: ML = 900S (12.4c)
S = 50 ­ 100 ft: ML = lOOOS (12.4d)

where ML is in ft­lb
For H 15 loading, reduce the values in Equations 12.4(c), and 12.4(d) by 25 percent.

12.2.4 Wind Loads

In accounting for the wind loads, the exposed area is equal to the sum of the areas of all
members including floor system and railings as seen in an elevation 90 degrees to the lon­
gitudinal axis of the structure. Design should be based on a wind velocity V = 100 miles
per hour. The area may be reduced as stipulated in Ref. 12.2.

12.2.5 Seismic Forces

Both the equivalent static force method and the response spectrum method can be used
for the design of structures with supporting members of approximately equal stiffnesses.
Details are given in Ref. 12.2. Additional basic discussion of earthquake response, the
fundamental period of vibration and the International Building Code (IBC 2009) are
given in Ref. 12.5.

12.2.6 AASHTO LFD Load Combinations

The design should consider such a group of load combinations that results in the maxi­
mum stress condition in the member under consideration. There are ten groups of load­
ings under service load conditions:

Group 1: D + (L + l) + CF +E+ B + SF
Groupll: D+E+B+SF+ W
Group 111: D + (L + I) + CF +E+ B + SF + W + WL + LF
Group IV: D + (L +/) + CF+ E+ SF+ (R+S+ T)
Group V: D +E+ B + SF + W + (R + S + T)
Group VI: D+ (L +!) + CF+E+B+SF+ W + WL +LF+ (R +S+ T)
Group VII: D+E+B+SF+EQ
Group VIII: D + (L +!) + CF+ E +B +SF+ICE
GroupIX: D+E+B+SF+ W+ICE
GroupX: D+(L+I)+E
752 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

where D = dead load

L = live load
I = live load impact
E = earth pressure
B =buoyancy
W = wind load on the structure

WL = wind load on live load ­ 100 lb./línear foot

LF = longitudinal force from live load
CF = centrifuga! force
R = rib shortening
S = shrinkage
T = temperature
EQ = earthquake
SF = stream flow pressure
ICE = ice pressure

For load factor design, the proceeding parameters are multiplied by the load factors in
Table 12.l(b)
Far factor loads, the group value is

Group number (N) = ­y[¡30D+ í3L(L + I) + í3cCF + í3EE

+ ¡38B+ í3sSF + í3wW + í3wLWL + í3LLF (12.5)
+ í3R(R + S + T) + í3EQEQ + í31CEICEJ
The load factors to be applied to any particular load combination are as fallows:

¡3E = 0.7 far vertical loads on reinforced concrete boxes.

= 1.00 far lateral loads on reinforced concrete boxes.

= 1.00 far vertical and lateral loads on all other culverts.

= 1.0 and 0.5 far lateral loads on rigid frames ( check which loading governs
far the particular group ).
¡3E = 1.3 far lateral earth pressure when checking positive moment in rigid
frames, culverts or reinfarced box culverts.
¡30 = 0.75 when checking member far mínimum axial load and maximum mo­
ment far maximum eccentricity far column design.
= 1.0 when checking far maximum axial load and mínimum moment.

= 1.0 far flexura! and tension members.

Table 12.l(b) gives the values of the ¡3 coefficients far the various load parameters in
Equation 12.5 far Standard AASHTO Specifications.
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 753

Table 12.1(b) 13 Coefficients for LOAD Group Parameters: Standard AASHTO Specifications (Ref. 12.2)

CoL No. 1 2 3 3A 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
l3FACTORS
GROUP "{ D (L+I)0 (L+I)p CF E B SF w WL LF R+S+T EQ ICE %
I 1.0 1 1 o 1 13E 1 1 o o o o o o 100
IA 1.0 1 2 o o o o o o o o o o o 150
IB 1.0 1 o 1 1 13E 1 1 o o o o o o **
11 1.0 1 o o o 1 1 1 1 o o o o o 125
Q
< III 1.0 1 1 o 1 13E 1 1 0.3 1 1 o o o 125
o
...:¡
o o o o o o
­
IV 1.0 1 1 1 13E 1 1 1 125
¡¡.¡
u V 1.0 1 o o o 1 1 1 1 o o 1 o o 140
>i::i::
¡¡.¡ VI 1.0 1 1 o 1 13E 1 1 0.3 1 1 1 o o 140
r/J
VII 1.0 1 o o o 1 1 1 o o o o 1 o 133
VIII 1.0 1 1 o 1 1 1 1 o o o o o 1 140
IX 1.0 1 o o o 1 1 1 1 o o o o 1 150
X 1.0 1 1 o o 13E o o o o o o o o 100
I 1.3 130 1.67* o 1.0 13E 1 1 o o o o o o
IA 1.3 130 2.20 o o o o o o o o o o o
IB o 1 o o o o o o
­
1.3 130 1 1.0 13E 1
z
o 11 1.3 130 o o o 13E 1 1 1 o o o o o
v: <l)
¡¡.¡
III 1.3 130 1 o 1 13E 1 1 0.3 1 1 o o o :oo:s
Q .s
i::i:: IV
o 1.3 130 1 o 1 13E 1 1 o o o 1 o o o..e,
b V 1.25 o o o 1 1 1 o o 1 o o <
zo
130 13E
<u,
Q
VI 1.25 130 1 o 1 13E 1 1 0.3 1 1 1 o o
<o VII 1.3 130 o o o 13E 1 1 o o o o 1 o
...:¡
VIII 1.3 130 1 o 1 13E 1 1 o o o o o 1
IX 1.20 130 o o o 13E 1 1 1 o o o o 1
X 1.30 1 1.67 o o 13E o o o o o o o o
(L + I)" ­ Live load plus impact for AASHTO Standard Highway H or HS loading
(L + I)p ­ Live load plus impact consisten! with the overload criteria of the operation agency.

12.2.7 LRFD Load Combinations

The load combinations using the LRFD specifications differ from the standard specifica­
tions. The following tables: 12.2 to 12.3, give the required load combinations, and Tables
12.4 to 12.7 the shear and moment expressions to be used in design. Section 12.1.1 gives
the LRFD resistance factors, <!>, which differ from the standard reduction factor cp. It
should be noted that in the standard specifications, either the lane load or the truck load
is used in the live­load calculations. The LRFD specifications require that the combined
lane and truck loads be used in the live­load computations.
 1
'1
'
754 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Table 12.2(a) LRFD Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load Combination DC LL WA ws WL FR TU TG SE Use One of These

DD IM CR ata Time
DW CE SH
EH BR EQ IC CT cv
EV PL
ES LS
LimitState EL

STRENGTH­I* "{p 1.75 1.00 - - LOO 0.50/1.20 'YTG 'YsE - - - ­

STRENGTH­II "{p 1.35 LOO - - 1.00 0.50/L20 Yro 'YSE - - - -

STRENGTH­III 'Yp - 1.00 L40 - LOO 0.50/L20 'YTG 'YsE - - - -

STRENGTH­IV "{p - LOO - - LOO 0.50/1.20 ­ ­ - - - ­

EH, EV, ES, DW
DCONLY L5
STRENGTH­V "{p L35 LOO LOO 0.40 LOO 0.50/L20 'YTG 'YsE - - ­ -

EXTREME "{p 'YEQ LOO - - LOO - - ­ LOO - - -

EVENT­I
EXTREME "{p o.so LOO - - 1.00 ­ - ­ ­ 1.00 LOO LOO
EVENT­II
SERVICE­I LOO 1.00 LOO LOO 0.30 LOO LOO/L20 'YTG 'YsE - - - -

SERVICE­II LOO L30 LOO - . LOO L00/1.20 - ­ - - - -

SERVICE­III LOO 0.80 LOO - - LOO 1.00/1.20 'YTG 'YsE - ­ - -

FATIGUE­LL, IM & ­ 0.75 - - - - ­ - ­ - - - -

CEONLY
where: 'Yp = Load factor for permanent loads Transient Loads
BR = vehicular braking force
*For load combinations, CE = vehicular centrifuga! force
Maximum Q = 1.25 DC + 1.50 DW + 1.75 (LL + IM) CR = creep
Mínimum Q = 0.90 DC + 0.65 DW + 1.75 (LL + IM) CT = vehicular collision force
CV = vessel collision force
Permanent Loads EQ = earthquake
DD = downdrag FR = friction
DC = dead load of structural components and re= ice load
nonstructural attachments IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces LL = vehicular live load
and utilities LS = live load surcharge
EH = horizontal earth pressure load PL = pedestrian live load
ES = earth surcharge load SE = settlement
EV = vertical pressure from dead load SH = shrinkage
of earth fill TG = temperature gradient
EL = Locked­in erection stress TU = uniform temperature
Q = Factored Load W A = water load and stream pressure
WL = wind on live load
WS = snow load

Strength I: Basic load combination, no wind

Strength II: Load on bridge with owner­specified design, no wind
Strength III: Load includes wind
Strength IV: Very high ratio of dead to live load
Service I: Normal operational use load combinations with deflection and crack control
Service II: Load combinations with control of yielding of steel structures
Service III: Load combinations relating only to tension in prestressed concrete
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 755

Photo 12.1 Stoney Trail Bow River segmenta! bridge, Calgary, Alberta, utilizing
the incremental launch method-span 1562 ft, deck width 69 ft, and the deck rises
89 to 118 ft above the river valley ( Courtesy James Skeet-Reid Crowther Engi-
neering, Calgary)

The LRFD Resistance Factor <I> values are given in Table 12.l(a) to follow.
The following expressions in Table 12.4 and 12.5 (Ref. 12.2) may be used to com­
pute the máximum bending moments and the maxirnum sbear force per lane of any point
in a span far HS20 truck, with tbe limitations indicated in tbe table. Tbe computed values
have to be halved in arder to obtain the sbear force and moment per Line of wheels.
Toe expressions in the tables are limited to simply supported spans and do not in­
elude the impact factors.
The maximum bending moments and maximum shear forces per lane at any point
on aspan far a lane load of 0.64 kip/ft may be computed from the following simplified ex­
pressions:
 ',,,%
"h.

756 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges .;'.

Table 12.2(b) LRFD Permanent Loads i

Load Factor !l
Type of Load Maximum Minimum

DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90

DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing surface and utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
Active 1.50 0.90
At­Rest 1.35 0.90
EL = Locked­in Earth Stresses 1.00 1.00
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
Overall Stability 1.50 0.90
Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
Rigid Frame 1.85 0.90
Flexible Buried Structure other than Metal Box Culvert 1.95 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

Maxirnum VLL = O~~ (L - x)2 kip (12.6a)

. 0.64(x)(L - x) .
Maximum MLL = ft­kip (12.6b)
2

where, x = distance from left support, ft

L = beam span, ft
LL = lane load

The LRFD specifications require a higher impact factor than the standard specifications.
They also require consideration of the fatigue state limits. For fatigue, a special truck
load is considered. It consists of a single design truck which has the same axle weight
used in all other limit states, but with a constant spacing of 30 ft between the 32­kip axles.
Table 12.6 gives the impact factor IM for the various types of limit states:

Table 12.3(a) Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams

Section One Design Lane Two or More Design Lanes

Concrete Box Beams in

Multi­beam Decks
(-b
l30L T5(I)°'°5
J c:6r c:Lr GJOS
Concrete Deck, 1­, T­ o.36 + (2;_0) 0.20 + (:2)­ (;6)2
and Double­T Sections

l. Ranges for b, d, L, s, S, t5, Kg are given in Ref. 12.3.

2. For exterior beams, see Ref. 12.3, Section 4.6.2
12.2 AASHTO Standard and LRFD Truck Load Specifications 757

Table 12.3(b) Distribution of Live Load Per Lane For Moment in Interior Beams

Section One Design Lane Two or More Design Lanes

Concrete Box Beams in

Multi­beam Decks (-b

k 33.5L
)°5 (!­)°25
J k C~5 )°6 ( 1!L )° 2 GJº6
Concrete Deck, 1­, T­
and Double­T Sections 0.06 + ( ~
14 )°4 (~73
L (»:3 )°1
tutt. 0.075
+ ( _§__
95
.
)°6 (~)°2
L
(~ 3 )°1
l2tsL
l. Ranges for b, d, L, s, S, r; Kg are given in Ref, 12.3.
2. For exterior beams, see Ref. 12.3, Section 4.6.2
3. Notation:
b = Beam width, in.
J = St. Vincent's torsional constant, in 4 = 4 A5/l s/t
Kg = Longitudinal Stiffness parameter distribution factor for multi­bearn bridges, where
Kg = n(I + Ac e!)
e8 = distance between centers of gravity of members
k = 2.5(Nbtº2 where N¡ = number of beams
Ac = cross­sectional area
L = span, ft
A0 = area enclosed by centerlines of the beam elements
s = length of an element of box beam

Table 12.4 Maximum Shear Force per Lane for HS20 Truck Load (VLr)

Minimum Maximum
Load Formula for maximum
Type x/L shear, kips x,* ft L,tt L, ft

72[(L ­ x) - 4.67]
0­­­0.500 ­8 14 28 42
HS20 L
Truck 72[(L ­ x) - 9.33]
0­0.500
L
o 42 -

*x is the distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; LT= truck load

Table 12.5 Maximum Bending Moment per Lane for HS20 Truck
Load (MLT)

Minimum
Load Formula for maximum
Type x/L bending moment, ft-kips x,*tt L,tt

72(x)[(L - x) - 9.33]
0­0.333 14 28
HS20 L
Truck 72(x)[(L - x) - 4.67]
0.333­0.500
L
­ 112 o 42

*x is the distan ce from left support to the section being considered, ft; L T =
truck load
758 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Table 12.6 lmpact Factors

Component IM
Deck Jolnts-AII LimitStates 15%

Ali other Components

Fatigue and Fracture Limit States 15%
Ali Other Limit States 33%

Table 12.7 Fatigue Bending Moment per Lane

Mínimum
Formulafor maxímum
Load Type x/L bendíngmoment, ft-kips X,* ft L, ft

72(x)[(L - x) - 18.22]
Fatigue 0­0.241
L
o 44
Truck
Loading
72(x)[ L - x) - 11.78)
(LRFD) 0.241­­­0.500 ­ 112 14 28
L
*x is the distance from left support to the section being considered, ft; LT = truck load

Table 12.7 (Ref 12.3) gives expressions for computing the maximum bending moments
per land due to HL­93 fatigue truck loading. The values obtained from the table have to
be multiplied by a factor of ! in order to obtain the values per line of wheels.
The LRFD design live load is an HL­93 truck configuration which consists of a
combination of:

(a) design truck or design tandem with dynamic allowance. The design truck is the
same as the HS20 design truck specified in the Standard AASHTO specifications.
The design tandem consists of a pair of 25 kip axles spaced at 4­ft apart.
(b) design Jane load of 0.64 kip/ft without dynamic allowance.

12.3 FLEXURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

12.3.1 Strain E and Factor <!> Variations: The Strain Limits Approach
For ductile behavior of sections, the reinforcement percentage has to be considerably
smaller than the balanced limit strain in flexure percentage as detailed in Section 4.12.3.
No upper limits on the amount of reinforcement needs to be used in a beam provided
that the strain limit is not exceeded and the appropriate <!> factor is used. An upper limit
tensile strain ET== 0.005 in.fin. as the limiting strain is comparable to the 75% of the bal­
anced reinforcement percentage in previous codes and is the basis of this approach (Fig­
ure 12.6). This limiting strain is considered at the extreme tensile steel reinforcement
level, namely, at the centroid of the layer closest to the tensile face of the section. More
t,
precisely, E1 == 0.0041 corresponds to = 230,000 psi in the prestressing steel.
In the AASTHO LRFD procedure, a limiting value of the ratio of the neutral axis
depth, e, to the effective beam depth, d; to the extreme tension reinforcement, is taken
as 0.42 in this strain limits approach, invariably called as a unified approach (Refs.
12.3 Flexura! Design Considerations 759

Ec=0.003"/,, Ec=0.003"/,,

t
e =0.375d
T e= 0.6d

*
d
_J_
Et= 0.005"/,,
(a)
1 Et= 0.002"/,,
(b)

Figure 12.6 Strain Limits (a) Tension-Controlled, (b) Compression-Controlled

12.14­12.16). The approach is a rational way of assuring strain­compatibility using com­

mon strain and stress expressions regardless of whether the member is reinforced, pre­
stressed or partially prestressed. The depth d, in the ratio cld, becomes dP if no mild steel
reinforcement is used. Table 12.11 of section 12.8 presents a general comparison between
the ACI and the LRFD procedures for determining the required reinforcement for flex­
ure (Ref. 12.14).
A strain value E1 considerably higher than 0.005 in.fin. has to be used, such as 0.007
to 0.009 in.fin. The limit compression­controlled state for beam­column sections is
E1 = 0.002 in.fin. The E1 = 0.002 is used as a basis for first yield strain. EY = f/Es = 0.002,
although this value can vary depending on the type of reinforcement used. Fig. 12.7
gives on this basis the limits of strain for tension­controlled and compression­controlled
concrete sections for all cases, reinforced and prestressed, where E1 = 0.003 (d/c -1).

­e­
o 0.90
t5 (1.00
~ LRFD)
e
o
·13
::::,
"O
(1)
a:
0.70 1------""
s: 1/J = 0.65 + (E1­0.002)(2~0j
Cl Compression-
e
~ Controlled Tension-Controlled
u5 Zone Transition Zone Zone (ductile)

0.002 0.005 in/in

Net Tensile Strain Et

Figure 12.7 Variation of Strength Reduction Factor ó with the Net Tensile Strain E1•
760 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

When the net tensile strain in the extreme tension reinforcement is sufficiently
large (equal to or greater than 0.005), the section is defined as tension­controlled where
ample warning of failure with extensive deflection and cracking can occur. When the net l.
tensile strain in the extreme tension reinforcement is small (less than or equal to the i
compression­controlled strain limit), a brittle failure condition is expected to develop, ]
with little warning of impending failure.
A balanced strain condition develops at a section when the maximum strain at the
extreme compression fibers just reaches 0.003 in.fin. simultaneously with the first yield
strain EY = f/ Es in the tension reinforcement corresponding to a net tensile strain in the
tension reinforcement set in this method at a value E1 = 0.002 in.fin.
This condition cannot be used in the flexura] design of beams not subjected to com­
pression. In such members, a strain E1 in the extreme tensile reinforcement should not ex­
ceed 0.0075 in.fin. for practical purposes.

12.3.2 Factored Flexura! Resistance

The factored flexura! resisting moment,
(12.7)
where the resistance factor <!> = 1.0.
It is recommended in strain compatibility analysis that <!> be reduced from a value
<!> = 1.0 for net tensile strain of 0.005 in.fin. to <!> = 0.7 for net tensile strain of 0.002 in.fin.
in the extreme tension steel, namely,

0.7 ::s; <!> = 0.65 + 0.25 [ /dl - ~] ­s 1.0 (12.8)

C exr 3
where dexr is d, of the extreme ]ayer of reinforcement, namely the one closest to the ex­
treme tension fibers of the prestressed concrete section.

12.3.3 Flexura! Design Parameters

The expression for computing the nominal moment strength of the prestressed sections
by the LRFD method are similar to the standard AASHTO and ACI 318 strength design
procedures given in Section 4.11 of Chapter 4. The ultima te design strength, Íps• of the re­
inforcement can be computed either by strain­compatibility procedures such as in Exam­
ple 4.19 or by an approximate method using the following expression:

Íps = Ípu ( 1 - k ;J (12.9a)

where,

k = 2 (1.04 ­ Ípy) (12.9b)

Ípu
= 0.28 for low relaxation steel
For unbonded tendons,

Íps = Ípe + 900 ( T e)d -

(12.9c)

where le= 2 /¡1(2 + NJ.

le= embedment length, l, = tendon length between anchorages; Ns = number of tendons
12.3 Flexura! Design Considerations 761

In the Standard AASHTO specifications a first estímate of the average stress in the
prestressing steel may be made from the following:

"Y [pu)
Íps = [pu ( 1 ­ ~ P f~ (12.9c)

The depth, e, of the neutral axis is obtained from the following expressions:

(a) Doubly reinforced sections:

ApsÍpu + Asfy - A~f;
e= (12.10)
Ü.85[~131 + kAps ~u
p

where f; = yield strength of the compression reinforcement

(b) Flanged Sections:

ApsÍpu + AJy - A;f; - 0.85f~f31(b - bw)h¡
e= (12.11)
0.85f~f31bw + kAps ~u
p

where b ; = web width

dP = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestress­
ing tendons.

12.3.4 Reinforcement Limits

(a) Maximum reinforcement limit

The maximum amount of prestressed and non­prestressed reinforcement should be
such that,
e
­ ~ 0.42 (12.12a)
de

(12.12b)

(b) Minimum reinforcement

At any section, the amount of prestressed and non­prestressed reinforcement
should be adequate to develop a factored flexural resistance, M,, at least equal to
the lesser of 1.2 Me, determined on the basis of elastic analysis or 1.33 times the fac­
tored moment required by the applicable strength load combinations.

(12.13)

where,
Mdnc = moment dueto non­composite dead loads
Sb = non­composite section modulus
sbc = composite section modulus

[, = modulus of rupture = 7.5 Vf'c

psi= 0.24 Vf'c ksi
762 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

t; = compressive stress in the concrete due to eff ective prestress only,

after losses, at the extreme tensile fibers of the section where tensile
stresses are caused by external loads.

12.4 SHEAR DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

12.4.1 The Modified Compression Field Theory

The compression field theory for both shear and shear combined with torsion is discussed
in Section 5.17.3 of Chapter 5. When torsion exists, it assumes that concrete carries no
tension after cracking and the field of diagonal compressive struts carries the torsional
shear. The inclination angle e of these struts varies depending on the longitudinal, trans­
verse, and principal strains (Ref. 12.6) in the web such that:

tan? 0 = Ex - E2 (12.14)
e, ­ Ez
where Ex = longitudinal strain of web, tension positive
e1 = transverse strain, tension positive
e2 = principal compressive strain, negative

Figure 12.8 shows the stress field in the web of a non­prestressed beam before and after
cracking. Before the beam cracks, the shear is equally carried by the diagonal tensile and
diagonal compressive stresses acting ata 45° angle (Figure 12.8a). After cracking, the di­
agonal cracks from the tensile stresses in the concrete are considerably reduced (Ref.
12.6, 12.7; also the shear and torsion equilibrium theory by Hsu in Ref. 12.8, 12.9).
In the compression field theory, the assumption is made that the principal tensile
stress, f1, equals zero as in Figure 12­8(b) after the concrete has cracked. The modified
compression field theory takes into account the contribution of the tensile stresses in the
concrete between the cracks as in Figure 12.8(c). From Mohr's stress circle in Figure
5.2(b), in Chapter 5, in conjunction with Figure 12.8(c), the following expression can be
obtained:
f2 = (tans + cotü)v ­ f1 (12.15a)
where the applied shear stress is:
V CVu - evp)
v=--= (12.15b)
bwjd <p bwdv
d; = (dp - a/2)and b ; = effective web width. The tension web reinforcement, Av, required
to balance the compressive stresses would have to be expressed as:
Avfv = (!2 sin2 0 ­ f1 cos2 O)bws (12.16)

(a) (b) (e)

Figure 12.8 Stress fields in web of reinforced concrete beam (Ref. 12.6) (a) be-
fare cracking f1 = f2, 6 = 45º, (b) compression field theory, f1 = O, (e) modified com-
pression field theory, t, *" O.
12.4 Shear Design Considerations 763

where Avfv is the vertical component of the balancing tensile force to clase the diagonal
crack inclined at angle e and t. is the average stress in the vertical stirrups. Substituting
for f2 in equation 12.15(a) into equation 12.16 gives:

(12.17)

where V represents Vn and is equal to (Ve + Vs ), Vs being the shear force taken by the
vertical stirrups.

12.4.2 Design Expressions

As discussed in detail in Ref. 12.6, by making simplifying assumptions, the basic equa­
tions of the modified compression field theory can be rearranged so that the nominal
shear resistance, Vn, in a prestressed beam can be evaluated, where:

(12.18)

where, Ve = nominal shear strength provided by the tensile stresses in the concrete
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by the tensile stresses in the web reinforce­
ment.
VP = nominal shear strength provided by the vertical component of the harped or
draped longitudinal tendons.

12.4.2.1 AASHTO Standard Specifications (LFD). The AASHTO standard provi­

sions, similar to the ACI­318 provision (Ref. 12.1­12.4) provide that Ve would be the
smaller of the following two expressions presented and discussed in detail in Sections
5.5.1 and 5.5.2 of chapter 5:
(a) Flexura/ shear:

(12.19)

(b) Web shear:

(12.20)
where, in AASHTO, the cracking moment is expressed as:

12.4.2.2 LRFD Specifications. The LRFD AASHTO provisions recognize two meth­
ods:
(a) Strut­and­tie model applicable to any section geometry with regular or discontinu­
ity features
(b) Modified compression field model (Ref. 12.3, 12.6). This model is based on variable
angle truss model in which the inclination of the diagonal compression field is al­
lowed to vary. It differs from the LFD method where the angle e is always assumed
as 45º, in that the plain concrete contribution, Ve is attributed to the tension carried
across the compression diagonals as discussed in section 12.4.1.
764 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges '
t
The nominal resistance is taken as the lesser of: 'I

vn = ve + vs + vp (12.21)
or,
(12.22)
where, b; = effective web width
d; = effective shear depth = (dp - a/2)
a = depth of the compressive block

This critica} section for shear is located at distance d; or (0.5dvcot6), whichever is larger.
The value of d; is taken from midspan flexura! capacity computations.
The nominal shear resistance of the plain concrete, Ve, in psi is:

(12.23)
and in ksi,

ve = o.0316W~ b.d; (12.24)

The factor 0.0316 is 1/VlOOO, which converts the expression from psi to ksi.
The contribution of the vertical web reinforcement is taken as:
AvfydvCot0
Vs=---- (12.25)
s
except for slabs and footings.
Transverse shear reinforcement should always be provided when the factored shear, Vu,
exceeds the plain concrete shear capacity, namely when
Vu > O.S<!>(Vc + Vp) (12.26)
The minimum area of transverse web shear reinforcement is
• r,:; b,«
Av~ 0.036 V fe---¡- (12.27)
J yt

where b; = width of web adjusted for presence of ducts (in.)

t; = yield strength of transverse reinforcement (ksi)
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement

where strength reduction factor is taken from Table 12.l(a).

ó

Additionally, when the beam reaction induces compression into the ends of the
members as occurs in the majority of cases, the critica! section for shear is taken as the
larger of: 0.5 d; cot 0 or d.; measured from the face of the support.
In order to determine the nominal shear resistance of the prestressed member, the de­
sign engineer has to determine the values of 13 and 0 needed for computing Ve and V5 in
equations 12.21 and 12.22. For non­prestressed concrete sections use 13 = 2.0 and 0 = 45º. For
prestressed concrete sections, lower variable 13 values are to be used by trial and adjustment.
AASHTO Table 12.8( a) gives values of 13 and 0 for values of e for sections containing at least
mínimum transverse reinforcement, and Table 12.8(b) containing less than the minimum.

12.4.2.3 LongitudinalStrain Ex in the Tension Reinforcement

l. If the section contains at least the minimum of transverse reinforcement, the initial
value of longitudinal strain, ex, should not be taken greater than 0.001 as in Equa­
tion 12.28(a) as follows:
12.4 Shear Design Considerations 765

2. If the section contains less than the mínimum transverse reinforcement,

( :u + 0.5 n; + 0.5 (Vu - ~) cot 8 - ApsÍpa)

Bx = v :::::; 0.002 (12.28b)
EsAs + EpAps
3. If the value of ex from Equations 12.28 (a) and (b) is negative, the longitudinal ten­
sile strain is computed and applied to Table 12.8 from the following expression,

eX = (12.28c)

where Ac = area of concrete on the flexura! tension side of the member as shown
in Figure 12.9 (in.2)
Aps = area of the prestressing steel on the flexura! tension side of the mem­
ber as in Figure 12.9 (in,")
As = area of non­prestressed steel on the flexura! tension side of the mem­
ber at the section under consideration shown in Figure 12.9 (in.2). In
computing As in Equations 12.28 (a), (b), and (e), bars which are ter­
minated at a distance less than their development length from the sec­
tion under consideration have to be ignored.
E; = modulus of concrete (ksi)
Es = modulus of mild steel reinforcement (ksi)
EP = modulus of prestressing steel reinforcement (ksi)
Ípa = stress value primarily at jacking but taken as the modulus of elasticity
of the prestressing tendon multiplied by the locked in difference in
strain between the prestressing tendons and the surrounding concrete
(ksi). lt can be computed from the expression in Equation 12.29
below ora conservative average value of Ípa = 0.70 Ípu is used.
N¿ = factored axial force, taken as positive if tensile and negative if com­
pressive (kip)

Mu = factored moment, taken as positive quantity (in.­kip ), but not to be

taken less than (Vu dJ, namely, ( Vud)
Mu :::::; 1.0
VP = vertical component of harped or draped prestressing tendon (kip)
Vu = factored shear forces, taken as positive quantity (kip)

The flexura! tensile side of the member is taken as the half­depth containing the
flexura! tension zone as illustrated in Figure 12.9. The value of the stress Ípa can be
computed from the following expression as indicated in its definition previously
stated and is applicable for both pretensioned and post­tensioned steel reinforce­
ment:

(12.29)
766 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

h/2 Flexura! tension

!
Ap51 side
-------------------- -ex-

Figure 12.9 Strain distribution in prestressed flanged section

where lee = concrete compressive stress at the centroid of the composite section
resisting live load or at the junction of the web and the flange if it lies
within the flange due to both prestress and the bending moment re­
sisted by tbe precast section acting aJone. namely prior to composite
action (ksi)
lt,e = effective stress in the prestressing steel reinforcement añer alJ losses
The longitudinal reinforcement should be so proportioned that eacb beam section has to
satisfy the following expression:

Asf, + ApsÍps::::: dM., (V,,

+ 0.5­N11 + :¡::­­ + 0.5"'.,. + VP cote) (12.30)
v<Pf <Pe '+'1•
where <l>¡= flexure <l> factor, <l>., = compression <l> factor, <l>v = sbear <l> factor.
From the foregoing AASHTO expressions, the variable 13 is an essential determi­
nant for evaJuating the nominal sbear resistance Ve, as in Equation 12.21. A plot of the
values in Table 12.8. which is based on tbe compression field theory seems to indicate
that the tabulated values are insensitive for ratios ( vlf~) in excess of 0.125 wben the strain
is less than 0.005 in.fin. Hsu's discussion in Ref. 12.21 points to this diliiculty, partly aris­
ing from assigning a numerical value to the crack sbear stress, ve;, namely, the ability of
the crack interface to transmit a shear stress value dependant on the crack width, w, in
the following expression:

2.16v'f;
psi, w(in.)
0.18 v'J;
vci :5 MPa, w(mm)
0.3 + 24w 24w
a+ 0.63 º· 3 +a+ 16
Hsu's work (Ref. 12.21, 12.22) proposes using v ci = O in order to maintain equilib­
rium and cornpatibilíty. Also, the crack angle 0 in the V, term of Equation 12.25 is the
angle between the longitudinal steel and the principal compression stress (strain) of con­
crete. As such, the shear stress along the principal axis is zero. This discussion also ap­
plies to the LRFD provision for the case of combined shear and torsión. Future
AASHTO modifications might become necessary in order to rectify the discrepaocy.
 Table 12.S(a) Values of e and í3 for Sections Containing at Least Mínimum Transverse
Reinforcement

V Ex X 1,000
­
f'e :::; -0.20 :::; -0.10 :::; -0.05 $ o :::; 0.125 :::; 0.25 :::; 0.50 :::; 0.75 :::; 1.00

:::; 0.075 22.3 20.4 21.0 21.8 24.3 26.6 30.5 33.7 36.4
6.32 4.75 4.10 3.75 3.24 2.94 2.59 2.38 2.23
:::; 0.100 18.1 20.4 21.4 22.5 24.9 27.1 30.8 34.0 36.7
3.79 3.38 3.24 3.14 2.91 2.75 2.50 2.32 2.18
:::; 0.125 19.9 21.9 22.8 23.7 25.9 27.9 31.4 34.4 37.0
3.18 2.99 2.94 2.87 2.74 2.62 2.42 2.26 2.13
:::; 0.150 21.6 23.3 24.2 25.0 26.9 28.8 32.1 34.9 37.3
2.88 2.79 2.78 2.72 2.60 2.52 2.36 2.21 2.08
:::; 0.175 23.2 24.7 25.5 26.2 28.0 29.7 32.7 35.2 36.8
2.73 2.66 2.65 2.60 2.52 2.44 2.28 2.14 1.96
:::; 0.200 24.7 26.1 26.7 27.4 29.0 30.6 32.8 34.5 36.1
2.63 2.59 2.52 2.51 2.43 2.37 2.14 1.94 1.79
:::; 0.225 26.1 27.3 27.9 28.5 30.0 30.8 32.3 34.0 35.7
2.53 2.45 2.42 2.40 2.34 2.14 1.86 1.73 1.64
:::; 0.250 27.5 28.6 29.1 29.7 30.6 31.3 32.8 34.3 35.8
2.39 2.39 2.33 2.33 2.12 1.93 1.70 1.58 1.50

Table 12.S(b) Values of e and í3 for Sections Containing Less than Mínimum Transverse Reinforcement
sx/ ExX1,QQQ

(in.) :s -0.20 :::; -0.10 :s -0.05 :::;Q :::; 0.125 :s 0.25 :::; 0.50 :::; 0.75 :S 1.00 :S 1.50 :s 2.00

:::;5 25.4 25.5 25.9 26.4 27.7 28.9 30.9 32.4 33.7 35.6 37.2
6.36 6.06 5.56 5.15 4.41 3.91 3.26 2.86 2.58 2.21 1.96
$ lQ 27.6 27.6 28.3 29.3 31.6 33.5 36.3 38.4 40.1 42.7 44.7
5.78 5.78 5.38 4.89 4.05 3.52 2.88 2.50 2.23 1.88 1.65
:S 15 29.5 29.5 29.7 31.1 34.1 36.5 39.9 42.4 44.4 47.4 49.7
5.34 5.34 5.27 4.73 3.82 3.28 2.64 2.26 2.01 1.68 1.46
:s 20 31.2 31.2 31.2 32.3 36.0 38.8 42.7 45.5 47.6 50.9 53.4
4.99 4.99 4.99 4.61 3.65 3.09 2.46 2.09 1.85 1.52 1.31
:::; 30 34.1 34.1 34.1 34.2 38.9 42.3 46.9 50.1 52.6 56.3 59.0
4.46 4.46 4.46 4.43 3.39 2.82 2.19 1.84 1.60 1.30 1.10
:s 40 36.6 36.6 36.6 36.6 42.1 45.0 50.2 53.7 56.3 60.2 63.0
4.06 4.06 4.06 4.06 3.20 2.62 2.00 1.66 1.43 1.14 0.95
:s 60 40.8 4.08 40.8 40.8 44.5 49.2 55.1 58.9 61.8 65.8 68.6
3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50 2.92 2.32 1.72 1.40 1.18 0.92 0.75
:::; 80 44.3 44.3 44.3 44.3 47.1 52.3 58.7 62.8 65.7 69.7 72.4
3.10 3.10 3.10 3.10 2.71 2.11 1.52 1.21 1.01 0.76 0.62
*sxe = sx [1.38/(ag + 0.63)] :s 80 in. where a8 = max. aggregate size (in.) and sx = the lesser of either d; or the maximum distance be­
tween layers of longitudinal crack control reinforcement, where the area of the reinforcement in each !ayer is not less than 0.003 b; sx
(Ref. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2004].
767
768 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges
1.'1
'
.

12.4.2.4 Maximum Spacing of Web Transverse Reinforcement. The maximum al­

lowable spacing of transverse reinforcement is as follows: 1
1
l
(a) If vu < 0.125 fd,
(b) Ifvu>0.125fd,
S

S
= 0.8 d;
= 0.4 d;
::524 in.
::512 in.
l
í

Note that the design yield strength of non­prestressed transverse reinforcement should
not exceed 60.0 ksi. The design yield strength of prestressed transverse reinforcement
should be taken as the effective prestress after allowing for all prestress losses plus 60.0
ksi, but not greater than t-
12.5 HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

The principie of horizontal interface shear both at service and ultimate load levels are
fully discussed in Chapter 5 Section 5.7, including illustrative examples in accordance
with ACI 318 and PCI requirements. AASHTO Standard specifications requirements for
the nominal horizontal shear strength, Vnh• are similar to those of ACI when no dowel re­
inforcement is used, namely, the maximum allowable stress is 80 psi. They differ when
minimum dowel reinforcement is used in that the maximum allowable horizontal shear
stress is 350 psi instead of the 500 psi allowed by the ACI.
Extensive investigations and tests by the author (Ref. 12.13) have shown that these
are indeed very low allowable stresses. These tests demonstrate that even in early
strength under sub­freezing temperature conditions, it is possible to obtain a strength at
ultimate load in excess of 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) using vertical dowel reinforcement.
The standard AASHTO requirements are as follows (Ref. 12.2):

(a) When no vertical ties are provided:

vnh = 80bvd (12.31a)

(b) When mínimum vertical ties are provided:

vnh = 500bvd (12.31b)

(e) Required area of ties, Avh• exceeds the mínimum area:

dp
Vnh = 500bvd + 0.40AvJy -s (12.31c)

where, factored vertical shear Vu = <!> Vnh

Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength
<!> = 0.90
mínimum Avh = 50b_s!Jy
b; = width of cross­section at the contact surface being analyzed for horizontal
shear
bP = distance from extreme compression fibers to centroid of prestressing steel,
but not to be taken less than 0.80h
s = maximum spacing of the dowels, but not to exceed four times the least­web
width of the support element, nor 24 in.

The LRFD specifications do not give guidance for computing the horizontal shear
Vnh· The following expression can be used:

(12.31d)
12.5 Horizontal Interface Shear 769

where
v nh = horizontal facto red shear stress
Vu = factored vertical shear
d; = distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces
= (d-a/2)
b; = interface width

LRFD specifies that the nominal shear resistance of the interface surface, V11, be com­
puted using the following expression:
Vn = cAev + µ[Avfy + Pe] (12.32)
and that
(12.33)
where
e = cohesion factor
µ = friction factor
Aev = interface area of concrete engaged in shear transfer
Av¡ = area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane within area Ae
Pe = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane (may be con­
servatively neglected)
t, = Íyt = yield strength
of dowel reinforcement.

Typically, the top surface of the precast element is intentionally roughened toan ampli­
tude of ! in. as discussed in section 5.7. Hence, for normal weight concrete, LRFD rec­
ommends simplifying equations 12.32 and 12.33 as follows with units in ksi:

v «h :5 <!> ( 0.1 + -Av¡) (12.34)

Aev
where the minimum
(0.05bvs)
Av¡= F (12.35)
Jyt

and the nominal shear resistance is to be taken as the lesser of

v, :s 0.20f;Aev (12.36a)
or
(12.36b)
The cohesion factor e and the friction factor µ in equation 12.32 have the following val­
ues for the particular conditions of the interacting surfaces:

(a) Monolithically placed concrete:

e= 145 psi µ = 1.4 X.
(b) Concrete placed against clean, hardened concrete with surface intentionally rough­
ened
e= 100 psi µ, = 1.0 X.

(e) Concrete placed against hardened concrete clean and free of laitance but not inten­
tionally roughened
e= 75 psi µ = 0.6 X.
 ­,­·,.
_,.,
}47.
~'·,l
no Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges
~;·
".t

(d) Concrete anchored to as­rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing ,

­i
bars, where ali steel in contact with the concrete is clean and free of paint
e= 25 psi µ = 0.7 X.

where t.. = 1.0 for normal­density concrete

= 0.85 for sand­low­density concrete
= 0.75 all other low­density concrete.

While the LRFD AASHTO specifications require that mínimum reinforcement is

to be provided regardless of the stress level at the interface, designers may choose to
limit this reinforcement to cases in which Vuhl<I> is greater than 100 psi (0.7 MPa). Doing
so would be consistent with the ACI 318 code and the standard AASHTO specifications.

12.5.1 Maximum Spacing of Dowel Reinforcement

The maximum allowable spacing of the dowels is:

(i) If Vu < 0.1 J; b; dv, maximum s::,; 0.8 dv::,; 24 in.

(ii) If V11 > 0.1 J; b; dv, maximum s::,; 0.4 dv::,; 12 in.

12.6 COMBINED SHEAR ANO TORSION

The discussion in Section 12.4.1 on the modified compression field theory in conjunction
with Section 5.17.3 give an ample treatment of the strains, shear forces and the resisting
diagonal compression struts. Figures 5.38, 5.39 and 5.40 illustrate the deformed shape of
the critica! section when subjected to torsional moments. The shear stresses due to tor­
sion and shear are assumed in this hypothesis to add on one side of the section and coun­
teract on the opposite side. The transverse closed tie reinforcement is designed for the
side in which the combined shear and torsional effects are additive.
The externa! loading which causes the highest torsional moment is not the same as
the loading that causes the highest shear at the critica! section. The tendency by the de­
signer is to combine the highest value of torsion and the highest value of shear in the de­
sign of the web reinforcement. This is, naturally, conservative. It is possible to utilize the
fact that the two loads are different and thus design the transverse reinforcement for the
highest torsion and its concurrent shear or the highest shear and its concurrent torsion,
whichever leads to a higher resistance capacity. The LRFD uses the same nominal tor­
sional resisting moment as the ACI:
2AoAJy cote
T =----- (12.37)
n S

where
A = cross­section area enclosed by the shear flow path, including are of boles
0

A1 = area of one leg of the enclosed transverse tension reinforcement

0 = variable angle of crack chosen by trial and adjustment using Table 12.8
(Ref. 12.3)

In order to determine the value of 8, the strain, Ex, in the tensile reinforcement is ob­
tained from equation 12.27, except that V11 should be replaced

V
u
= ) vzu + (PhTu)2
2Ao
(12.38)
12.6 Combined Shear and Torsion 771

The factored torsional moment is taken as Tu = cp T; and the factored shear force is
taken as V11 = cp Vn. For normal weight concrete elements where torsion exists, torsional
effects have to be investigated if
T11 > 0.25 <p Ter (12.39)

Ter= 0.125 Vfc Acp f l + Ípe (12.40)

Pcp \j 0.125 yt;
where
T11 = factored torsional moment (in.­kip)
Ter = torsional cracking moment (in.­kip)
Aep = total area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete section (in.2)
Pep = length of outside perimeter of concrete section (in.2)
Jpe = compressive stress in the concrete after prestress losses have occurred, ei­
ther at the centroid of the cross­section resisting transient loads or at the
junction of the web and flange where the centroid líes in flange (ksi)
cp = strength resistance factor:
flexure: <p¡
shear: <pv
compression: <pe

Far lightweight concrete where the average tensile splitting strength of lightweight con­
crete, fct• is specified, the term Vfc
in Equation 12.40 is replaced by
4.7 Ícr::;; f
ur, is not specified, the term 0.75 Vfc
far all lightweight concrete and 0.85 Vfc
far sand­
lightweight concrete should be substituted far the term f; in Equation 12.40.
The required amount of transverse reinforcement far shear is obtained from equa­
tions 12.21(a) in conjunction with equations 12.23(a) and 12.25, namely,
. r: Avfydv cote
Vn = 13 V f~ b.d; + s
+ VP (12.41)

so that far shear in lb units and stress in psi,

Av Vn - (13 Vf'c bvdv + Vp)

(12.42a)
s fydv cote
If ksi units are used, multiply 13 by 0.0316 and far torsion, from equation 12.31,
A1 Tn
(12.42b)
s 2A0fyt cote
The total area of web reinforcement would be:
Av, Av A,
­=­+2­ (12.42c)
s s s
The angle e is obtained from Tables 12.8(a) and 12.8(b) using shear, v, as follows:

(a) Box sections:

(12.43a)
 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Oesign of Concrete Bridges

Photo 12.2 PCI bulb tee precast prestressed bridge deck beams (Courtesy Ms.
Monica Schultese, Mid Atlantic Precast Concrete Association).

(b) Other Sections:

V
n
= )(Vq>,.-b.,dv)2 + ( q>,,T. P. )2
u 'I'
.1..

v
p _u_l,_
A~h
(12.43b)

where
Ph = perimeter of the center line of the enclosed transverse torsion reinforce­
ment
A0h = area enclosed by the center Iine of the outermost closed torsional rein­
forcement
A0 = gross area enclosed by the shear flow path (see Figure 5.45 for graphical
representation of A0 and A0,. where A0 = 0.85A01,)
Tu = factored torsional moment
<!> = resistance factor <f>¡, <f>c· <f>,. where applicable

The value of 13 in equation 12.41 for determining the shear capacity, Ve, of the plain con­
crete in the web is obtained from the chart in Table 12.8(a). In order to avoid yielding of
the longitudinal reinforcement, a check has to be made that the flexura! reinforcement
on the tension face side of the member is so proportioned as to satisfy the Iollowing con­
dition:

(12.44)
12.7 AASHTO-LRFD Flexural-Strength Design Specifications vs. ACI Code Provisions 773

where p0 = Perimeter of the shear flow path

N,, = Applied axial force, taken as positive if compressive

12.7 AASHTO-LRFD FLEXURAL-STRENGTH DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

VS. ACI CODE PROVISIONS

There are fundamental clifferences in the approaches of the AASHTO­LRFD flexural­

streugtb design specifications and the A0­318 code provisions. Tbe LRFD approacb is
based on strain limit values as discussed in Section 12.3 and controlled by the ratio of the
neutral ax­fa depth. e, to the effective depth, d, (Ref. 12.14­12.16). This approach is vari­
ably termed as a unified approach since it is applicable to reinforced, prestressed. and
partially prestressed concrete ultimate limit state design. Toe ACI­318 code strength pro­
visions have been applied for detennining the ultimate design strength J;,s in severa! ex­
amples in other sections of the book such as sections 4.9 and 4.10. They have to be
applied in the design of fully and partially prestressed concrete members in building
structures. Toe current AASITTO standard specifications (Ref. 12.2) for proportioning
prestressed concrete members in flexure generally follow the ACI code provisions. The
LRFD alternative, which is a rational design approach, requires applying the strain limits
unified procedure. lt is useful to give a comparison summary showing the differences be­
tween the expressions specified in these two approaches as shown in Table 12.9 adapted
from Ref. 12.15.

Photo 12.3 Segmental bridge launching, (Courtesy Mónica Schultese, MidAt­

lanticPrecast Concrete Associarion)
774 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Table 12.9 LRFD and ACI Provisions for Ultimate Strength Flexura! Design

ACI Code AASHTO­LRFD

Notation
d to nonprestressed reinforcement d, to nonprestressed reinforcement
Apsfpsdp + A../yd,
dP to prestressed reinforcement d =-------
e ApsÍps + A,fy
d' to compression steel b

As
Pp, p, p' p = bd ,, ,,

t:;.s ­­­ ,,. ­­

A~
s

Maximum Flexural Reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete and Prestressed Concrete All Cases ­ RC, PC, PPC
Rectangular or T Section:

Maximum redistribution factor = 1000 E, 20 ( 1 ­ 2.36 ;J in %

percent, where E1 = 0.003 ( ~ ­ 1).
provided:
provided:
__<:___ ::s o 28 but never to exceed 0.42
wP + : (w - w') ­s 0.241:11 de · and <f> is based on Fig. 12.7.
p
0.85fc
for rectangular sections and:

Wpw + : (ww - ww') < 0.241:\1

p

for T­section behavior

An alternative ACI Code check requires that cid,

for the section is either tension controlled or in
the transition zone of Fig. 4.45
-----'---------+--~ T
12.8 Step­by­Step Design Procedure (LRFD) 775

Table 12.9 Continued

ACI Code AASHTO­LRFD

Minimum Reinforcement
Reinfarced Concrete All Cases:
200 3.5Vf::
P 2'. Pmin 2'. ­ 2'. ­­­
fy t,
(For T­sections, pis based on web only)

Prestressed and Partially Prestressed Particular result far reinforced con­

Concrete: crete:

0.03¡;
P 2'. Pmin = h
(For T­sections, pis based on web
only)
Stress in Bonded Prestressing Steel at Ultimate Resistance in Bending
Prestressed and Partially Prestressed Concrete­ PC andPPC
Bonded Tendons Bonded Tendons:

Íps = Ípu [ 1 ­
'Yp {
131
Pp
fpu
¡; + d
dp (w ­
1
W )
} J Íps =fpu(l - k ;J
where: k = 2 (1.04 ­ Ípy)
fpu
b
Ípu d ]
[ Pp fe+ dp (w ­ w') 2'. 0.17

d' < 0.15 dp

'Yp = 0.28 far Ípy 2'. 0.90 Ípu (Low Lax)

0.40 far Ípy 2'. 0.85 Ípu [normal]
0.55 far Ípy 2'. 0.80 L; (bars)

131 = 0.85 far f ~ s 4 ksi

0.65 far f ~ 2'. 8 ksi
0.85 ­ 0.05 (!~ - 4)
far 4 s f ~ ­s 8 ksi

12.8 STEP-BY-STEP DESIGN PROCEDURE (LRFD)

The following is a summary of a recommended sequence of design steps:

l. Determine whether or not partial prestressing is to be chosen.

2. Select the bending moments and shear forces from Table 12.2(a)&(b), Section 12.7.

3. Follow the step sequence for flexura! design of the member outlined in steps 2
through 10 of Section 4.13 in Chapter 4 and the flowchart of Figure 12.10 when
using the LRFD method for flexure. Generally, d; = id, - a/2).
776 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

4. Determine the factored shear force V11 due to ali applied loads at the critical section
located at a distance d; or 0.5 d; cote from the face of the support, whichever is
larger, where

de = effective depth as shown in Table 12.8(a) and (b)

= dP if no mild steel is used.

5. Compute the tendon shear component VP. The factored shear stress is:

v=

The nominal available shear stress ve= vlh.

6. Compute the quantity vlf; and assume a value of e. A good initial assumption for
prestressed beams is e = 25º

7. Compute the strain in the tensile reinforcement in order to enter Table 12.8 to ob­
tain a trial value of e and ~ from Equations 12.28 (a), (b) or (e) that applies, namely,

Section contains at least the minimum transverse reinforcement:

( ~11 + 0.5 N11 + 0.5(V11 - Vp) cote ­ ApsÍpo)

ex = v :S 0.001
2 (Es As + Ep Aps)
Section contains less than the minimum transverse reinforcement:

( :vu + 0.5 N,, + 0.5(V,, - Vp) cot e­ A ps /po)

Ex= :S 0.002
E.,· As + Ep Aps
If the value of ex from Equations 12.28 (a) and (b) is negative, compute the longitu­
dinal tensile strain from the following expression and enter it in Table 12.8(a) or
Table 12.8(b) where applicable.

(-=t- + 0.5 Nu + 0.5 Wu - ~) cot 6 ­ Aps/po)

e X =

Ae = area of the concrete in the flexural tension side of the member.

8. Enter LRFD Figure 12.9 again, with the value of v/f~ and strain Ex if the strut angle 6
is not close to the one assumed in the first trial, in order to obtain an ~usted value
of ~­ Otherwise, compute Ve from Equation 12.23, namely Ve = ~ V I; b.d¿ (lb) or
Ve = 0.0316~ Vf'c b.d; (kip) using the ~ value obtained from the chart in Table
12.8(a). If Table 12.8(b) applies, enter the vaue of sxe and ex to determine the trial 6
and ~ values.

9. Compute Vs for the web reinforcement after the value of Ve has been determined.
Find the corresponding shear reinforcement spacing from:
12.8 Step-by-Step Design Procedure (LRFD) 777

10. In regions of high shear stresses, ensure that the amount and development of the
longitudinal reinforcement As and Aps should satisfy the following expression:

It is recommended that this check be made at the face of the bearing which lies
within the transfer length of the strands where the effective prestressing force is not
fully developed.

11. When torsion exists combined with shear and flexure, the following steps need to
be followed:

2AoAJy cote
nominal torsion Tn = ­­­­­
s

Obtain strain in tensile reinforcement from Equations 12.28 adjusted for torsion
from Equation 12.38.
where fpo = 0.70 t.;
Nominal shear resistance:

where d; = (dp - a/2)

Shear reinforcement:

Av Vn - 0.031613~ bvdv + VP
s [yP.v cote

Forces are in kips and the stresses in ksi. For using lb and psi units, remove factor
0.0316.

Torsion reinforcement:

A1 T11
-=----
s 2A0[y cote

Total web closed ties reinforcement:

Av, Av A,
-=-+2-
s s s
778 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Shear stress v for obtaining angle 8:

(a) Box sections:

(b) Other sections

For avoiding yield of the longitudinal tensile reinforcement:

(Asfs + ApsÍps) 2:
Mu
d A-.
v'+'f
0.5Nu
+ --
<l>c
+ cote Wn - J o.sv,. - ~
Vµ) + (0.45TuPh)
­2­­
Ao<!>v
2

U. Check the horizontal interface shear:

where

Vuh::::; <p ( 0.1 + -Av¡)

Acv
0.05bvs
where Av¡= ¡:
Jyt

(!Y is in ksi)
Take the nominal shear resistance as the lesser of

V,. ::=:; 0.2Qf~Acv

or

e = cohesion factor
µ = friction factor
Acr = concrete interface area = b L;
Av¡= area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane within area Acv
<!> = strength reduction factor= 0.90.

Limit Av¡ to cases in which v ui/<1> is greater than 100 psi.

Figure 12.10 gives flowchart (Ref. 12.15) for steps to be followed in determining the nom­
inal moment strength, namely, the nominal bending resistance for bonded and unbonded
tendons.

13. Maximum allowable spacing of web shear reinforcement:

12.8 Step-by-Step Design Procedure (LRFD) 779

Given materials and cross-sectional properties

Determine fps
No
from strain
compatibiblity

fps = fpe + 15 ksi

No Yes
fps = fpe +;:>: 103 MPa

No

lf c s 3 d~
Assume: f y= O and Rectangular section:
repeat computation
of e
­==­­­­+­!
Yes
bw = b ; h¡ = O

~­­ C = (Apsfps + A5fy -A'5f'y- 0.85 f'c~1b(b - bw)h¡)/

(0.85 f'c~1bw) + kAps (:u)

p

d8 = (Apsfpsdps + A5fyd5)/
(Apsfps + A5fy)

Compute: a= ~1c ande/de

No Yes
<1>=0.7 <1>=0.9

Over-reinforced section is not <l>Mn = <l>[(Apsfp5(dp - a/2) +

recommended, unless it is shown by
A5fy(d5 ­ a/2) - A' 5f y(d' 5 ­ a/2) -
test or analysis that performance will
not be impaired 0.85 ~1f'c(b - bw)h¡(a - h¡)/2]

• For rectangular section behavior: bw = b

<l>Mn = q,[0.36 ~1 - 0.08~?] f~ + bwfyd92 • lf e ::; 3d'5, assume f'y = O.
+ 0.85 ~1f'c(b + bw)h¡(d9 ­ 0.5h¡)] • To insure minimum reinforcement
check that: <PMn ;:>: 1.2 Mcr

Figure 12.10 Nominal moment strength of prestressed section with bonded and
unbonded reínforcement (Ref. 12.15).
780 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

(a) If vu < 0.125 f;, S = 0.8 d; :s24 in.

(b) Ifvu>0.l25fd, S = 0.4 d; :s12 in.

Note that the design yield strength of non­prestressed transverse reinforcement should
not exceed 60.0 ksi. The design yield strength of prestressed transverse reinforcement
should be taken as the effective prestress after allowing for all prestress losses plus 60.0
ksi, but not greater than fPY"
For Dowel reinforcement spacing:
O.OS b;
If Av 2:: -f-- where b; = width of interface and spacing as presented in item 13.
yt

12.9 LRFD DESIGN OF BULB-TEE BRIDGE DECK

Example 12.1
Design for flexure an interior beam of a 120 ft (36.6 m) simply supported AASHTO­PCI
bulb­tee composite bridge deck with no skews (adapted from Ref. 12.11). The superstructure
is composed of six pretensioned beams at 9'­0" (2.74 m) on centers as shown in Figure 12.11.
The bridge has an 8­in. (203­mm) situ­cast concrete deck with the top !­in to be considered
as wearing surface. The design live load is the HL­93 AASHTO­LRFD fatigue loading.
Assume the bridge is to be located in a low seismicity zone.

Given:
Maximum allowable stresses:
Deck f; = 4000 psi, normal weight
t. = 0.60 f; = 2400 psi
Bulb­tee f; = 6500 psi Section Properties
f ;; = 5500 psi Ac = 767 in.2
fe = 0.60 f; = 3900 psi, Service III h =72 in.
fe = 0.45 f; = 2925 psi, Service I le = 545,894 in.4
Íci = 0.60 t: = 3480 psi cb = 36.60 in.
t. = 6 Vf'c = 484 psi e, = 35.40 in.
Ípu = 270,000 psi sb = 14,915 in.'
Ípy = 0.90 Ípu = 243,000 psi S' = 15,421 in.'

51~0"

1·­~·1·
IL f 48'0"
a· Unttom, Deck Thickness ~
'l!'6"

JI Figure 12.11
I SI@ 9'­0!'­0" I
5

Bulb-tee Bridge Deck Cross Section in Example 12.1 (Ref. 12.11)

IJ
12.9 LRFD Design of Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 781

t; = 0.75 Ípu= 202,500 psi ,2 = !.E_ = 545.894 = 712 in 2

[¡. = f,, = 60,000 psi A< 767 .
Ep, = 28.5 x I()Ó psi WD =199 plf.
E, = 29.0 x 1G6 psi.
Solurion:
l. Transformed Deck slab controlling width
Compute the transformed flange width:

E 0 = 33wl.5 VI'c = 33 X (1.5) \/4000 = 3830 ksi

15

Eci at transfer = 33(1 .5)15 V5500 = 4500 ksi

Ece at service = 33(1.5)L.5 "V6500 = 4890 ksi
Effective flange widtb is tbe lesser of
.) (1) 120 X 12
(l • span = = 360. rn.
4
(ü) 12 h1+ greater of web thickness or !­beam top flange width, b = 12 x 7.5 + 0.5 x 42
= 111 in.
(üi) average spacing between beams = 9 x 12 = 108 in.
hence, controlling flange width = 108 in.
. E¿ 3830
Modular ratio n
'
= ­E¿ = ­­
4890
= O .78
Transformed width bm = n)J = 0.78 x 108 = 84 in.

Photo 12.4 Chesapeake and Delaware Canal cable­stayed bridge on S.R. 1.

Length 4650 ft. with two 12­ft. deep precasr girders carrying a l L2-ft. wide roadway;
typical spans are 150 ft. with precast box piers (Courcesy Figg Engineering Group,
Tallahassee, Florida)
 •)
l

782 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

2. Properties of composite section

Disregard as insignificant the contribution of the deck concrete haunch to I' e which is
needed because of the precast element camber.
A'c=1397in.2
h =80 in.
(e = 1,095,290 in.4
cbc = 54.6 in. to the bottom fibers
C1c = 72 ­ 54.6 = 17 .4 in. ­ precast
Crsc = 80 ­ 54.6 = 25.4 in. ­ deck top
_ 1,095,290 _ . 3
sbc - 54.6 ­ 20,060 m.

1,095,290
S = = 62' 950 in. 3
e 17.4
1,095,290
S': = = 55 284 in:3
e 25.4 X 0.78 '

3. Bending moments and shearforces

8
Slab: Ws01 = X 9 X 150 = 900 lb/ft
12
. . 2 barriers (300 lb/ft)
Barner weight: Ws02 = b = 100 lb/ft
6 eams
. 2 48 ft
2 in. future­weanng surface: W503 = ­2X b X 150 = 200 lb/ft
1 6 eams

Live load (truck load) in LRFD would be based on HL­93 truck fatigue loading.
Clear width from figure 12.12 = 48 ft (14.6 cm)
48
Number of Janes = = 4 lanes
12
(a) Distribution factor for moment
For two or more lanes loaded (Ref. 12.3), the distribution factor for bending mo­
ment (Table 12.3b)

DFM = 0.075 + ( -S )º.6(S)º.2(

- «: )0.1
--
9.5 L 12P,L

provided that
beam spacing: 3.5 :,:; S:,:; 16 Actual S = 9.0 ft 0.K.
deck slab: 4.5 :,:; r, s 12 Actual T, = 7.5 in. O.K.
span: 20 :,:; L s 240 Actual L = 120 ft O.K.
no. of beams: N¿ > 4 Actual Nb=6 0.K.
eg = distance between the center of gravity of the beam and the slab
7~5
= + 0.5 + 35.4 = 39.65 in.

Ec 4890
n = Ese = 3830 = 1.28

Kg = ni], + Ace;)
= 1.28 [545,894 + 767 (39.65)2] = 2,242,191 in.4
12.9 LRFD Design of Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 783

hence,

DFM = 0.075 + ( -9 )0.6 ( --9 )0.2 [ 2,242,191 Jº·1

9.5 120 12(7.5)3 (120)
= 0.732 lanes/beam

Far one design lane loaded, from Table 12.3b,

DFM = 0.06 + ( -S )º.4 (S)0.

- 3 ( --K8 )0.1
14 L 12~L

= 0.06
9
+ ( 14
)0.4 ( 9 )0.3 [ 2,242,191 ]º.! = 0.499 lanes/beam;
120 12(7_5)3(l20)

consequently, the case of two or more lanes loaded controls so that the DFM =
0.732 lanes per beam.
Fatigue Moments:
The moment is taken for a single design truck having the same axle weight as in
ali other limit states, but with a constant spacing of 30 ft between the 32­kip axles.
A multiple lane factor of 1.2 for fatigue is used to reduce the controlling DFM fac­
tor. From table 12.2a, the load factor is 0.75 and the impact factor (IM) for fatigue
=15%.
Hence, the fatigue truckload bending moment becomes:

M¡ = (bending moment per lane) (DFM/1.2)(1 + IM)

or M¡ = ( bending moment per lane ) f

( 0.14.299\1 + 0.15)

= (bending moment per Jane) (0.415)(1 + 0.15)

= (0.478) (bending moment per Jane)

(b) Distribution factor far shear

From Table 12.3(a),
Far two or more lanes loaded

DFV = 0.2 + C~)- C~J

provided that:
beam spacing:3.5 :5 S :516 Actual S = 9.0 ft O.K.
deck slab: 4.5 :5 T5 :512 Actual T, = 7.5 in. O.K.
span: 20 :5 L :5 240 Actual L = 120 ft O.K.
10,000 :5 Kg :5 7,000,000 Actual Kg = 2,242,191 in.4 O.K.

hence, DFV = 0.2 + (:2)­(;6 )2 = 0.887 lanes/beam.

Far one design lane loaded (Table 12.3a)

DFV = 0.36 + (2:.o) = 0.36 (J/ 0) = 0.720 lanes/beam;

consequently, the case of two or more Janes loaded controls and DFV = 0.887
lanes per beam.

4. Load Combinations
Total factored load, Q = TJ"'i.'t;q;
784

where TI
Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

= a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational importance.

,
l

'Y; = load factors

q¡ = special loads;
use T) = 1.0 for all practical purposes in this example.
Investiga te all the load combinations from table 12.2(a) and (b ). The cases that control
are as follows:
(a) Service I for compressive stresses in the prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.0 (DC + DW) + 1.0 (LL + IM)
(b) Service 111 for tensile stresses in the prestressed concrete components:
Q = 1.0 (DC + DW) + 0.8 (LL + IM)
(e) Strength I for ultimate strength:
Maximum Q = 1.25 DC + 1.50 DW + 1.75 (LL + IM)
Minimum Q = 0.90 DC + 0.65 DW + 1.75 (LL + IM)
(d) Fatigue for checking stress range in the strands
Q = 0.75 (LL + IM)
(The fatigue Q is a special load combination for checking the tensile stress range
in the strands due to live load and dynamic allowance.)

5. Un/ acto red shear forces and bending moments

(a) Truck Loads
Truck load shear force:
VLT = (shear force per lane)(DFV)(l + IM)
= (shear force per lane)(0.887)(1 + 0.33)
= 1.180 (shear force per lane) kips.

Truck load bending moment:

MLT = (moment per lane)(DFM)(l + IM)
= (moment per lane)(0.732)(1 + 0.33)
= 0.974 (moment per lane) ft­kips,
LT = Truck live load
(b) Lane Loads
For lane loads, no dynamic allowance is applied, hence,
VLL = (shear force per lane )(DFV)

= (shear force per lane)(0.887) kips

MLL = (moment per lane)(DFM)
= (moment per lane)(0.732) ft­kips,
The lane loads from Figure 12.4, the load on this bridge is as follows in Figure 12.13.
6. Computation of moments and shears
(a) Lane live load (DFV = 0.887, DFM = O. 732)
(i) Support section:
shear at the left support (x = O) from equation 12.6(a) and Figure 12.12:
0.64 2
VLL = (L - x) (DFV)
2L

~6:20 (120)2 (0.887) = 34.1 kips

2
12.9 LRFD Design of Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 785

0.64 kip/fVlane

1
¡ lett reaction

X
lll l ll l lll ll l ll ll 11111111111111111 l l l ll l ll ll ll l l ll l ll ll l ll ll ll l ll ll l l l

(120 - X)> X
right reaction

1: 120'
:1
Figure 12.12 Truck load per lane

From equation 12.6(b ), and DFM = 0.732

0.64(x)(L - x) .
Mu= (DFM) = O ft­kip
2
(ii) Section at 24 ft from support:
As an example, find VLL and M LL at x = 24 ft from the left support.

VLL -
_ 0.64 (
X
)2 ( ) _ .
120 - 24 0.887 - 21.8 kips
2 120

0.64(24)(120 - 24) .
MLL = (0.732) = 539.7 ft­kip
2

(b) Truck live load (DFV = 1.180, DFM = 0.974)

Here, the impact factor IM = 33% has to be included, hence, larger DFV and
DFMvalues.
(i) Support sections:
From Table 12.4,
72[(L - x) - 9.33]
VLT = L (DFV)

72((120 - O.O) ­ 9.33] .

= (1.180) = 78.1 kips
120

From Table 12.5,

72(x)[(L - x) - 9.33]
MLT = L (DFM)

= O ft­kip for the support moment.

(ii) Section at 24 ft from support:

72((120 - 24) - 9.33] .

VLT = (1.180) = 61.4 kips
120
72(24)((120 - 24) - 9.33) .
MLT = 120 (0.974) = 1215.0 ft­kip

(e) Fatigue moment at 24 ft (DFF= 0.478)

From Table 12.7,

72(x)[(L - x) - 18.22]
M¡ = L (DFF)
786 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges
1l
1
From before, DFF = 0.478
hence,
72(24)[(120 ­ 24) ­ 18.22)
M¡ = (0.478) = 535.8 ft­kip
120
(d) Shears and moments dueto dead loads:
The loads to be considered are beam weight (W D) plus deck slab and haunches
(W5Dl), and future wearing surface (W503).
The beam is simply supported, hence, the shear and moment at any cross section
along the span are:
Vx = WD (0.5L - x)
M, = 0.5W ox(L - x)
As an example, consider a section at 24 ft from the left support and compute the
shear and moment due to self­weight WO= 0.799 Kip/ft:
Vx = 0.799(0.5 X 120 ­ 24) = 28.8 kips
M, = 0.5 X 0.799 X 24(120 ­ 24) = 920.4 ft­kip.
Tables 12.10 and 12.11 (Ref. 12.11) list the forces and moments required for the
design of the interior beam elements. lt should be noted that long­hand computa­
tions to develop such a table are time consuming. Computer programs developed
by severa! state DOTs are available, sorne on the internet, such as the Washington
State DOT Program.

7. Design of the Bulb-tee prestressed interior beam

(1) Selection of Prestressing Strands

For Service­111 load combination, bottom fiber stress t,is:

MD + Ms Mb + Mws + 0.8(MLT + MLL)
Íb = + -----------
s, s.;
where MD = unfactored self­weight moment, ft­kip
Ms = unfactored moment dueto slab and haunch weight, ft­kip
M¿ = unfactored barrier moment, ft­kip
Mws = unfactored future wearing surface moment, ft­kip
MLT = unfactored truck load moment, ft­kip
MLL = unfactored Jane load moment, ft­kip
From befare, Sb = 14,915 in.3
sbc = 20,090 in.3
From Tables 12.10 and 12.11,
Midspan stresses at bottom fibers at service:

(1438.2 + 1659.6) (180 + 360) + 0.8(1830.3 + 843.2)

Íbc = 14 915
'
(lZ) + 20 090
,
(l2)

= 2.50 + 1.60 = 4.10 ksi (T).

The 4.10 ksi (T) will be neutralized by prestressing the beam. Maximum allowable
tensile stress:

t. = 6.0~ psi = 6V6500 = 484 psi= 0.484 ksi

Required prestress compressive stress at the bottom fibers:

Ícb = (4.1 ­ 0.48) = 3.62 ksi

12.9 LRFD Design of Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 787

Table 12.10 LRFD Service Shear and Moment Dueto Dead Load

Beam Weight (Slab + Haunch) Barrier Weight Wearing Surface

Wo Weight W501 Wo52 Ws03
Distance Sectlon Moment Moment Moment Moment
X XIL Shear Mg Shear Ms Shear Mb Shear Mws

ft kips ft­kips kips ft­kips kips ft­kips kips ft­kips

o o.o 47.9 o.o 55.3 o.o 6.0 o.o 12.0 o.o
6.oo· o.os 43.1 274.3 49.8 315.3 5.4 34.2 10.8 68.4
12 0.1 38.4 517.8 44.3 597.5 4.8 64.8 9.6 129.6
24 0.2 28.8 920.4 33.2 1,062.1 3.6 115.2 7.2 230.4
36 0.3 19.2 1,208.1 22.1 1,394.1 2.4 151.2 4.8 302.4
48+ 0.4 9.6 1,380.7 11.1 1,593.2 1.2 172.8 2.4 345.6
60 0.5 O.O 1,438.2 O.O 1,659.6 O.O 180.0 o.o 360.0
'Critica) section for shear
+Harp point

Assume that the distance from the centroid of the prestressing reinforcement and
the section bottom fibers = 0.05h

= (0.05)(72) = 3.6 in; use 4.0 in., hence e¿ = 36.6 ­ 4.0 = 32.6 in.
As presented in the examples in Chapter 4,

Pe P. X e¿
Íbp due to prestress = - + ­S­­
Ac b

P. P. X 32.6 .
or Íhp = 767 + 14,915 = 3.62 ksi

Table 12.11 LRFD Service Shear and Moment Due to Truck and Lane Loads

Fatigue Truck
Truck Load wlth Lane Load with lmpact
lmpact WLT+i WLL w,
Distance Section Shear Moment Shear Moment Moment
X XIL VLT MLT VLL MLL M,

ft kips ft­kips kips ft­kips ft­kips

o O.O 78.1 o.o 34.1 O.O O.O
6.00' o.os 73.8 367.8 30.6 160.2 165.0
12 0.1 69.6 691.6 27.5 303.6 309.2
24 0.2 61.4 1,215.0 21.8 539.7 535.8
36 0.3 52.7 1,570.2 16.6 708.3 692.7
48+ 0.4 44.2 1,778.9 12.2 809.5 776.2
60 0.5 35.7 1,830.2 8.5 843.3 776.9
'Critica! section for shear
+ Harp point
788 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

to give prestressing force Pe= 1037 kips

Assume total prestress loss = 25%

1037 .
P = = 1383 kips
' 1 ­ 0.25
assume using ! in.­dia 7­wire 270­K low­relaxation strands (Aps = 0.153 in.2)
. 1383
Required number of strands = = 44.6 strands.
0.1 5 3 X 202 . 5 l
,j·•
After two trials and adjustments, 48 strands with the configuration shown in Fig­ ,j

ure 12.13 are tried. Less than 48 strands result in tensile stresses at the bottom 1
l
fibers at service which exceed the maximum allowable f, = 484 psi. Twelve strands
are harped at 0.4 L. Accordingly, 36 strands remain straight at the beam (see Fig­
ure 12.13).
From data, ch= 36.60 in. and c1 = 72 ­ 36.60 = 35.40 in.
e; = cb - [2 X 70 +2 X 68 +2 X 66 +2 X 64 +2 X 62 +2 X 60 +4 X 8
+8 X 6 + 12 X 4 + 12 X 2]/48
= 36.60 ­ 19.42 = 17.28 in.

e¿ = cb - [2 X 12 + 12 X 4 +8 X 6 +8 X 4 +2 X 10 +2 X 12 +2 X 14
+2 X 16 +2 X 18 +2 X 20]/48
= 36.6 ­ 6.92 = 29.68 in.

Given Jp; = 0.75 JP" = 202,500 psi,

P; = (48)(0.153)(202.5) = 1488 kips.

After running a detailed step­by­step analysis of prestress losses as in chapter 3,
Section 3.9, the total prestress loss was determined to be 26.4 %.
fpe = 202.5(1 ­ 0.264) = 149.0 ksi
hence, P, = 1488(1 ­ 0.264) = 1095.0 kips

No. Distance from

Strands bottom (in.)
2 70
2 68 No. Distance from
2 66 Strands bottom (in.)
2 64
1
2 20
2 62 2 18
72" 2 60 2 16
--6" Harped 2 14
strands 2 12
No. Distance from 2 10
Strands bottom (in.) 4 8
4 8 8 6
8 6 12 4
12 4 12 2
6" 12 2
­3;.j 1 ! 1spac¡.I IL ­3;.j 1 ~ 1 spac¡. I IL
@2" @ 2"
At ends (e0 = 17.28 in.) At midspan (ec = 29.68 in.)

Figure 12.13 Bulb-Tee Prestressing Strand Pattern

12.9 LRFD Design ot Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 789

(2) Check of Concrete Unfactored Stresses

(a) Stresses at Transfer
Initial fpi = 0.7 fpu = 0.7 x 270 = 202.5 ksi. Common practice assumes that ini­
tial relaxation losses at prestressing amount to 9 to 10%. Use 10% reduction
infp;·
P; = 0.90 X 1488 = 1339 kips
Hence, P; = (0.9)(202.5)(0.153x48) = 1338 kips
(i) Support Section
From Chapter 4, Equation 4.1 (a),

,_ P; (
f - - Ae l - ?e,c,) - S'
M 0

= ­ 1338 ( 1 ­ 17.28 X 35.4) ­ O = ­0.25 ksi. (C), no tensió.n, O.K.

767 712
P; (
fb = ­­ 1 +- e,cb) +- M0
Ae r2 s,
= _ 1339
767
(l + 17.28 X 36.3)
712
+
O
= 3.29 ksi (C) < allowable fe = 3.48 ksi O.K.
(ii) Midspan Section

t' = _ 1338
767
(l _ 29.68 X 36.60) _ 1438 X 12
712 15,421
= 0.917 ­ 1.119 = ­0.202 ksi (C), no tension allowed, hence, O.K.
t,
b
= _ 1339
767
(l + 29.68 X 36.6) + 1438 X 12
712 14,915
= ­4.513 + 1.157 = ­3.356 ksi (C) < than allowable f;; = 5.50 ksi, O.K.
(b) Stresses at Service:
(i) Midspan Section:
From chapter 4, Equations 4.3(a) and 4.3(b):

P, ( eec,) MT
Ae 1 - ? -si;
I
f = - :5 fe

fb = - P,
Ae
(1 + eccb)
,2
+ MT
Seb
:5 t,

Since the loads are placed at different stages of construction, for

Service­1 precast sections,

t' = - P,
Ae
(1 ­ eect)-
,2
Mo + Ms - Mws + Mb
,2 S~

= _ 1095 (l _ 29.68 X 35.40)­ (1438 + 1660)12 _ (360 + 180)12

767 712 15,421 62,950
= 0.679 ­ 2.411 ­ 0.103 = ­1.835 ksi (C)
< Service allowable fe = 2925 psi O.K.

= _ 1095 (l + 29.68 X 36.60) + (1438 + 1660)12 + (360 + 180)12

fb 767 712 14,915 20,060

= ­3.605 + 2.493 + 0.323 = ­0.789 ksi (C) O.K.

790 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

(3) Including stressesdue to the transient lane and truck loads

A factor of 0.80 is used for Type III loading (Table 12.2a)
0.8 (1830 + 843)12
f' = - l.335 ­ 62,950

= ­1.835 ­ 0.408 = ­2.243 ksi (C) < Service­Ill j, = 3900 psi O.K.
0.8 (1830 + 843)12
Íb = ­0.789 + 20,060

= ­0.789 + 1.279 = 0.490 ksi (T) = Allowable Ji = 0.484, O.K.

(4) Concretestresses at top deckfibers
(i) Under permanent Service I loads
u; + M; (360 + 180)12
f: = S'e = 55 , 284
= ­0.117ksi(c) < allowable j. = 2.4ksi O.K.
(ii) Under permanent and transient lane and truck loads, Service /:

i:=
u; + u, MLT + MLL
+----
e - s~ s~
(1830 + 843)12
= ­O.ll7 ­ 55 284
'
= ­0.697 ksi (C) < allowable fe = 2.4 ksi, O.K.
(5) Concrete Stresses at beam bottomfibers, Service III (See step 3)
Pe ( eccb) MD + Ms (Mws + Ms) + 0.8(MLT + M¿¿)
Íb = -- 1 +- + + -----------
Ac r2 s, s;
= _ 1095 (l + 29.68 X 36.60) + (1438 + 1660)12
767 712 14,915

[(360 + 180) + 0.8(1830 + 843)]12

+-------------
20,060
= ­ 3.605 + 2.492 + 1.603 = 0.490 ksi (T) ~ allowable Ji = 0.484 ksi, O.K.
(6) Fatigue stresses
LRFD specifies that in regions of compressive stress due to permanent loads and
prestress, fatigue is only considered if the compressive stress is less than twice the
maximum tensile live load stress resulting from the fatigue:
Thus, for permanent loads only, the term (MLT + M¿¿)!S~ is taken out to give:

MD + Ms (Mws + Ms)
fb=-- P, ( 1+- eccb) + +----
Ac r2 s, Sbc
(360 + 180)12
= ­3.605 + 2.492 + = ­0.790 ksi (e) 0.K.
20,060
From table 12.11, fatigue moment M¡= 777 ft­kips,
Tensile fatigue stress at the bottom fibers,

F = 0.75M¡ = 0.75 X 777 X 12 = O 3 4 8 k i (T)

Jb sbc 20,060 . s

Since twice 0.348 = 0.696 < 0.790 ksi (which is a compressive stress), a fatigue
check is unnecessary.
12.9 LRFD Design of Bulb-Tee Bridge Deck 791

From the forgoing computations, the flexura! design is 0.K. at the initial and
service load conditions. To be complete and also determine the reserve strength
available for overload conditions, the Jimit state at failure design is necessary as in
the following section. The total design has to include shear, torsion, if any, and
serviceability as in Example 12.2.
8. Ultimate strength (Limit state off ailure)
(a) Nominal flexura! resistance moment
From Tables 12.2 (a) and (b) total factored moment for Strength I Load:
Mu= l.25DC + l.5DW + l.75(LL + IM)
From Table 12.10
Mu = 1.25(1438 + 1660) + 1.5(360 + 180) + 1.75(1830 + 843) = 9316 ft­kip
9316
. d M, = -Mu = -- = 9316 f t- ki1p
Require
<!> 1.0
Average stress in the prestressing reinforcement whenfpe ~ 0.5 JP"' from

equation 12.9: fps = fpu ( 1 ­ k ;J where k = 2 ( 1.04 ­ t)

For the depth of the compressive block, use slab ¡; = 4.0 ksi.
k = 0.28 for Jow­relaxation steel
dP = (h­cover to c.g.s.) = [(72 + 8)­ 6.92] = 73.08 in.
b = effective compression flange width = 9' ­ O"= 108 in.
Aps = 48 x 0.153 = 7.344 in.2
Íp« =270 ksi
From equation 12.10,
Ap,Ípu + Asfy - A;t;
e=
' [pu
0.85fcJ31b + kAµs d
p

7.344 +O­ O
0.85 X 4.0 X 0.85 X 108 + 0.28 X 270)
7.344 ( ­3­
7 .08
= 6.20 in. < t5 = 7.5 in.
a = ~1c = 0.85 X 6.20 = 5.27 in.,
hence, neutral axis is within the flange and the section is considered rectangular.
Average design reinforcement strength fps:

6.20) .
[ps = 270 ( 1 ­ 0.28 73.08 = 263.6 ksi

nominal flexura) resistance M, = Ap,Íps ( d - ~)

u, = M, = 7.344 X 263.6 ( 73.08 ­

5·;7)
C 12)

= 11,364 ft­kips > required M; = 9316 ft­kip 0.K.

; :S 0.42 for ductile behavior discussed in section 12.3.1 and table 12.1 (a).
e

e 6.20
Actual d, = 73.08 = 0.085 < 0.42 0.K.
792 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

(b) Minimum reinforcement

As discussed in section U.3.4. the mínimum reinforcemenl has to be the lesser
of 1.2 M cr or 1.33 M11 required by the applicable load combinations. See also flow-
chart Figure 12.11 and Tables 12.10 and 12.11.

f, = 7.5Vf'c = 7.5'V6500 = 605 psi = 0.6 ksi

fu= cornpressive stress due to effective prestress only at the bottom fibers as de­
fined in section 12.3.4.

= -- P, ( 1 eccb)2 = ­ 3.606 ksi from befo re.

+-
Ac r
Non­composite Mdnc= M0+ M5= 1438 + 1660=3098 ft-kip
S1,c = 20,060 in.4
sb = 14.915 in,"
From equation 12.13.

Mu= (J, + fu)Sb - Mdnc(~ - L)

14.915 (20,060 )
= (0.6 + 3.6)­12­ ­ 3098
14_915
­ L

= 5220 ­ 1069 = 4151 ít­kíp

1.2 Mcr = 1.2 X 4151 = 4981 ft­kip
1.33 Mu= l.33 X 9316 = 12,390 ft­kip > 4981 ft-kip

Photo U.5 Hanging Lake Viaduct, Glenwood Canyon, Colorado, total length
1297 ft., consisting of 34 spans, primarily 200­ft. Jengths ( Courtesy Figg Engineering
Group. Tallahassee. Florida)
12.1 O LRFD Shear and Deflection Design 793

hence, the Iesser of the two moments controls, namely, 1.2 Me,= 4981.
M,, or M, = 11,364 > 4981 O.K.
9. Pretensioned Anchorage Zone
The zone reinforcement is designed using the force in the strands just prior to release
transfer. The LRFD specifications require that the bursting resistance, P, should not
be less than 4.0% of the force in the strands, Fp;, befare release, namely:
P, = fsAs;;:: 0.04Fp;
Fp; = 48 X 0.153 X 202.5 = 1488 kips
P, = 0.04 X 1488 = 59.5 kips
Use a stress.j., in the anchorage reinforcement not exceeding 20 ksi.
Required area = 59.5/20 = 2.98 in.2
Try No. 5 closed ties; As= 2 x 0.31 = 0.62 in.2
Number of ties = 2.98/0.62 = 4.8
Distance within which anchorage reinforcement has to be provided from beam end =
h/5 = 72/5 = 14.4 in.
Use No. 5 closed ties at 3 in. center­to­center, with the first tie starting at 2 in. from the
beamend.
Conclusion:
Accept the design of the bulb­tee bridge for flexure. For the design to be complete,
design for shear, interface shear transfer and deflection/camber checks have to be per­
formed as in Example 12.2.

12.10 LRFD SHEAR AND DEFLECTION DESIGN

Example 12.2
Design the web shear reinforcement for the bulb­tee beam in Example 12.1 at the critical
section near the supports and the interface shear transfer reinforcement at the interface
plane between the precast section and the deck situ­cast concrete. Also, verify if the span de­
flection is within the allowable limits.
Solution:
l. Web Shear Design
(a) Strain at centroid leve/ of reinforcement
<!> = 0.90
ee = 17.28 in.

Provide web steel when Vu > 0.5<!> (Ve+ VP)

Critica! section is the greater of 0.5 d; cote or d,
de = de = h - e¿ = 80.0 ­ 17.28 = 62.72 in.

d; = ( Zª)
de - 5.27 = 60.08 in.
= 62.72 ­ ­2­

~ 0.9de = 0.9 X 62.72 = 56.45 in.

~ 0.72h = 0.72 X 80 = 57.6 in.
d; = 60.08 in. controls as the largest of the three values
Assume 0 = 23º for a first tria!
0.5dvcot0 = 0.5 X cot 23º

= 70.77 > 60.08 in., use d; = 60.08 in the Ex equation

794 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges
l1
l
As the support bearing width is not yet determined, assume it conservatively = O. J
=
Consequently, the critica! section for shear is 74.35 in. 6.2 ft from the support, being
larger than the dimension d; = 60.08 in. as stipulated by the LRFD AASHTO re­
quirement; hence distance 74.35 in. controls for the critica! shear section.
X 6.2
L =
120
= 0.05L from the support face.

From equation 12.23,

In order to determine the value of 13 severa! computations have to be performed.

Reinforcement strain Ex from equation 12.28 is initially using either Equations
12.28(a) or (b). Try Equation 12.28(a),

dMu + 0.5Nu + 0.5VuCot0 - Apsfpo

Ex = v :5 0.002
2[ Es As + EpsAps]
At plane 0.05L, from Table 12.10
Mu = 1.25(275 + 315 + 34) + 1.5 (68) + 1.75(368 + 160) = 1802 ft­kip

Corresponding shear:
= 1.25(43 + 50 + 5) + 1.50(11) + 1.75(74 + 31) = 323 kips
V,.
N = applied normal force at 0.05L plane = O
11

fpo = jacking stress = 0.70 fw

fceEps .
= [pe + --. It can however, be conservatively taken
Ec
as the effective prestress [pe
t., = concrete compressive stress at the centriod of the composite
section due to both prestressing and the bending moments
resisted by the precast section acting alone.

Distance from the c.g.c. of the composite section to the c.g.c. of the precast
section.
C¡ = Cbc - cb = 54.6 ­ 36.6 = 18.0 in.
At the critica! section ee1 = 18.9 in.
_ fe _ 545,894 _ . 4
Section modulus S1 - ~ - ~ - 30,327m.

e, = 17.28 in.

,2 = 712 in.2

!,
ce
= _ P,
Ac
(i _ e,c1)-
,2
(Mv + Msv)
S¡

= _ 1095 ( _ 18.9 X 18.0) _ (275 + 315)(12)

767 l 712 30,327
= ­0.746 ­ 0.233 = ­0.979 ksi (e)
1095
[pe = 48 X O.lS3 = 149.0 ksi
E¿ = 4890 ksi
12.10 LRFD Shear and Deflection Design 795

Vu = 323 kips
Mu = 1802 kip­ft
Aps = 48 X 0.153 = 7.344

Vu = 323 kips, VP = 24.5 kips from Fig. 12.13 and the computations from the slope
of the harped tendon to follow.
From Equation 12.29
fr, = 149.0 + 0.979 X 28,500/4890 = 155.0 ksi
0

or fpo = 0.70 t.: = 0.7 X 270 = 189.0 ksi

Use Ípe = 155 ksi in the computations.
Assume that the section contains at least the mínimum Av to be verified later,
using Equation 12.28 (a) for a first trial and no longitudinal mild steel, calculate
the strain ex as follows:

(~ + 0.5 Nu + 0.5(Vu - V¡,) cot 0 ­ Ap,Ípo)

eX =
2(E, A, + EP AP,)
1802 X 12
+ O + 0.5(323 ­ 24.5)cot 23º ­ 7.344 x 155
60_08
2(0 + 28,500 X 7.344)
­426.8 .
= = negative value.
418 608
'
hence, Eq. 12.28(c) would have to be used:

( ~ + 0.5 Nu + O.S(Vu - Vp)cot0 - Apsfpo)

eX =
2(Ec Ac + E, A, + Ep Aps)
Ac = area of the concrete section on the flexural tension side of the member as
shown in Figure 12.9. Hence, from Figure 12.15 of the flanged section used in
this example,
z
1
Ac = 26 X 6 + (26 ­ 6) X 4.5 + 6 X 4.5 + 6 X 25.5 = 156 + 45 + 27 + 153 = 381 in.2
E; = 4890 ksi from before when the concrete is beyond the 28 day strength

Hence,
1602 X 12
+ O + 0.5(323 ­ 24.5) cot 23º ­ 7.344 x 155
60_08
~=~~~­2­(4­8­90~X­3_8_1_+_0~+­2­8­,5­00~X­7_.3_4_4~~~

­426.8 o 10 1 ­3 . ¡·
4145 X 103 = ­ · X O m. m.

Use iooos, = ­0.10 in Table 12.8(a).

(b) Web shear strength, V"' from 6 - 13 analysis.
Vu = 323 kips
From equation 12.15(b)
(Vu - <!> Vp)
Shear stress v = bd , where <!> = 0.90 for shear
<!> V V

fpe from before = 149.0 ksi

 >]
796 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges
i ,

Plane of crack
36 strands

48'-6" 12'-0"

Beam Length = 121 '-0" <t_ Beam

Figure 12.14 Beam tendon geometry

Figure 12.14 shows the inclination angle, IV, of the 12 harped strands,
. (65 ­ 15)
sm IV = 48_5 x = 0.086
12
Harped tendon force= 12 X 0.153 X 155.0 = 284.6 kips
VP = 284.6 sin 0 = 284.6 x 0.086 = 24.5 kips
. 323 ­ 0.9 X 24.5 .
Required v = X X
6 60_08
= 0.93 ksi
0_9
. V 0.93
Ratio¡; = = 0.143
6_5
Entering Table 12.8 (a) for the values of lOOOex = ­0.10 and (v,Jf;) = 0.143, we get
0 = 23.3º, which is close to the value of 23º assumed, and ¡3 = 2.80.

Hence, Ve = 0.0316¡3~ b.d;

= 0.0316 X 2.80V'6.5 X 6 X 60.08 = 81.3 kips

(e) Selection of web reinforcement
From equation 12.26, check whether web reinforcement is needed, namely, if
Vu > 0.5<j> (Ve+ Vp)
0.5<!> (Ve + Vp) = 0.5 X 0.9(81.3 + 24.5) = 47.6 kips, < V" = 323 kips
Use web steel.

Required V, = ; ­ Ve - VP = ( ~~i) ­ 81.3 ­ 24.5 = 253.0 kips

From Equation 12.25,

AJy,dv cot6
Available V, = ----
s
Trying No. 4 stirrups, Av= 2 X 0.20 = 0.40 in.2
cot 0 = cot 23º = 2.356
= 0.4 X 60.0 X 60.08 X 2.475
h ence, 253 . O , giving s = 13.4 in.
s
(i) Maximum allowable web stirrup spacing:
If Vu < 0.125 f; S = 0.8 d; :s; 24 in.
lf Vu > 0.125 f; S = 0.4 d; :s; 12 in.
12.10 LRFD Shear and Deflection Design 797

Limit v,. = 0.125 ¡; = 0.125 X 6.5 = 0.81 ksi

Actual Vu = 0.93 ksi > limit Vu = 0.81, hence uses = 0.40 d; = 0.40 X 60.08
= 24 but not to exceed 12 in. c/c.
Therefore, space the transverse web reinforcement at 12 in. c/c.
(ii) Mínimum area of transverse reinforcement:
• r;:; b.s
Avf ft = 0.0316 V t: -
t;
= 0.0316 . ~(6
V o.o ~ X 12) . 2/ft
= 0.10 ID.
Use No. 4 stirrups at 12 in. center­to­center with the spacing to be increased
along the span.
(iii) Maximum shear resistance:
To ensure that the concrete in the web does not crush prior to yielding of the
stirrups,
(Vn - Vp) ::=:; 0.25f;bvdv
(V,, - Vp) = Ve + Vs = 75.0 + 253.0 = 335.8 kips
0.25f~vdv = 0.25 X 6.5 X 6 X 60.08 = 585.8 kips > 335.8, 0.K.

2. Intetfi ace shear transfer

(a) Dowel reinforcement design
Assume that the critica! section for shear transfer is the same as the vertical shear
at plane 0.05 L from the support face.
From load combination Strength 1:
vu = 1.25(5.4) + 1.5(10.8) + 1.75(73.8 + 30.6)
= 205.5 kips
d; = 74.35 in.
205.5 . ¡·
Vuh = = 2.7 6 kip m.
74.35
. d
R eqmre vn = ­Vuh
<1>
2.76 = 3 . 07 ki1p/ in.
= ­­
0.9
From Equation 12.32,
available Vn = cAcv + µ.[Av¡Íy + Pe]
For concrete placed clean, hardened concrete with interface contact not intention­
ally roughened,
e = 0.075 ksi µ = 0.6
b; = contact width between slab and precast flange top = 42 in.
Acv _ _ · 2
. d h ­ 42.0 X 1.0 ­ 42.0 m.
m. ept
hence, 3.07 = 0.075 X 42.0 +0.6(Av¡ X 60 + O) to give Av¡= O.O in 2/in., <Av= 0.40 in.2
at 12 in. c/c vertical stirrups.
On this basis, no special additional dowel reinforcement is needed. LRFD,
however, also requires that if the width b; exceeds 36 in., a mínimum of four bars
are required as dowel reinforcement. Thus, use also two No. 3 dowels at 12 in. c/c
in addition to the No. 4 vertical stirrups at 12 in. c/c, to give total Av¡= 0.62 in.2/ft.
(b) Maximum and mínimum dowel reinforcement
¡; = 4.0 ksi for the deck concrete

Actual provided Vn = 0.075 X 42 + 0.6 (º~~ 2 X 60) = 5.01 kips/in.

798 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

From Equations 12.36 (a) and (b), the maximum allowable:

0.2f;A,v = 0.2 X 4.0 X 42.0 = 33.6 kip/in.
In both cases, more than provided Vm 0.K.
3. LRFD Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement
The longitudinal reinforcement at each beam section along the span has to satisfy
equation 12.29:

Asfs + Apsfps 2: dMu + 0.5 ­Nu + (V"

- - 0.5V, - VP) cote
v<Pf <Pe <Pv
From Tables 12.8 and 12.9 at x = O from support, Vu = 1.25(47.9 + 55.3 + 6.0)
+ 1.50(12.0) + 1.75(78.1 + 33.9) = 350 kip
V5 based on only the No. 4 stirrups = 260.4 kips
Mu= O
N; = O
cot 0 = cot 22º = 2.475
hence, --Mu + 0.5 ­Nu + (V"
- - 0.5V, - Vp ) cot 0
dv<l>t <Pe <Pv
= 0 +0+( ~~i ­ 0.5 X 253.0 ­ 24.5) (2.356) = 560.5 kips

Number of straight strands at the support = 36

Number of draped strands at the support = 12
From the assumed crack plane intersection with the strands in Figure 12.14, the dis­
tance of the intersection from the support = 6 + 4.22 cot 23º = 15.9 in. where the strand
stops at 6 in. from face of the support.
Transfer length = 60 x strand diameter = 30 in.
The available prestress of the 36 straight strands at the support face is a portion of
the effective prestress, fpe·
15.9 .
Hence, use [pe = 149.0
= 79.0 ksi X
30_0
Far the top draped strands, the crack in Figure 12.15 intersects the strands at a dis­
tance =
140 in. from the support face (compute from geometry of the dimensions in
Figure 12.14). Consequently the effective prestress can be approximated at Ípc = 149.0
ksi.
Asfs + Apsfps = O + 36 X 0.153(79.0) + 12 X 0.153(149.0)
= 435.1 + 273.6 = 708.7 kips
> 560.5 kips, hence, no additional longitudinal
reinforcement is needed.
4. Deflection and camber
(i) lmmediate deflection dueto permanent loads
Compute the camber and deflection of the beam as detailed in the discussions and
numerous examples of chapter 7.
From the deflection table in Figure 7.6,

Midspan o= PL2 [ 4
e, + (e, - ec) L2
a2]
8Eig 3
L
here,a =
2
= PL2 2 +
[ (e, - e,)]
o EJ 8 8 24
12.1 O LRFD Shear and Deflection Design 799

From Example 12.1:

P; = 1488 kips Ice = 1,095,290 in.4
e¿ = 29.68 in. w,+h = 0.922 kip/ft
ee = 17.7 in. Wbarrier = 0.300 kip/ft
E¿ = 4620 ksi Ac = 767 in.2
Ece = 4890 ksi sb = 14,915 in.3
WD = 0.779 kip/ft SI = 15,421 in.'
le = 545,897 in.4
B = 1488(120 X 12)2 [29.68 + (17.7 ­ 29.68)]
' 4620 X 545,897 8 24
= 1.22 (3.71 ­ O.SO) = 3.92 in. t (camber)
w D per inch = 0.799/12 = 0.065 kip/in.
Sw L 4 5(0.065)(120 x 12)4
BD=---
384EJg 384 X 4620 X 545,894
= 1.44 in. ­l­
w,+1, = 0.922 kip/ft = 0.077 kip/in.
5(0.077)(120 X 12)4 .
BD = 384 X 4888 X 545,894 = 1.6l in. ­!­
wbarrier = 0.300 kip/ft = 0.025 kip/in.
5(0.025)(120 X 12)4 .
BD = 384 X 4888 X 1,095,290 = 0.26 m.­!­
(ii) Immediate deflection dueto transient loads
Live load deflection limit = L/800.
LRFD specifications require that all the bridge deck beams be assumed to
deflect equally under applied live load and impact. They also stipulate that
the long­term deflection may be taken as four times the immediate deflec­
tion. This stipulation is too general and the designer is well­advised to use
other more refined methods. The larger is the span the more is the needed
accuracy. lt should be emphasized that computed deflection values can differ
from actual deflections by as much as 30 to 40% depending on the concrete
modulus and stress­strain relationship assumed and the degree of accuracy of
the method used in the computation.
Toe following deflection computation methods from chapter 7 can give
reasonable step­by­step values during the loading history

• PCI multipliers method (Sec. 7.7.1)

• Incremental time­step method (Sec. 7.7.2)
• Approximate time­step method (Sec. 7.7.3)
From Figure 12.11 in Example 12.1, the number of bridge beams = 6 and the
number of lanes = 4
DFD = distribution factor for deflection
= number of lanes divided by number of beams
4
= 0.667 lanes/beam
6=
lt is more conservative to use moment distribution factor DFM = 0.732
800 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridg_es

Table 12.12 Long-Term Camber and Deflection

Non-
Transfer composite Composite
8p PCI PCI 8nnal
(in.) Multipliers Multipliers (in.)

Prestress 3.92i L.80 2.20 8.62i

wd ­1.44­1­ l.85 2.40 ­3.47!
Net 2.48i Net 5.15i
WS+h ­1.61! l.85 2.40 ­3.84!
Wb3rrier ­­0.26.J, l.85 2.30 ­­0.60.l,
f>u ­­0.41! ­­0.41!
8L, ­­0.78.l, ­­0.78.l,
Final 8 2.48T +o.48.1.

Design lane load. W = 0.64 DFM

= 0.64 kip/ft (0.732) = 0.468 kip/ft/beam
= 0.039 kip/io.fbeam
5 5(0.039)(120 X 12)4 .
Su = 384EJcc 384 X 4888 X 1.095,290 = 0.4l in . .J,

The transient truck load and impact deflection is determined from influeoce
lines of wheel positioo for maximurn moment. For a 120­fl span, the 72 kip

Photo U.6 West Kowloon Expressway Viaduct, Hong Kong, 1997. 4.2­Km dual
three­lane causeway connecting Western Harbor Crossing to new airport ( Courtesy
Institution of Civil Engineers. London)
12.11 Standard AASHTO Flexura! Design of Prestressed Bridge Deck Beams 801

resultant of the axial loads falls at 2.33 ft from the midspan. The deflection at
midspan = 0.8 in. ,J..
BLT = 0.8(/M)(DFM) = 0.8(1.33)(0.732) = 0.78 in . .J..
Using the PCI multipliers from Table 7.1, a summary of the long­term cam­
bers and deflections are given in Table 12.11.
. L 120 X 12 .
Allowable deflection B = = = 1.80 m. (down)
800 800
> actual = 0.49 in. 0.K.
Adopt the bridge deck design of the interior beam in Example 12.1 and 12.2.

12.11 STANDARD AASHTO FLEXURAL DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED BRIDGE DECK BEAMS (LFD)

Example 12.3
Design for flexure, an interior beam of the bridge deck in Example 12.1 (adopted from Ref.
12.11) using the standard AASHTO Design Specifications for HS­20 lane and truck loads.
Use the same data and allowable stresses of the materials as in the indicated example except
where they differ from the LRFD allowable stresses.
Solution:
l. Transformed deck slab controlling width
From example 12.2 Step 1,
E¿ = 3830 psi
E¿ = 4620 psi at transfer
Ec, = 4890 psi at service
Average spacing between beams = 108 in.
Transformed flange width bm = 84 in.
2. Properties of Section
Non-Composite Composite
Ac = 767 in.2 Ac = 1402 in.2
h = 72 in. h = 80 in.
le = 545,894 in.4 lec = 1,095,290 in.4
cb = 36.60 in. Cbc = 54.6 in.
C1 = 35.40 in. c,c = 17.4 in.
C1sc = 25.4 in.
r2 = 1051 in.2 ,2 = 712 in.2
sb = 14.915 in.3 Sbc = 20,060 in.3
S' = 15,421 in.3 s~ = 62,950 in. 3
s~s = 55,284 in.3
3. Bending moment and shear forces

self­weight Wv = 799 lb/ft

slab Wsm = 900 Ib/ft
0.5 " haunch = 22 Ib/ft
Barrier weight WsD2 = 100 lb/ft
2­in. future wearing surface Wsm = 200 Ib/ft
802 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridg_es

Live load (truck load) in AASHTO standard specifications would be based on HS­20
trucks.
Number of lanes = 48/12 = 4 lanes

(a) Distributionfactor for moment

Live load in the standard specifications is either the standard truck or lane load­
ing corresponding to HS­20. In LRFD, both have to be used in the design. From
Section 12.2.2, the live load distribution factor for moment for a precast beam is
DFm = S/5.5 = 9.0/5.5 = 1.636 wheels per beam, where S = average spacing be­
tween beams in feet.

1
2 DFm = 0.818 lanes per beam

the live load impact factor 1 = L 1º 125 ~ 30% or,

50
120 + 150 = o. 2 04
In LRFD, This factor has a maximum 33% value hence,

VLL+I = (shear force per lane) (DFM) (1 + 1)

= (shear force per lane) (0.818) (1 + 0.204) kips
= (shear force per lane) (0.985) kips
MLL+I = (moment per lane) (DFM) (1 + 1)

= (moment per lane) (0.818) (1 + 0.204) kips

= (moment per lane) (0.985) kips.

Load contributions from Equation 12.5 and Table 12.1 show that load combination
Group I controls.

Group I service load design = 1.00 D + 1.00 (L + 1)

Group I factored load design = 1.3 [l.OOD + l.67(L + 1)]
(b) Shear and bending moments
Vx = (w) (0.5 L - X)
M, = 0.5 (w) (X) (L - X)
As an example, the following are computations for the shear and moment at midspan,
at the support and at the critica! shear section:
At midspan, Vx = O
Mv = 0.5(0.799) (60) (60) = 1438 ft­kip
At support, V= 0.799(60) = 47.9 kip
At critica! shear section,
The cgs of the prestressing steel is e= 17.1 in. near the support section
(see subsequent computations)
d = 80 ­ 17.1 = 62.9 in. > 0.80 h = 64 in.
Use d = 64.0 in.
Critica! shear section at h/2 = 80/2 = 40 in. = 3.33 ft
V3_33 = 0.799 [(0.5) (120) ­ 3.33] = 45.3 kips
M333 = 0.5(0.799) (3.33) (120 ­ 3.33) = 155.4 ft­kip
12.11 Standard AASHTO Flexura! Design of Prestressed Bridge Deck Beams 803

Table 12.12 Standard AASHTO (LFD) Service Shear and Moment Dueto Dead Load

Beam Weight (Slab + Haunch) BarrierWelght Wearing Llve Load Plus

Wo Weight W501 Wsuz Surface W503 lmpact
Distance Sectlon Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment Shear Moment
X XIL Vg Mg Vs Ms v, Mb Vws Mws VLL+I MLL+I
ft kips ft­kips kips ft­kips kips ft­kips kips ft­kips kips ft­kips
o O.O 47.9 o.o 55.3 o.o 6.0 o.o 12.0 O.O 65.4 o.o
3.33* 0.028 45.3 155.4 52.2 179.3 5.7 19.4 11.3 38.9 63.6 211.5
12 0.1 38.4 517.8 44.3 597.5 4.8 64.8 9.6 129.6 58.3 699.7
24 0.2 28.8 920.4 33.2 1,062.1 3.6 115.2 7.2 230.4 51.2 1,229.l
36+ 0.3 19.2 1,208.1 22.1 1,394.1 2.4 151.2 4.8 302.4 44.l 1,588.4
48 0.4 9.6 1,380.7 11.1 1,593.2 1.2 172.8 2.4 345.6 37.0 1,799.6
60 0.5 O.O 1,438.2 o.o 1,659.6 o.o 180.0 O.O 360.0 29.9 1,851.6
*Critica! section for shear
+Harp point

The values for shear and moment for ali permanent and transient loads are tabulated
in Table 12.12 (Ref. 12.11). Compare the tabulated values with those computed by the
LRFD method in Table 12.9 and 12.10.
4. Designo/ Bulb-Tee PrestressedInterior Beam
l. Selection o/ prestressing strands
Due to applied gravity loads, the unfactored stress at bottom fibers:
MD + Msm Mso2 + Ms03 + MLL+I
Íb = + --------
s, s.;
(1438 + 1660)12 (180 + 360 + 1852)12 .
= 14,915 + 20,060 = 3·923 ksi

Allowable tensile stress ft = 6~ = 6V6500 = 484 psi= 0.484 ksi

Required precompressive stress at the bottom fibers after losses = (fb - ft)
Íbp = 3.923 ­ 0.484 = 3.439 ksi
Assume that the tendon c.g.s. is at a distance Yb = 4 in. from the bottom fibers.
ec = e, ­ Y» = 36.60 ­ 4.00 = 32.60 in.
P, P,e, P, P, X 32.6
Íbp dueto prestress = ­ + -Sor 3.439 = ­6+
Ac b 7 7 14, 9 1 5
P, = 986 kips
Assume total prestress loss = 25%
986 .
P; = l _ = 1315 kips
0_25
Assume using 1/2­in. diameter 7­wire 270­K low­relaxation strands (Aps
0.153 in.2),
. 1315
Required number of strands = X = 42.44 strands
0_153 2025
Try 44 strands.
After trials and adjustments, assume that the strands pattern is as shown in Figure
12.16 with 10 strands harped at 48 ft from the support.
From data, cb = 36.60 in. and e,= 72 ­ 36.60 = 35.40 in.
804 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridqes

e, = cb - [2 x 70 + 2 X 68 + 2 X 66 + 2 x 64 + 2 x 62 + 2 X 8 +8 X 6
+ 12 X 4 + 12 X 2]/44 = 36.60 ­ 18.09
= 18.51 in.
e3_33 = 17.1 in. at the critica! shear section.

e¿ = cb - [2 X 16 +2 X 14 +2 X 12 +2 X 10 +4 X 8 +8 X 6
+ 12 X 4 + 12 X 2]/48
= 36.6 ­ 5.81 = 30.79 in.
Computing the total losses in prestress by the detailed method and the examples
of Chapter 3, the total loss of prestress was 24.9%.
fpe befare losses = 0.75(270) = 202.5 ksi
hence, adjusted Ípe = 202.5(1 ­ 0.249) = 152.1 ksi
P, = 48(0.153) (15.2) = 1024 kips
Common practice assumes that a prestress relaxation and other losses at pre­
stressing amount to 9 to 10%
Use 9% here to get Íp; = 202.5(1 ­ 0.09) = 184.3 ksi
P; = 44(0.153) (184.3) = 1240 kips
From Example 12.2,
Íci = 0.6 t; = 0.6(5500) = 3300 psi (c)
f,; = 7.5~ = 7.5V5500 = 556 psi (T)
If the computed tensile stress at transfer exceeds 200 psi or 3 ~ = 220 psi,
whichever is small, bonded reinforcement has to be provided to resist the total
tensile force in the concrete, computed on the basis of uncracked section.
2. Check o/ concrete unfactored stresses
The standard AASHTO allowable stresses are as follows, Case I for ali load combina­
tions:

No. Distance from

Strands bottom (in.)
2 70
2 68
No. Distance from 2 66
Strands bottom (in.) 2 64
2 16 2 62
2 14
Harped 2 12
strands 2 10
4 8 No. Distance from
8 6 Strands bottom (in.)
12 4 2 8
12 2 8 6
............
............ 12
12
4
2
spac. ¡ ¡.r_
!'..J 12 1@2"
At midspan (ec = 30.79") At ends (e0 = 18.51")

Figure 12.15 Bulb-tee prestressing strand pattern

12.11 Standard AASHTO Flexura! Design of Prestressed Bridge Deck Beams 805

Precast beam fe = 0.60 t: = 0.6(6500) = 3900 psi

Deck slab fe = 0.60 ¡; = 0.6(4000) = 2400 psi
Case (11) for effective pretension force + permanent dead loads:
Precast beam j, = 0.40f; = 0.4(6000) = 2400psi
Deck slab fe = 0.40 ¡; = 0.4(4000) = 1600 psi

Case (111) for live load + ~ (pretensioning force + dead load)

Precast beam j. = 0.40 t; = 0.4(6500) = 2600 psi

Deck slab fe = 0.40 ¡; = 0.4(4000) = 1600 psi

Allowable tensíon j, = 6\11[; = 6V6500 = 484 psi

Allowable t, at transfer = 3 Vf'c = 242 psi
a. Stress es at Transfer
Initial Ípi = 0.7 Ípu = 202.5 ksi. Common practice assumes that initial relaxation
losses at prestressing amount to 9 to 10%. Use 9% reduction infpi·
hence, P; = (0.9)(202.5)(0.153 x 48) = 1338 kips
i, Support Section
From Chapter 4, Equation 4.1 (a),

t' = _ ;J 1 _ e~t) _ ~~

= ­ 1}6~0 ( 1 ­ 18.517:/5.40 )­ O = ­0.129 ksi (C), O.K.

eecb) + si
tb = -AP¡ ( 1 + 7 Mo
e

= _ 1240
767
(l + 18.51 X 36.30)
712
+O

= ­3.14 ksi (C) = Íci = 3.3 ksi O.K.

(ii) Midspan Section.

f = _ 1240
767
(l _ 30.79 X 35.40)­
712
1438 X 12
15,421
= 0.858 ­ 1.119 = ­0.261 ksi (C), no tension allowed, hence, O.K.

fí = _ 1240
b 767
(l + 30.79 X 36.60)
712
+ 1438 X 12
14,915
= ­4.175 + 1.157 = ­3.018 ksi (C) < 3.300 ksi allowed O.K.
b. Stresses at Service load:
(i) Midspan Section precast section fiber stresses:
concrete stress at top fibers at midspan due to all loads:

f' = _ Pe (l _ ecct)- Mo + Mos1 _ Mos2 + Mos3 _ MLL+I

Ac r2 S1 S~ S~
e¿ = 30.79 in. e, = 18.51 in.
From the moment values at midspan tabulated in table 12.10 for load combi­
nations:
806 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Photo 12.7 Natchez Parkway Arches, Nashville Tennessee. America's first seg­
menta] arch bridge: principal arch span is 582­ft. long and has a vertical clearance of
137 ft iCounesy Figg Engineering Group, TaJlahassee. Florida)

Casetl):
= 1024 (J _ 30.79 X 35.40)­ (1438 + 1660)12 _ (360 + 180)12
f 767 712 15.421 62.950
(1852)12
62,950
= 0.708 ­ 2.411 ­ O.L03 ­ 0.353 = ­2.159 ksi (C)
Case (IJ):
f = 0.708 ­ 2.411 ­ 0.103 = ­1.806 ksi (C)
Case (Ill):
f = 0.5(0.708 ­ 2.411 ­ 0.103) = - L.256 ksi (C)
Ali compressive stress are less than the aUowable f~ = 3900 psi O.K.
(ii) Midspan section bottom fiber stresses

lb=- P, ( l+- eccb) + Mn + Mos1 + Mosi + MoSJ +--MLL+J

Ac ,2 s, s.; SIK

= _ 1024 ( + 30.79 X 36.60) + (1438 + 1660)12 + (360 + 180)12

fb 767 l 712 14,915 20,060
(1852)12
+---
20.060
= ­3.437 + 2.493 + 0.323 + 1.10 = 0.486 ksi (T)
= aUowablef, = 0.484 ksi 0.K.
12.11 Standard AASHTO Flexura! Design of Prestressed Bridge Deck Beams 807

(iii) Midspan slab top-fiber stresses, assuming concrete strength same as of the pre-
cast beam
Case(!):
Mv + Mvs1 MLL+I
!'= s,
­­­
s;
(180 + 360) 1852(12)
!'= 55,284 ­ 55,284 = ­O.ll 7 ­ 0.402

= ­0.519 ksi (C) < allowable fe = 2400 ksi O.K.

Case (JI):
f' = ­0.117 ksi (C) O.K.
Case (!JI):
f = 0.5(­0.117) ­ 0.402 = ­0.461 ksi (C) O.K.
E e = 33 wi.sVt::f.'e
Y4000 ( slab)
Modular ratio = . ~ = 0.78
v 6500 (beam)
Hence reduce these stresses by the 0.78 multiplier in order to get the true
stresses at the top slab fibers.

3. Ultimate Strength (Limit State at Failure)

a. Normal flexura/ resistance moment
Mu= 1.3 [Mv + Msm + Msm + MsD3 + 1.67 (MLL+1)]
= 1.3(1438 + 1660 + 180 + 360 + 1.67 X 1852) = 8750 ft­kip
From equation 12.9(e)

'Y fpu]
Íps = Ípu [ 1 ­ l3i P f;
For the depth of the compressive block use the slab f; = 4.0 ksi, 131 = 0.85
'Y = 0.28 for low­relaxation strands
b = flange wdith = 108 in.
e, = 30.79 in., cb = 36.60,
hence, Yb = 36.60 ­ 30.79 = 5.81 in.
dP = distance from the top of the deck to the centroid
of the prestressing strands.
= beam depth (h) + haunch + slab thickness (h¡ - Yb)
+ (0.5 + 7.5) ­ 5.81
= 72 = 74.19 in.

Aps = 44(0.153) = 6.732 in.2

Aps 6.732
p = bdp = 108 X 74.19 = 0.00084
Consequently,
0.28 270] .
fps = 270 [ 1 ­ 0.00084 ¡:o = 265.0 ksi
0_85
ApsÍps 6.732 X 265.0 . .
ª = 0.85f;b = 0.85 X 4.0 X 108 = 4·86 m. < 7·5 m.
808 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

hence designas rectangular section.

Available Mu= <f>Mn = Apsfps ( d - i)

4·:6)]
= 1.0 [ 6.732 (265.0) ( 74.19 ­

= 128,018 in.­kip > required Mu = 8750 ft­kip, O.K.

e = a/131 = 4.86/0.85 = 5.72 in.

cid, = 5.72/74.19 = 0.24 < 0.42 limit in Sec. 12.3.1; hence, the section is tension
controlled and <!> = 1.0 is verified.
b. Maximum Reinforcement
Íps
p f; ~ 0.36¡3¡ ~ 0.36 X 0.85 = 0.306

fps 265
p J; = 0.00084 X 4.0 = 0.0557 < 0.306 O.K.

c. Mínimum Reinforcement
The total amount of pretensioned and post­tensioned reinforcement should be
adequate to develop an ultimate moment such that
q> u, 2:: 1.2 u;
From equation 12.13,

Me, = (f, + Íee)Sb - Mdne [ s:

Sbe
- 1]
f,. = 7.5Vf'c = 7.5\!6500 = 605 psi = 0.605 ksi
Concrete stress due to prestressing only, after all losses is fb = 3.437 ksi ( C)
Mdnc = non­composite dead load moment due to beam self­weight
and slab weight
= 1438 + 1660 = 3098 ft­kip

1.2 Me, = 1.2 [ 1 (0.605 + 3.437)20,060 ­ 3098 (20,060 ­ 1 )] = 6896 ft­kip

12 14,915
It should be noted that contrary to the LRFD specifications, the standard specifica­
tion stipulates that this requirement has to be satisfied only at the critical section.
d. Pretensioned anchorage zone
Befare initial losses, Jp; = Aps(0.75 Jµ 11)

= 6.732(0.75 X 270) = 1363 kips

4 % fpi = 0.04 X 1363 = 54.5 kips
Allowable t, = 20 ksi
. ­ 54.5 ­ . 2
Hence, required Av - ­ 2.73 m. 20
Try No. 5 vertical stirrups in the rectangular anchorage zone region
Av =2 X 0.305 = 0.61 in.2
2.73
No. of stirrups = = 4.5
0_61
Precast Section dP = (h ­ Yb) = 72 ­ 5.81 = 66.19 in.
12.12 Standard AASHTO Shear-Reinforcement Design of Bridge Deck Beams 809

( 2ª) =
d; = dp - 4.86 = 63.76 in.
66.19 ­ ­2­

Distance within which anchorage reinforcement has to be provided

= ¡ =
63~76
= 15.94 in.

Use five # 5 closed U­stirrups at 3 in. center­to­center at each beam end.

12.12 STANDARD AASHTO SHEAR-REINFORCEMENT DESIGN OF BRIDGE DECK BEAMS

Example 12.4
Design for shear, an interior beam of the bridge deck in Example 12.3 using the standard
AASHTO design specifications for HS­20 Lane and Truck loads. Use the same data and allow­
able stresses of the materials as in the indicated example. Use the refined flexural and web shear
approach for determining the nominal strength of the plain concrete in the web. Also design the
interface shear transfer reinforcement and check the deflection and camber of the beam.

Solution:
l. Shear Reinforcement
The AASHTO standard specification follows the ACI­318 code for shear and torsion
which are detailed in Chapter 5, Sections 5.5 and 5.6 as well Section 5.18 for torsion.
Vs ::s q> (Ve + V5), where q> = 0.90 vs. q> = 0.85 in ACI.
Other strength reduction factors, q>, also differ from the ACI factors. The computa­
tions have to be based on a factored shear value at a distance 1/2 h from the face of the
support. The nominal shear strength, Ve, of the plain concrete in the web has to be the
lesser of the flexural shear, Ve;, and the web shear, Vew·
a. Flexura/ shear, Ve;
From Equation 5.11,

Ve; = 0.6>.. ~ bwdp + Vd + _____!:J_ (Me,) 2:: 1.7>.. ~ bwdp

Mmax

where b ; = 6 in.
From table 12.12 for standard AASHTO loads in Example 12.3
Vd = total unfactored dead load at the critical section
= 45.3 + 52.2 + 5.7 + 11.3 = 114.5 kips
VLL+T (unfactored) = 63.6 kips
Vu = factored shear force at the critical section
= l.3(Vd + l.67VLL+I)
= 1.3(114.5 + 1.67 X 63.6) = 286.9 kips
M¿ = 155.4 + 179.3 + 19.4 + 38.9 = 393.0 kips
MLL+I = 211.5 kips
Mu= 1.3 (Md + 1.67 MLL+i)
= 1.3(393.0 + 1.67 X 211.5) = 970.1 ft­kips
V; = factored shear force at the section due to externally
applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax·
= (Vu - VD)= 286.9 ­ 114.5 = 172.4 kips. This is on the
conservative side since the factored Vu is reduced
810 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

by the unfactored Vd.

Mmax = (Mu+ Md) = 970.1 ­ 393.0 = 577.1 ft­kip
From equation 5.12,

Me,= Sbe (6Vf'c + Íee - fd)· Note that the factor "6" in the term 6Vf'c
is conservative and maybe unjustified since the modulus of

rupture,f,, is taken as 7.5Vf'c and tests indicate even higher values.

lee = compressive stress due to prestress after losses at the
extreme fibers of the section where tensile stress is caused
by externally applied load.

P, (1 + -----;:¡-
= ­ Ae e,icb) , wh ere e,1 = 19. 5 m.
· at t h e cntí
· c· a 1 section
·

= _ 1024
767
(l + 19.5 X 36.60)
712
= _2_673 ksi (C)

fd = stress due to unfactored dead load at the extreme fibers

of the section where tensile stress is caused by externally
applied load
_ [ (155.4 + 179.3)(12) + (19.4 + 38.9)12] _ .
­ 14,915 20,060 ­ º·3º4 ksi
Hence, Mcr = ~20,060 (6\/65oo + 2.673 ­ 0.304) = 4776 ft­kip
.
1000
Yb = distance of cgs of the prestressing strands at the critical
section from the bottom fibers = 17.12 in.
dpe = he - Yb = 80 ­ 17.12 = 62.88 in.
0.8 he = 64 in., controls
used dP = 64 in.
Hence,

0.6\/65oo(6.0 X 64) 172.4 X 4776 .

Vci = 1000
+ 114.5 ­
577_1
= 1,559.8 kips

Mínimum Vci = l.7Vf'c bwd

0.6Y6500(6.0 X 64)
=
1000
= 52.6 kips « 1,559.8 kips O.K.

b. Web shear Vcw

From Equation 5.15,

Vew = (3.5:>.. VJ'c + 0.3fc)bwdp + v,

where fe is termed as Fpe in AASHTO notation. lt is the concrete stress at the cen­
troid of the section resisting ali externally applied load.

t.- e = --
P, (
Ac
1 ­
e,¡(cbe - cb))
r
Mv(cbe - cb)
+ ----
le
From section properties, cbc = 54.6 in. and cb = 36.6 in.
- = _ 1024 ( _ 19.5(54.60 ­ 36.60)) + 334.7 X 12(54.60 ­ 36.60)
fe 767 l 712 545,894
= ­0.676 + 0.132 = ­0.545 ksi (C)
12.12 Standard AASHTO Shear-Reinforcement Design of Bridge Deck Beams 811

VP = vertical component of prestressing force.

From Figure 12.15, the tangent of angle 41 subtended by the 10 harped
65 ­ 15 .
tendons = 48_5
X
12
= sm 41 = 0.086
VP = ApJpe sin 41 = (10 X 0.153) 149.0 X 0.086 = 19.61 kips
Hence,

3.5 X 1.0V65QO )
Vew = ( lOOO + 0.3 X 0.545 6.0 X 64 + 19.61
= 171.15 + 19.61 = 190.8 kips, controls since it is less than Vci
c. Selection of web steel
ve= 190.8 kips
Vu<<!>(Vc+Vs) or, Vs=(:u-Vc)

. 286.9 .
Required Vs = ­ 190.8 = 128.0 kips
0_90
, r;:; , ~ 6.0 X 64 .
Maximum allowable Vs = 8 v f~ bwdv = 9 V 6500 lOOO = 247.7 kips

> 128.0 kips O.K. (the section depth adequate for shear).
Avfydv
V=--
s s

Required Av = !,Vds = ~28·~ = 0.033 in.2/ft = 0.0028 in.2/in.

s y v 6 o. x 4.0
. .
M1mmum­­­­­;­
60,000
T ­
Av _ 50bw _ (50 X 6.0) _ . 2 .
­ 0.005 m. /m., controls.

Using No. 4 two­legged U­stirrups in the rectangular end section, Av= 2 X 0.20 =
0.40 in.2

. Av 0.40 .
S pacmg s = ­­. ­ = ­­5= 80 m,
unit A, 0.00
Maximum allowable spacing s = 0.75 he or 24 in.
= 0.75(72 + 7.5 + 0.5) = 60 in. or 24 in.
Use No. 4 U­stirrups at 12 in. center­to­center in the rectangular end block section
over a width = h = 80 in. Beyond the end of the anchorage block, stirrups would no
longer be needed. However, it is useful to use mínimum vertical mesh reinforce­
ment in the web along the span. The 12­in. spacing is necessitated by the interface
horizontal shear requirement.

2. Interface shear reinforcement

Determine the interface shear force for the critica! section at ! he from the support.
a. Contact surface roughened or minimum ties used
V u = 286.9 kips < Vnh
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength

2: Vu = 286.9 = 318 8 ki
<!> 0.9 . ips
812 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Allowable vnh= b,dpc where

b, = width of cross­section at the contact surface being
investigated for horizontal shear = 42.0 in.
dpc = 62.88 in. from before
80(42.0 X 62.88)
Available Vnh = lOOO = 211.3 kips < 318.9 kips

hence, dowel reinforcement is needed.

b. Minimum ties provided and contact surface roughened
_ 350{ 42.0 X 62.88) . .
V n1r = 3::,0b,.dpc = 1000
= 924.3 kips > 318.8 kips O.K.

Use Vn1r = 318.8 kips

From equation 5.33,
. .
Minunum A,.h = ---¡;- = T
50bJ,1, 50b,s
per dowel

Assurne 12­in. dowel spacing,

. . _ {50)(42 X 12) _ .
Mínimum A,h per dowel ­ ­ 0.42 m. 2/ft
60 000
'

Photo 12.8 Pier support for Stoney Trail Bow River segmenta! Bridge. Calgary.
Alberta, span 1562 ft, deck width 69 ft, the deck rises 89 to 118 ft above the river
valley (Courtesy James Skeet­Reid Crowther Engineering, Calgary)
12.13 Shear and Torsion Reinforcement Design of a Box-Girder Bridge 813

Available dowels form shear reinforcement:

= No. 4 U­stirrups at 12 in. c./c. = 0.40 in.2/ft O.K.
Beyond the rectangular end block zone of 80 in., add in the web additional #4 dow­
els at 12 in. e.le. to compliment the single #4 bars available in the 6­in. thick web.
Maximum allowable spacing = 4 bw = 4 X 6 = 24 in. O.K.
Note that the vertical web shear reinforcement is utilized here to provide for the
required dowel reinforcement.
3. Deflection Computations
The deflection computations are similar to those given in Example 12.2 except that
in the standard AASHTO specifications, fatigue live load for deflection is disregarded.
from Table 12.11, Example 12.2, the final long­term deflection becomes:
o = ­8.62 + 3.46 + 3.86 + 0.60 + 0.41 = ­0.29 in. (camber)
L 120 X 12 .
< 800 = 800 = l.30 m. O.K.

Adopt the bridge­deck design of the interior prestressed beam in Examples 12.3 and 12.4.

12.13 SHEAR AND TORSION REINFORCEMENT DESIGN

OF A BOX-GIRDER BRIDGE

Example 12.5
A single span composite two­lane box girder bridge has aspan of 90'­0" (27.5m) The deck is
composed of seven AASHTO BIII­48 box beams at 4'­0" on centers to forma 28'­0" bridge
deck with a traffic pathway width = 25'­0" as shown in Figure 12.16. Each beam is subjected
to a factored shear Vu= 140 kips at the critica! support section, a corresponding moment at
that section = 320 ft­kip and a torsional moment Tu= 165 ft­kip.
Design the shear and torsional reinforcement for this bridge section, using the LRFD
expressions, given:
¡; = 5.0 ksi
f;; = 4.0 ksi
fpu = 270.0 ksi
Ípy = 0.90 Ípu = 243.0 ksi
fp; < 0.75 Ípu = 202.5 ksi
Total prestress loss = 22 %
Jy = 60.0 ksi
Eps = 28,500 ksi
Es = 29,000 ksi
Ac = 813 in.2
h = 39 in.
18 = 168,367 in.4
cb = 19.29 in.
e, = 19.71 in.
sb = 8,721 in.'
S1 = 8,542 in.3
E¿ = 3840 ksi
E¿ = 4290ksi
814 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

1 '-6" 1 '-6"

1­1 25'-0"
r1
r
(2) 7/8 in.día. - 150 ksi bars through
2 in día hole in each diaphragm
1
/ Í ; . B~um;nous wearing suríace
\.
/////r// ////// /////// ////// ////// ////// / //////

¡ /1
,,,¡ t'.:1 /~ ~ ,,,¡ / ,1

!//////// / / / / / / / /'i, ,-: . / / / / / / r>: ~ / / / / / / /~/ //////// /// //// //// ///

·I
7 Beams@ 4'­0" = 28'- O"

(a)

3/4"

t ­­­.­­­­1~­­­­­­.
511/2" • • 2 @ 36"
3" (Typ) ..__ Shear key

1
l
39" 28" debonded strands
at the support
section
j 51/2" •lil•=•ll••lil••lil••lil••ll•••ltl: ~3@@4; ..

t --- 5" 1 38" ­­­­­­15" ­

(b)

Figure 12.16 Two-Lane Box-Girder Bridge. (a) Roadway cross section, (b)
Cross section of a component beam unit at midspan and at end sections. The end
section has seven strands de-bonded.

Solution:
l. Eff ective shear depth, d,
The strands are horizontal, VP = O
From Figure 12.17,
At midspan, Aps = 31 !­in. dia., 7­wire, low­relaxation 270­K strands
= 4.437 in.2 at the bottom fibers.

At support, Aps = 24 stands, since 7 are de­bonded = 3.366 in.2

Midspan c.g.s. of strands from bottom:
_ 23 X 2 +6 X 4 +2 X 36 _ .
Ybc - 31 ­ 4 . 58 m.

Midspan dP = h - Ybc = 39.0 ­ 4.58 = 34.42 in.

12.13 Shear and Torsion Reinforcement Design of a Box-Girder Bridge 815

Support cgs of strands from bottom:

(23 ­ 7)2 + 6 X 4 + 2 X 36 .
Ybe = _ = 5.33 m.
31 7
support dP = h - Ybe = 39.0 ­ 5.33 = 33.67 in.
Apsfpsdp + Asfyd
where, de = ­­­­­­
ApsÍps + Asfy
d; = effective shear depth
= distance between resultants of tensile and compressive forces, but not less than
0.90dc or 0.72 h.
To determine the neutral axis depth, e, and the equivalent rectangular block depth, a,
use the midspan section for the computations as the section of maximum moment
(Mu= O at support).
Assume the neutral axis within the 5! in. "flange."
ApsÍpu + Asfy - A;¡; 4.437(270) +O+O
e=
0.85f;(31b + kAps (~:) 0.85 X 5.0 X 0.80 X 48 + 0.28 X 4.437 C!~~ 2)

= 6.95 in.
a= f31c = 0.80 X 6.95 = 5.56 in. > 5.5 in., hence treat as a flanged
section with width b = web width b;
b; =2 X 5 = 10 in.
Apsfpu + Asfy - A;J; - 0.85f;(3¡(b ­ bw)h¡
e=
0.85f;l31bw + kAps (~:)
4.437 X 270 + 0 ­ 0 ­ 0.85 X 0.80 X 5.0(48 ­ 10)5.5

0.85 X 5.0 X 0.80 X 10 + 0.28 X 4.437 ( 270)

34.42
= 11.14 in. > 5.5 in. O.K.
a= f31c = 0.80 X 11.14 = 8.91 in.

(
Íps = fpu 1 ­ k dp e) = ( 270 1 ­ 0.28 {11.14}) = 245.4 ksi.
34.4

d; = dp - ( 2ª) = 8.91 = 29.22 m.

33.67 ­ ­2­ .

0.9 de= 0.9 X 33.67 = 30.30 in. (controls)

0.72h = 0.72 X 39 = 28.08 in.

2. Angle of inclination 6 of the diagonal compression struts

Critica! section near the support is the larger of 0.5dv cot 0 or d; from the face of the
support. 0 is obtained from Table 12.8 using the values of v!f ~ and ex.
From equation 12.43(a),

Vu - cpVP Tpph
v= +--
el> b.d; cp A;h
el> = 0.9 from Table 12.l(a)
A0h = (48 ­ 2 X 1.5 for clear cover ­ 2 X 0.25 for stirrups) X
816 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

(39 ­ 2 X 1.5 ­ 2 X 0.25) = 44.5 X 35.5 = 1580 in.2

Ph = 2(44.5 + 35.5) = 160 in.
b; = 2 X 5 = 10 in.
140 ­ 0 165 X 12 X 160
v= +------
0.9 X 10 X 30.3 0.9(1580)2
= 0.515 + 0.141 = 0.656 ksi

~ = 0.656 = o 131
¡; 5.0 .

For torsion adjustment, change the numerator in Eqs. 12.28(a), (b), and (e) to the fol­
lowing from Eq. 12.43(b ):

dMu + 0.5Nu + 0.5 Vu cot 0

11

Use L; =Ípe = Íp;(l - 0.22) = 202.5 X 0.78 = 157.9 ksi

N, = O, VP = O, Vu = 140 kips, Tu= 165 ft­kip, Mu= 320 ft­kip.
A0 = 0.85A 0h = 0.85 X 1580 = 1343 in.2
Try 0 = 23.5º for a first trial; cot 23.5º = 2.30
Trying Equation 12.28(a) for less than minimum longitudinal tensile reinforcement
case,

320 X 12 (160 X 165 X 12)2

+ O + 0.5 cot 23.5° (140)2 + ­ (3.366 X 157.9)
30. 3 2 X 1 3 43
E=---------------------------
x 2 (O + 28,500 X 3.366)
= ­1.01 X 10­3 in.fin. < 0.002 in.fin. but negative.
Hence, the longitudinal tensile strain, ex, has to be computed adjusting Equation
12.28(c) for the torsional moment, Tu, from Equation 12.43(b), namely,

where
A, = area of concrete in the flexural tension side of the member (Fig. 12.9) and
box girder vertical walls (Fig. 12.18)
A0 = 0.85 A0h = 0.85 X 1580 in.2 = 1343 in.2
e = 11.14 in., dP = 33.67 in., b ; = 2 X 5 in.= 10 in.
A, = 10 (33.67 ­ 11.14) = 225.3 in.2

320 X 12 (160 in. X 165 X 12) . .

­3­0­_3­+ O+ 0.5 X 2.30 (140)2 + X in.' ­ 3.366 m.2 X 157.9 ksi
2 1343
~=­­­­­2(­4­29_0_k_s_i_X­22_5_.3_1_·n­.2­+_0_+_2_8_,5_00_ks_i_X_3_.3_66­in­.2-)---~

= 126.73 + 0.5 X 2.30 X 183.06 ­ 531.49 = _0_086 X

10­3
2 X 1.062,468

Enter Table 12.8 (a) with (1000 ex= 0.086) and ( ~ = 0.131) to get 0 = 23.3º and ~ =
2.787, say, 2.79
12.13 Shear and Torsion Reinforcement Design of a Box-Girder Bridge 817

Pboto 12.9 Launching the segmenta! bridge segrnents for Stoney Trail Bow River
segmenta! Bridge. Calgary, Alberta. span 1562 It, deck widlh 69 ft, the deck rises 89
to 118 It above the river valJey (Courtesy James Skeet­Reid Crowther Engineering,
Calgary)

3. Design o/ transverse closed stirrups

V,= 0.031613\/Í; b,.d. using ksi units

= 0.0316 x 2.79 VS:O (10 x 30.3) = 59.7 kips < 140 kips
hence web shear reinforcement is necessary.
From equation 12.40(a)
A, Vn - (0.036113 \/Í;b,d, - VP)
-=----------
s [y,d, cot 0
140 • rrz
Q.9 - (0.0316 X 2.79 V 5.0 X 10 X 30.3 + 0)
60.0 X 30.3 X 2.3
= 0.023 in.2/in./two legs.
From equation 12.40(b).
165 X 12
A, Tn 0.9 _ O 006 . 2¡· / ¡
-¡ = 2Aof1, cot 0 = 2 X 1343 X 60 X 2.3 ­ · in. in. one eg

A.., A, A,
- = - + 2 ­ = 0.023 + 2(0.006) = 0.035 in. 2/in./two legs
s s s
Trying No. 4 closed stirrups with eacb of the two legs of a stirrup in each vertical walJ.
. 2 X 0.20 ll .
spacmg s = 0.035 = . 4 m.

Maximum alJowable s = 12 in.

818 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

Use No. 4 closed stirrups at JO in. ceoter to center throughout the span. Note that the
spacing of the transverse reinforcement can be increased along the span if the shear
and torsión envelopes warrant it.
4. Longitudinal reinforcement check
From Equation 12.40,

(AJv + Ap/p,) ~ d M., N,.

+ 0.5­ + cot 9
)(Vu ) (0.45T p
:¡::­ + 0.5V, - V" +
1
..i..
11 0)2
el>¡ , <!>, '!'> 'l'v 2A "

Ap,/ps = 3.366 X 245.5 = 826 kips

A0 = 0.85 Ao11 = 0.85 X 1580 = 1343 in.2
Po= 0.85 Ph = 0.85 X 160 = 136 in.

V = A,.f,.d. = 0.40 X 60 X 303 = l08 kips.

' s 6.75
Hence,

320 X 12 + O + 230 (140 + 0.5 X t02)2 + (0.45 X 165 X 12 X 136)2

0.9 X 30.2 0.9 0.9 X 2 X 1343
= 140.8 + 2.3(212.6) = 630 kips < 826 kips.
Hence no additional longitudinal reinforcement is needed. Adopt the No. 4 vertical
ties at 10 in. on centers in each of the two beam box waUs. Each vertical transverse tie,
if not in a single piece. has to be fully developed to satisfy the development length re­
quirements of the speciñcations.

Photo 12.10 State Route 509 Elevated Single­Point Urbao Ioterchange. Tacoma,
Washington: a situ­cast post­tensioned box girder bridge featuring tigbt radius
curved exterior webs; the footprint of the interchange is approximately two football
fields in size (Designed by BERGER/ABAM Engineers, Federal Way. Washing­
ton, courtesy Robert Mast. Senior Principal)
12.14 LRFD Major Design Expressions in SI Format 819

Pboto U.U Valley Ave. Bridge, Fife. Washington: 4­span bridge consistíng of
two structural types, situ­cast post­tensioned concrete box girder with precast pre­
srressed end girders (Desigoed by BERGER/ABAM Engineers, Federal Way,
Washington, courtesy Robert Mast, Senior Principal)

12.14 LRFD MAJOR DESIGN EXPRESSIONS IN SI FORMAT

Eq.12.9(a):

Íps = /pu(l - k ;J
k = 2 (1.04 ­ /p,.)
/pu
For non­bonded teodoos.
820 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

< 0.94 fPY where L1 = span and tendon length

L2 = stresses in MPa.

Eq. 12.12(a):

e
- :::=:; 0.42
d,

Moment distribution factor Pd = 20 ( 1 ­ 2.36 ;J

Eq. 12.24(a)

ve = 0.083J3 Vf'c b.d;

where b and d; (mm),f~ (MPa)
Eq. 12.29, when torsion is present,

(Asfy + ApsÍps) 2::

Mu
d "'
O.SN.,
+ -- + cot 6 )(Vu­ ­ O.Sll¡,
)+
2 (0.4ST ..Ph)
<!>
2A O v
2
v'+'f <!>e <!>v

Eq.12.35:
s
Av¡ = 0.35bv [y, where b., s (mm).

Eq.12.38: ­

where V (Newton), T" (N­mm), A (mm2).

11 0

Eq. 12.40(b ):

2A O
t.Y cot 6 where s (mm).

SELECTED REFERENCES

12.1 ASCE, "Mínimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures," ANSI­ASCE 7­95 Standard,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 1995, pp. 214.
12.2 AASHTO, "Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges," 18th Ed., Supplements, American As­
sociation of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2006­2009.
12.3 AASHTO, "LRFD Bridge Design Specifications," American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2004.
12.4 ACI, "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318­08) and Commentary (ACI
318R­08), American Concrete lnstitute, Farmington Hills, MI.
12.5 Nawy, E.G., Reinforced Concrete-A Fundamental Approach, 6th Ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Sad­
dle River, NJ., 2009, 936 pp.
12.6 Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., Prestressed Concrete Structures, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 1991.
12.7 Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D, "Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and Non­Prestressed
Concrete Beams," PCI Journal, Precast/Prestressed Concrete lnstitute, Chicago, 1980, pp. 12­100.
Problems for Solution 821

12.8 Hsu, T. T. C., Torsion in Reinforced Concrete, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1983.
12.9 Hsu, T. T. C., "Torsion in Structural Concrete­Uniformly Prestressed Members Without Web
Reinforcement," PCI Journal, V. 13, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1968,
pp. 34­44.
12.10 Hsu, T. T. C., Unified Theory of Reinforced Concrete, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993.
12.11 PCI, Bridge Design Manual, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, 1999.
12.12 PTI, Post-Tensioning Manual, 5th Ed., Post­Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, AZ, 1991.
12.13 Kudlapur, S. T., and Nawy, E. G., "Early Age Shear Friction Behavior of High Strength Concrete
Layered Systems at Subfreezing Temperatures," Proceedings, Symposium on Designing Concrete
Structures far Serviceability and Safety, ACI SP­133.9, E. G. Nawy and A. Scanlon, ed., American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1992, pp. 159­185.
12.14 Naaman, A. E., "Unified Design Recommendations for Reinforced, Prestressed and Partially Pre­
stressed Concrete Bending and Compression Members," ACI Structural Journal, American Con­
crete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, March­April 1992, pp. 200­210.
12.15 Naaman, A. E., "Unified Bending Strength Design of Concrete Members: AASHTO­LRFO
Code," Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, V A, June
1995,pp.964­970.
12.16 Mast, R. F., "Unified Design Provisions for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Flexura! and
Compression Members," ACI Structural Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI, April 1992, pp. 185­199.
12.17 Badie, S. S., Baishya, M.C., and Tadros, M. K., "NUOECK­An Efficient and Economical Precast
Prestressed Bridge Deck System," PCI Journal, Vol. 43 No. 5, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Insti­
tute, Chicago, September­October 1998, pp. 56­71.
12.18 Ma, Z., Huo, X., and Tadros, M. K., "Restraint Moment in Precast/Prestressed Concrete Continu­
ous Bridges," PCI Journal, Vol. 43, No. 6, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago,
Novernber­December 1998, pp. 40­57.
12.19 Nawy, E. G., editor­in­chief, Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, 2nd Ed., CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 2008, pp. 1­1560.
12.20 Nawy, E. G., Fundamentals of High Performance Concrete, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 2001, 466 p.
12.21 Hsu, T. T. C., Zhu, R. H. and Lee, J. Y., "A Critique on the Modified Compression Field Theory,"
Presented at the 781h Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, O.C.,
January 10­14, 23 pp.
12.22 Nawy, E. G., "Concrete=-The Sustainable Infrastructure Material far the 21 st. Century," Keynote
Address Paper, No. E­C103, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Wash­
ington, O.C., September 2006, pp. 1­23.
12.23 Nawy, E. G., "Concrete-The Sustainable Infrastructure Material far the 21 st. Century," Keynote
Address Paper, Proceedings, The First International Conference on Recent Advances in Concrete
Technology, Crystal City, Washington, 0.C., September 19, 2007, pp. 1­24.

PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTION

12.1 Design for flexure a 100 ft (30.5m) simply supported AASHTO­PCI bulb­tee composite bridge
deck with no skews using the LRFO AASHTO specifications. The superstructure is composed of
six pretensioned beams at 9'­0" (2.74 m) on centers. The bridge has an 8 in. (203 mm) situ­cast con­
crete deck with the top one half inch to be considered as wearing surface. The design live load is
the HL­93 AASHTO­LRFO fatigue loading. Assume the bridge is to be located in a low seismicity
zone. Given, the following maximum allowable stresses:
Deck I: = 4000 psi, normal weight
fe = 0.60 f~ = 2400 psi
Bulb­tee t; = 6500 psi
822 Chapter 12 LRFD and Standard AASHTO Design of Concrete Bridges

f ;; = 5500 psi

fe = 0.60 ¡; = 3900 psi, Service III

fe = 0.45 ¡; = 2925 psi, Service I
Íci = 0.60 f; = 3480 psi

t. = 6~ = 484psi
fpu = 270,000 psi
Ípy = 0.90 fpu = 243,000 psi
fp; = 0.75 fpu = 202,500 psi
Íy = 60,000 psi
Eps = 28.5 X 106 psi
Es = 29.0 X 106 psi.
12.2 Design the web shear reinforcement for the bulb­tee beam in Problem 12.1 at the critica] section
near the supports and the interface shear transfer reinforcement at the interface plane between the
precast section and the deck situ­cast concrete. Also, verify if the span deflection is within the al­
lowable limits.
12.3 A single­span two­lane unskewed AASHTO Type BIII­48 bridge has an overall span of 96 ft and
the cross­section shown in Figure P12.1 (Adapted from the PCI Manual ­ Ref. 12.11). The total
deck width is 28 ft and the clear roadway is 25 ft wide. The deck has a 3­in. bituminous wearing sur­
face. Design far flexure and shear an interior box element using the AASHTO LRFD specifica­
tions in the design. Given:
Effective span = 95 ft.
f~ = 5000 psi, normal weight
fe = 0.60 ¡; = 3000 psi, Service JII
fe = 0.45 t: = 2250 psi, Service I
Íci = 0.60 f; = 3000 psi

f, = 6~ = 424psi

3/4"

-11--
­¡
• 2@ 36"

3" (Typ) ~Shearkey

39" 28"
l Debonded strands at

j
the support section

­­;­;­­2" • • • • • • 6 @ 4"
5 t. •l!J•. •l!J• •C!J• ·[!]· •l!l• •l!J•. • • • 23 @ 2 11

t- 5" 1 38" ­­­­­­15" ­­

Figure P12.1 Box Beam Geometry

Problems for Solution 823

/pu = 270,000 psi

/py = 0.90 /pu = 243,000 psi
fp; = 0.75 L; = 202,500 psi
f1 = 60,000 psi
Eps = 28.5 X 106 psi
E, = 29.0 X 106 psi.
Section Properties:
Ac = 813 in.2
h = 39 in.
le = 168,367 in.4
cb = 19.29 in.
e, = 19.71 in.
sb = 8728 in.3
S' = 8542 in. 3
Wo = 847 ib/ft.

12.4 Solve Problem 12.3 using the AASHTO Standard specifications for both flexure, shear and
deflection.