Advanced Structural Design & System

SUBMITTED BY:
AAYUSHMAAN KAUL
A1904015046
B. ARCH, SEC-A, SEM-9
2015-2020

GUIDED BY:
DR S. VARADHARAJAN

AMITY SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING, AMITY

UNIVERSITY,
SEC-125, NOIDA, UTTAR PRADESH
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 ELECTRIC HAND TOOLS

1.1.1 Linesman Pliers: Used by electricians and other tradesman primarily for gripping,
twisting, bending and cutting wires and cable.

1.1.2 Long Nose Pliers: Both cutting and holding pliers used by artisans, jewellery
designers etc. used to bend, reposition and ship wires.

1.1.3 Channel Lock Pliers: Type of slip-joint pliers. They have serrated jaws generally set
450 and 600 from the handles.

1.1.4 Hammer: Tool with heavy metal head mounted at right angles at the end of a handle
used for jobs such as breaking things and driving in nails.

1.1.5 Philips Screw: Screw driver having a head with a cross slot or the corresponding
screw driver.

1.1.6 Allen Wrenches: An L-shaped metal bar with a hexagonal head at each end, used to
turn bolt and screws having hexagonal sockets.
1.2 VIBRATORS

Vibrating compactors are used for soil compaction especially in foundation for roads,
railways and buildings.

Concrete vibrators consolidate freshly poured concrete so that trapped air and excess water
are released and the concrete settles firmly in place in the formwork. Improper consolidation
of concrete can cause product defects, compromise the concrete strength, and produce surface
blemishes such as bug holes and honeycombing. An internal concrete vibrator is a steel
cylinder about the size of the handle of a baseball bat, with a hose or electrical cord attached
to one end. The vibrator head is immersed in the wet concrete.

External concrete vibrators attach, via a bracket or clamp system, to the concrete forms.
There are a wide variety of external concrete vibrators available and some vibrator
manufacturers have bracket or clamp systems designed to fit the major brands of concrete
forms. External concrete vibrators are available in hydraulic, pneumatic or electric power.

1.3 POWER FLOATS

A power float is a hand-operated machine used to produce a smooth, dense and level surface
finish to imcite concrete beds.

Power floats have an electric motor or petrol engine fixed over a circular pan or skimmer
which smooths concrete before hardened steel reversible metal blades rotate at up to 150 rpm
over the surface to create a hardened finish. Before power floating the concrete must be left
to partially set, having been levelled and tamped. The amount of setting time necessary
before power floating will depend on variables such as; air temperature, humidity,
the specification of the mix and so on. Floating usually starts at one end of the slab and
moves to the other. The operator holds the float at waist-height and moves backwards so that
the float removes their footprints. The speed should be slow and consistent.

1.4 ROLLERS

A road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is

a compactor type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in
the construction of roads and foundations. Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in
agriculture. Road rollers are frequently referred to as steamrollers, regardless of their method
of propulsion, but technically modern ones are referred to as "Tandem Vibratory Rollers".
Road rollers use the weight of the vehicle to compress the surface being rolled (static) or use
mechanical advantage (vibrating). Initial compaction of the substrate on a road project is
done using a pad foot drum roller, which achieves higher compaction density due to the pads
having less surface area.
1.5 SCRAPERS

A Wheel Tractor-Scraper is a piece of heavy equipment used for earthmoving. The rear part
of the scraper has a vertically moveable hopper with a sharp horizontal front edge which can
be raised or lowered. The front edge cuts into the soil, like a carpenter's plane cutting wood,
and fills the hopper. When the hopper is full it is raised, closed, and the scraper can transport
its load to the fill area where it is dumped. With a type called an 'elevating scraper' a
conveyor belt moves material from the cutting edge into the hopper.

1.6 GRADERS

A Grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader or a motor grader, is a construction

machine with a long blade used to create a flat surface during the grading process. Although
the earliest models were towed behind horses or other powered equipment, most modern
graders contain an engine so are known, technically erroneously, as "motor graders". Typical
models have three axles, with the engine and cab situated above the rear axles at one end of
the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between.
1.7 SHOVELS

A Power shovel (also stripping shovel or front shovel or electric mining shovel or Electric
Rope Shovel ) is a bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for digging
and loading earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction. Power Shovels are a type of
rope/cable excavator, where the digging arm is controlled and powered by winches and steel
ropes, rather than hydraulics like in the more common hydraulic excavators.

1.8 SKIMMER

These excavators are rigged using a universal power unit for surface stripping and shallow
excavation work up to 300 mm deep where a high degree of accuracy is required. They
usually require attendant haulage vehicles to remove the spoil and need to be transported
between sites on a low-loader. Because of their limitations and the alternative machines
available they are seldom used today.
1.9 DRAGLINE EXCAVATOR

Draglines fall into two broad categories: those that are based on standard, lifting cranes, and
the heavy units which have to be built on-site. Most crawler cranes, with an added winch
drum on the front, can act as a dragline. These units (like other cranes) are designed to be
dismantled and transported over the road on flatbed trailers. Draglines used in civil
engineering are almost always of this smaller, crane type. These are used for road, port
construction, pond and canal dredging, and as pile driving rigs. These types are built by crane
manufacturers such as Link-Belt and Hyster.

1.10 TRENCHER

A trencher is a piece of construction equipment used to dig trenches, especially for

laying pipes or electrical cables, for installing drainage, or in preparation for trench warfare.
Trenchers may range in size from walk-behind models, to attachments for a skid
loader or tractor, to very heavy tracked heavy equipment. Trenchers come in different sizes
and may use different digging implements, depending on the required width and depth of the
trench and the hardness of the surface to be cut.
1.11 DUMPERS

A dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk material, often on building sites. Dumpers
are distinguished from dump trucks by configuration: a dumper is usually an open 4-wheeled
vehicle with the load skip in front of the driver, while a dump truck has its cab in front of the
load. The skip can tip to dump the load; this is where the name "dumper" comes from. They
are normally diesel powered.

1.12 CONVEYORS

A conveyor belt is the carrying medium of a belt conveyor system (often shortened to belt
conveyor). A belt conveyor system is one of many types of conveyor systems. A belt
conveyor system consists of two or more pulleys (sometimes referred to as drums), with an
endless loop of carrying medium—the conveyor belt—that rotates about them. One or both of
the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material on the belt forward.
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 PREFABRICATION

Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or

other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to
the construction site where the structure is to be located. The term is used to distinguish this
process from the more conventional construction practice of transporting the basic materials
to the construction site where all assembly is carried out.

The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than structures at a
fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable
structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another location, and the section is
supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or electronic
components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and compressors
which are usually supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of the machine
which in the past were fabricated with the whole machine. Prefabricated parts of the body of
the machine may be called 'sub-assemblies' to distinguish them from the other components.

Prefabrication techniques are used in the construction of apartment blocks, and housing
developments with repeated housing units. The quality of prefabricated housing units had
increased to the point that they may not be distinguishable from traditionally built units to
those that live in them. The technique is also used in office blocks, warehouses and factory
buildings. Prefabricated steel and glass sections are widely used for the exterior of large
buildings.
2.2 PREFABRICATION SYSTEMS

2.2.1 OPEN PREFAB SYSTEM

This system is based on the use of the basic structural elements to form whole or part of a
building. The standard prefab concrete components which can used are:-

 Reinforced concrete channel units

 Hollow core slabs

 Hollow blocks and battens

 Pre-cast planks and battens

 Pre-cast joists and tiles

 Cellular concrete slabs

 Pre-stressed/reinforced concrete slabs

 Reinforced/pre-stressed concrete beams

 Reinforced/pre-stressed concrete columns

 Precast lintels and chajjas

 Reinforced concrete waffle slabs/shells

 Room size reinforced/pre-stressed concrete panels

 Reinforced/pre-stressed concrete walling elements

 Reinforced/pre-stressed concrete trusses

2.2.2 LARGE PANEL PREFAB SYSTEM

This system is based on the use of large prefab components. The components such as Precast
concrete large panels for walls, floors, roofs, balconies, staircase, etc. The casting of the
components could be at the site or off the site.

2.2.3 PREFABRICATION ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

1. Moving partial assemblies from a factory often costs less than moving pre-production
resources to each site
2. Deploying resources on-site can add costs; prefabricating assemblies can save costs
by reducing on-site work
3. Factory tools - jigs, cranes, conveyors, etc. - can make production faster and more
precise
4. Factory tools - shake tables, hydraulic testers, etc. - can offer added quality assurance
 5. Consistent indoor environments of factories eliminate most impacts of weather on
production
6. Cranes and reusable factory supports can allow shapes and sequences without
expensive on-site false work
7. Higher-precision factory tools can aid more controlled movement of building heat and
air, for lower energy consumption and healthier buildings
8. Factory production can facilitate more optimal materials usage, recycling, noise
capture, dust capture, etc.
9. Machine-mediated parts movement, and freedom from wind and rain can improve
construction safety.
10. Transportation costs may be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for
their constituent materials, which can often be packed more densely.
11. Large prefabricated sections may require heavy-duty cranes and precision
measurement and handling to place in position.

2.2.4 BENEFITS OF PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION

 Eco-friendly: - Modular construction is often commended for energy efficiency and
sustainable construction. Traditional construction methods require extra materials that
lead to increased waste. However, since prefabricated sub-assemblies are constructed
in a factory, extra materials can be recycled in-house. This is a considerable
improvement over sending waste directly to a landfill from a traditional construction
site.

 Financial Savings: - One of the greatest advantages of prefabricated construction

would be financial savings. Although the perception of custom-made pieces may
seem expensive, with prefabricated or modular construction, this is not the case.
Modular construction targets all budgets and price points, creating an affordable
option.

 Flexibility: - Modular construction can be easily be disassembled and relocated to

different sites. This significantly reduces the demand for raw materials, minimizes
expended energy and decreases time overall. Also, modular construction allows for
flexibility in the design of the structure allowing for a limitless number of
opportunities.

 Shorter Construction Time: - Portable construction takes significantly less time to

build than on-site construction. In many instances, prefabrication takes less than half
the time when compared to traditional construction. This is due to better upfront
planning, elimination of on-site weather factors, subcontractor scheduling delays and
quicker fabrication as multiple pieces can be constructed simultaneously.

 Consistent Quality: - Since prefabricated construction occurs in a controlled

manufacturing environment and follows specified standards, the sub-assemblies of the
structure will be built to a uniform quality. Construction site-built structures are
dependent upon varying skill levels and the schedules of independent contractors.
These all contribute to the craftsmanship and overall quality of given structure.
2.2.5 PRE-STRESSED TECHNOLOGY

 Pre-tensioned Wire/Strands- may be either in individual molds or in a long pre-

tensioning bed; stretched tendons are held by special grips until the stress is
transferred to the concrete where it is maintained by bond.

 Macalloy System/Stress steel System- high tensile steel wires/strands are pre-tensioned
and are anchored by means of nut or by wedge grips.

 PSC & CCL Systems- High tensile steel wires/strands are stretched one at a time, and
held by special grips against an anchorage plate or in an anchorage tube assembly.

 BBR System- Fixed lengths of high tensile steel wires or strands are prefixed in
common anchorage head by upsetting their ends or by wedging, and are then
simultaneously pre-tensioned and anchored by nuts and shins.

 VSL System- High tensile steel strands are pretension and anchored individually by
wedge grips in a common anchor block.

 Freyssinet System- High tensile steel wires/strands assembled into cables are pre-
tensioned and are secured in special anchorage cones.
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 DEFECTS & REMEDIES IN BUILDINGS

The construction industry all around the world is getting modern, advance and growing day
by day. In spite of the development, construction industry is dealing with one major problem
i.e. building defects. Structural Engineers are always striving to overcome challenge of
defects in buildings but it is difficult to deal with it completely.

A defect is a building flaw or design mistake that reduces the value of the building, and
causes a dangerous condition. A construction defect can arise due to many factors, such as
poor workmanship or the use of inferior materials. Building defects do not appear to have
been minimized despite recent advancements in building technology. Some common defects
caused by agents such as atmospheric pollution, poor workmanship or the use of inferior
materials and climatic conditions are more frequent.

3.1.1 DEFECTS DUE TO DAMPNESS

 Dampness causes efflorescence of bricks, tiles of stones.

 It makes the plaster weak.
 It may cause bleaching and flaking of paint due to formation of colored patches.
 It causes corrosion of metals.
 It promotes growth of termites.

3.1.2 SOURCES OF DAMPNESS

 Due to capillary action, the water present in ground soil may rise above the ground
level through the walls. If ground water table is nearer to the building foundation,
then also it can also become a source of dampness.
 Condensation of atmospheric moisture can also be a source of dampness. Because
this form of water gets deposited on different components and gradually find their
way to penetrate into the building causing dampness.
 Rain water falling on external walls, parapets also causes dampness.
 Rain water can also penetrate through the roofs if the roof is of bad quality.
Inadequate roof slopes or defective junction between roof slab and parapet wall may
cause dampness
 Presence of gutter near the building will store the rain water and subsequently this
water will create dampness in the external walls.
 Wet areas of buildings (such as kitchens, bath rooms) having substandard plumbing
fitting can also be a source of dampness.