FUELS & COMBUSTION

 Combustion basics
 Types of fuel
 Fuels & Combustion (1)

COMBUSTION BASICS
 An important aspect of power generation /steam generation
is energy source.
 With the exception of nuclear and solar power, most power
plants are driven by a chemical reaction called combustion,
which usually involves hydrogen & carbon-containing
materials
 Combustion is the conversion of a substance called a fuel
into chemical compounds known as combustion products
 The combustion process is an exothermic chemical reaction
Fuel + Oxidiser  Products + Energy
 Fuels are evaluated based on the amount of energy or heat
that they release per unit mass or mole
 Fuels & Combustion (2)

 Fuels are evaluated based on the amount of energy or heat

that they release per unit mass or mole during combustion
of the fuel. Such a quantity is known as
fuel’s heat of reaction OR heating value
 Heating value is determined by ‘bomb calorimeter’

 Heating value (or calorific value), measured either as

- Gross calorific value (GCV) OR higher heating value
(HHV)
- Net calorific value (NCV) OR lower heating value (LHV)
 HHV assumes all vapour produced during the combustion
process is fully condensed
 LHV assumes the water leaves with the combustion
products without fully being condensed
 Fuels & Combustion (3)

 Typical HHV & LHV of some fuels:

 Fuels & Combustion (4)

TYPES OF FUELS
 FOSSIL FUELS
- Solid fuel (coal)
- Liquid fuel (oil)
- Gas (natural gas)
 NUCLEAR FUELS

 RENEWABLE FUELS (BIOMASS)

 WASTE FUELS (MUNICIPAL WASTES)

 Solid Fuels (1)

TYPES OF FUEL ….. Coal

 Coal is the mineral of fossilized carbon. It is formed from
the remains of land-based plants buried hundreds of
millions of years ago
 Based on energy content and chemical composition, ASTM
classified coal into 4 types:
- anthracite  highest energy content
- bituminous
- subbituminous
- lignite
 Types of plant and time determine the coal quality
 Peat? Incomplete decomposed plants
 Solid Fuels (2)

LIGNITE Bituminous Anthracite

Solid Fuels (3)
 Solid Fuels (4)

 Properties of solid fuels

1. Heating value, varies with coal type, field
- Indian coal:

- The effect of field to heating value:

 Solid Fuels (5)

2. Analysis method of coal:

a. Proximate analysis  physical properties
b. Ultimate analysis  chemical properties

 Proximate analysis involves the content of:

- Moisture (M)
- Volatile matter (VM)
- Fixed carbon (FC)
- Ash (A)
 Solid Fuels (6)

1 g of coal

105 C
M g of moisture
1 hour

1-M

950 C
Without O2 VM g of Volatile matter
7 minute

1 – M - VM

720 C
FC g of Fixed Carbon
With O2
FC = (1-M-VM)-A
Until completely burn

A g of Ash
Solid Fuels (7)
 Solid Fuels (8)

Significance of various parameters in proximate analysis:

 Fixed carbon
- It is the solid fuel left in the furnace after VM is distilled
off
- The data can be used to estimate the heating value of coal,
using Dulong equation:

kJ / kg  33950 C  144200 ( H  O / 8)  9400 S

where C, H, O & S in weight fraction
 Solid Fuels (9)

 Volatile Matter
- Involve the presence of methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen,
carbon monoxide & incombustible gases like carbon
dioxide and nitrogen found in coal
- The data becomes an index of the gaseous fuels present
- Typical range of VM: 20-35%
- The influence of VM:
1. Increases the flame length & helps in easier ignition of
coal
2. Affects air requirement
3. Determines the furnace volume & height
 Solid Fuels (10)

 Ash content
- Is an impurity that will not burn
- Typical range of ash content: 5-40%
- The influence of ash content:
1. Reduces burning capacity
2. Increases handling cost
3. Affects the combustion efficiency & boiler efficiency
4. Causes clinkering & slagging
 Solid Fuels (11)

 Moisture content
- Typical range of moisture content: 0.5-10%
- The influence of ash content:
1. Since it replaces combustible matter, thus it decreases
the heat content
2. Increases heat loss due to evaporation
3. Aids radiation heat transfer
 Sulphur content
- Typical range of sulphur content: 0.5-0.8%
- The influence of ash content:
1. Affect clinkering & slagging tendencies
2. Corrodes chimney, economiser, etc
3. Limits exit flue gas temperature
 Solid Fuels (12)

 Ultimate analysis involves the content of various elemental

chemical constituent such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, etc.
- It is useful to determine the quantity of air required for
combustion & composition of the combustion gases
- Support the calculation of flame temperature
Solid Fuels (13)
TYPES OF FUEL ….. Liquid
Liqud Fuels (2)
Liqud Fuels (3)
 Liqud Fuels (4)

Industrial Diesel Oil

 Liqud Fuels (5)

Marine Fuel Oil / Minyak Bakar

 Liqud Fuels (6)

Diesel Oil
 Combustion efficiency is characterised as cetane number
 Cetane number is a measure of fuel’s ignition delay, the time
period between the start of injection and the first identifiable
pressure increase during combustion of the fuel
 The higher the cetane number, the more easily the fuel will
combust in a compression setting (such as a diesel engine)
 Minimising the delay time, the amount of unburned fuel in
the cylinder at the beginning is lower  engine runs more
smoothly and quietly
 Diesel engine requires fuel with cetane number around 40 –
50
 Liqud Fuels (7)

Automative Diesel Oil

 Liqud Fuels (8)

 The most dominantly used in industrial applications are

furnace oil, light diesel oil (LDO) and LSHS (low sulphur
heavy stock)
 Properties of liquid fuels:
1. Specific gravity
* Furnace oil: 0.89 – 0.95
* LDO: 0.85 – 0.87
* LSHS: 0.88 – 0.98
 Liqud Fuels (9)

2. Viscosity: a measure of its internal resistance to flow

* It influences the degree of pre-heat required for
handling, storage & satisfactory atomisation
* If the oil is too viscous, it may difficult to pump, hard
to light the burner, and tough to operate. Poor
atomisation results in the formation of carbon deposits
on the burner tips or on the wall. Therefore pre-
heating is necessary for proper atomisation
3. Flash point: the lowest temperature at which the fuel can
be heated so that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily
when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for
furnace oil is 66oC
 Liqud Fuels (10)

4. Pour point: the lowest temperature at which it will pour or

flow when cooled under prescribed conditions
* It can be used for a rough indication at which fuel oil is
readily pumpable
5. Specific heat: the amount of kcals needed to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1oC. The values are between
0.22 to 0.28 depend on the oil specific gravity
6. Heating value (or calorific value)
Typical HHV of some liquid fuels:
- Kerosene: -11,100 kcal/kg - Diesel oil: -10,800 kcal/kg
- LDO: -10,700 kcal/kg - Furnace oil: -10,500 kcal/kg
- LSHS: -10,600 kcal/kg
 Liqud Fuels (11)

7. Sulphur  must be maintained to be low : risk of

corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during combustion,
and condensing in cool parts of the chimney, and
economiser.
Composition of sulphur in fuel oils:
- Kerosene: 0.05 – 0.2
- Diesel oil: 0.05 – 0.25
- LDO: 0.5 – 1.8
- Furnace oil: 2.0 – 4.0
- LSHS: < 0.5
 Liqud Fuels (12)

8. Ash content  may be compounds of sodium, calcium,

magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminium, nickel, etc
- Typically in the range 0.03–0 .07 %
- May cause fouling deposits in the combustion
equipment
9. Carbon residue  indicates the tendency of oil to deposit
a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot surface, such as
burner or injection nozzle.
- Residual oil contains carbon residue  1%
Liqud Fuels (13)
 Liqud Fuels (14)

Storage of fuel oil can be potentially hazardous in barrels

 Stored in cylindrical tanks
 Generally the storage tank is mounted above ground
 For safety & environmental reasons, bund walls around
tank is recommended to contain accidental spillages
 Provide for at least 10 days of normal consumption
 A certain amount of settlement of solid occur over time,
thus cleaning should be carried out at regular intervals:
annually or every two years
TYPES OF FUEL ….. Gaseous
 Common gaseous fuels are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)
& natural gas
 The calorific value is expressed as kcal/Nm3 (kcal per
normal cubic meter ),i.e. at normal temperature (20oC) &
pressure of 760 mm Hg
 Gas Fuels (2)

LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)

 LPG is a mixture of:
- n-Propane (C3H8)
- n-Butane (C4H10)
- Small percentage of unsaturates (propylene, C3H6, &
butylene, C4H8)
- Some lighter C2 and heavier C5 fractions
 The LPG is stored & transported as liquids under pressure
for convenience and ease of handling
 Liquid LPG evaporates to produce 250 times volume of gas
 LPG cylinders should be stored in well-ventilated area
 Gas Fuels (3)

Natural Gas
 The main constituent: methane (95% of the total volume).
Others: ethane, propane, butane, pentane, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide & traces of other gases
 It is often sell in cylindrical or spherical shapes as CNG
(Compressed Natural Gas) at a pressure of 200-248 bar
 CNG may also be mixed with biogas
 It has been used by public transport vehicles:

Singapore India Italy United States

TYPES OF FUEL…..Renewable Energy (Biomass)

Biomass: renewable energy sources coming from

biological material such as plants, animals,
microorganisms and municipal wastes
Bioenergy Types
 Biofuels
 Liquids
 Methanol, Ethanol, Butanol, Biodiesel

 Gases
 Methane, Hydrogen

 Bioheat
 Wood burning
 Bioelectricity
 Combustion in Boiler to Turbine
 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)
Conversion Processes
 Biological conversion
 Fermentation (methanol,
ethanol, butanol)
 Anaerobic digestion (methane)
 Anaerobic respiration (bio-
battery)
 Chemical conversion
 Transesterification (biodiesel)
 Thermal conversion
 Combustion
 Gasification
 Pyrolysis
 Biomass-to-Bioenergy Routes
Conversion
Photosynthesis Biomass processes Biofuels and Bioenergy Application

Heating
Heat
Wet biomass Anaerobic Biogas
(organic waste, manure) fermentation H2, CH4
C6H12O6 + 6O2

Electricity

Electrical devices
Gasification
Fuel gas
Solid biomass Combustion
(wood, straw)
Pyrolysis
Pyrolytic oil
Hydrolysis

co2
Sugar and starch plants Hydrolysis Ethanol
Sugar Butanol

Liquid biofuels
6CO2 + 6H2O

(sugar-cane, cereals) Extraction

fermentation

Transport
Oil crops and algae Crushing Methyl ester
(sunflower, soybean) Pure Oil
Refining (biodiesel)
Transesterification
 Principle of Combustion
 Combustion is rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the
production of heat. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large
amount of heat
 A very specific amount of O2 is needed for perfect
combustion & some additional (excess) air is required for
ensuring complete combustion
Carbon (C): C + O2  CO2
Hidrogen (H2): H2 + ½ O2  H2O
Sulfur (S): S + O2  SO2
 If air is used, the presence of N2 reduces the combustion
efficiency by absorbing heat from the fuel combustion &
diluting the flue gases. In addition, N2 can combine with
O2 (at high flame temperature) to produce nitrogen
oxides (NOx) which are toxic pollutants
 The combustion efficiency depends on:
- Ratio of air: fuel (A/F)
- Reaction time
- Good mixing or turbulence degree
- Temperature
 Based on A/F, the mixture of air & fuel may be divided:
 Lean fuel mixture  air-rich condition
 Stoichiometric mixture  the air-fuel ratio as theoretically
 Rich fuel mixture  fuel-rich condition
 Commonly, air used in the combustion process contains
O2, N2, CO2, Ar & other components in trace amounts
 In calculation, CO2 & Ar are neglected & air is assumed to
be dry (no water). The air composition is considered as:
 21% O2 & 79% N2 (% vol or % mole)
 MW of air: 28.84 kg/kmol
 Generally, the ratio of air:fuel is calculated either as
 Theoretically/stoichiometry
 The actual ratio
 Combustion of Oil
 There are two methods to prepare the oil fuel:
- Vapourisation & gasification
- Atomisation of oil fuel into the air flow
 Heating oil to correct viscosity will help the process of
atomizing oil. This temperature is specific for each grade
of oil
 Typical viscosity at the burner tip for furnace oil: 100
Redwood/second
 The amount of air required is called stoichiometric air
 The combustion products/fuel gases leave the furnace
through the chimney, carrying away a significant quantity
of heat with them
 Calculation of Stoichiometric Air

Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil!

 For complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil 15.5 kg
of air is required
 In practice, mixing is never perfect and thus, a certain
amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion.
Less air would lead to the incomplete combustion &
smoke. Too much air that what is required will promote
more heat will be lost in heating the surplus air to the
chimney temperature.
 Accordingly, some air is heated in the furnace (boiler) &
leaves through the stack without participating in the
combustion
 For optimum combustion of fuel oil, the O2 in flue gases
should be maintained 2-3%
Oil Firing Burner

Vaporization
Atomization
 Normally, atomization is carried out by primary air (in the
centre) & completing of combustion is ensured by
secondary air (the one surrounding the centre one)
 The mixing process of air & fuel is achieved by burner
parts designed to create high turbulence
 If insufficient turbulence is produced by the burner, the
combustion will be incomplete & samples taken at the
stack will reveal CO as evidence
 An important aspect to be considered in the burner
selection is turndown ratio (the relationship between
the maximum & minimum fuel input without
affecting the excess air level)
 Towards the highest turndown ratio, it becomes necessary
to increase the excess air to obtain enough turbulence to
get a proper mixing
 The better the burner design, the lowest possible air flow
 Combustion of Coal

 The incomplete combustion results:

- Poor generation of heat
- Some portion of carbon remaining unburnt (black smoke)
- CO formation
 Similar to the case of oil, excess air is supplied to achieve
complete combustion
 The amount of excess air required depends on the type of
coal firing equipment:
1. Hand fired boiler use large lumps of coal  high excess
air
2. Stoker fired burner use sized coal  less excess air
In both burner systems above, the primary air is supplied
below the grate, while the secondary air is supplied over
the grate
3. Fluidised bed combustion burner  further reduction of
excess air due to intimate mixing of air & fuel created by
turbulence condition
4. Pulverized fuel firing  the powder form of the fuel
promotes the minimum amount of excess air due to high
surface area of coal ensuring complete combustion
 Clinker formation
 Clinker is a mass of rough, hard, slag-like material formed
during combustion of coal due to low fusion temperature of
ash present in coal
 How? Low quality of coal such as lignite, silica, calcium
oxide, magnesium oxides, etc. When heated to high
temperature, these compounds break down and interact
with the burner interior. The resulting debris than either
sticks to the wall or falls to the floor where it is coverd by
ash
 Once clinker is formed, is has a tendency to grow
 Clinker will stick to a hot surface rather than a cold one & to
a rough surface rather than a smooth one
 Combustion of Gas

 Since natural gas is essentially pure methane, CH4, the

combustion can be represented as follows:
CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O
 Agar mencapai kondisi yg mendekati kondisi
teoritis biasanya digunakan udara berlebih
 Ada 2 cara utk menyatakan jumlah udara yg
disediakan bagi suatu proses pembakaran yaitu:
 Koefisien pengenceran

A F aktual
DC 
A F teoritis
 % kelebihan udara (excess air)

A F aktual  A F teoritis
% kelebihan udara 
A F teoritis
 DC  1.100
Perhitungan teoritis
 Bila analisa ultimate as burned (semula) diketahui,
perhitungan utk perbandingan udara : bahan bakar
secara teoritis, kering, gravimetrik dpt menggunakan
persamaan:
 A  2.66C  7.94 H 2  0.998S  O2
 
F 0.232
 Perhitungan teoritis dpt juga dilakukan berdasarkan
persamaan stoikhiometri