GENERAL SCIENCE AND ABILITY

PHYSICAL SCIENCES

1. Astronomical system of units:

I. Short History
This is system was developed for use in astronomy and was adopted by the international
Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1975 and was updated in 1994 and 2009. It is a tri-dimensional
system, it only defines length, mass and time.

II. Definitions of Astronomical Unit

A. Astronomical Unit of Time:

The astronomical unit of time is the day. 86400 seconds make up a day. 365.25 days make up
one Julian Year. In short, the amount of time taken by earth to make one full rotation around its
axis is the astronomical unit for time.
B. Astronomical Unit of Mass:
The astronomical unit of mass is the solar mass, the mass of the sun which is 1.98892x10 32 kg. it
is used to describe the masses of other stars and galaxies.
C. Astronomical Unit of Length:
An Astronomical Unit (AU) is defined as the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. it
is approximately 150 million kilometres (149,597,870,700 meters). Average distance between the
earth and the sun because the earth’s orbit around the sun is elliptical.

2. Light year
A Light-Year is the distance that the light travels in one year. As we know the speed of light and
time of one Julian year, the light year can thus be calculated.
Speed of light = 299,792,458 m / s
Year in Seconds: 31557600 seconds
Distance = Speed x Time = 299,792,458 m/s x 31557600 s
= 9.4607305 x 1015 meters = 9.4607305 x 1012 Kilo-meters
One light year = 63240 AU

3. Parsec
Parsec is a unit of distance that is equal to 3.26 light years or 3.085679x10 13. it is the distance at
which a star would have a parallax of 1 second of arc.

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 4. Universe
I. Definition
The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all
other forms of matter and energy Or All existing matter and space considered as a whole

II. Origin of universe:

A. The big bang theory
i. Founder:
George Lemaitre in 1927 gave the TBBT and in 1950 Sir Fred Hoyle first coined the name Big
Bang.
ii. Explanation:
TBBT is the leading explanation about how the universe began. It states that the universe we
know now started with a small singularity, then inflating over the next 13.8 billion years to the
cosmos we know today. 13.8 billion years ago everything that exists was inside a bubble that was
thousands of times smaller than a pinhead, it was hotter and denser than anything imaginable.
This compact point from physics point of view is known as singularity. This singularity suddenly
exploded. The universe we know was born. Time space and matter came into existence. In a
fraction of second it grew from being smaller than an atom than much bigger than a galaxy.
iii. How other bodies came into being
As the universe expanded it started to cool and energy started to convert into matter and
antimatter. Protons and neutron started to form when the universe was 1 second old. Over the
next three minutes the temperature dropped below 1 billion degrees centigrade, allowing protons
and neutron to come together and form hydrogen and helium nuclei. These H and He atoms
formed different elements. Moreover, due to excessive fusion of H and He atoms different
elements were forms. The basic elements are thought to have come into being this way.
iv. Evidence of the Big Bang Theory:
a. Expanding Universe:
If the spectrum of light coming from distant stars is observed, it shows a red shift, meaning there
by the source of the light is moving away from the observer. The light from distant galaxies is
redshifted, thus telling us that the galaxies are moving away from the earth. The further the
galaxies the higher the red shift, meaning there by that the further the galaxy the faster its moving
away from the earth.
b. Cosmic Background Microwave Radiation:
These radiations were discovered while studying radio signals by Arno Penzias and Wilson. These
radiations are received from all parts of the universe and is thought to be the head left over from
the original big bang explosion.

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 III. Future of the universe
Astronomers recognise four models of possible future of universe

Future of Universe

Closed model Flat model Spiral Irregular

(Contracting (Steady State (Cyclic Universe (Expanding
Universe Theory) theory) theory) universe
theory)

Closed model
According to this model, many billion of years from now, expansion will slow, stop and the
universe will contract back in upon itself
Flat model
According to this the universe will not collapse upon itself. But expansion will slow and the
universe will approach a stable size.
Open model
According to this, the universe will continue expanding forever.
Cyclic model
It states that universe will that universe will collapse, then there will be a big bang, it will first
expand and will collapse again. This cycle will go on.

5. Galaxy:
A galaxy is a gravitational bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust and dark
matter.
Or
Galaxy is a huge number of stars grouped together.
I. Shapes of Galaxies
There are around 100-200 billion galaxies in the observable universe. Galaxies have three
common shapes
Shapes of galaxies
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 Elliptical Spiral Irregular

A. Elliptical galaxies
Elliptical galaxies have an ovoid or globular shape and generally contain older stars with less gas
and dust.

B. Spiral galaxies
Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped with arms that curve around their edges, making these galaxies
look like whirlpools. Spiral galaxies contain both old and young stars as well as numerous clouds
of dust and gas from which new stars are born.

C. Irregular galaxies
Irregular galaxies have no regular structure. Astronomers believe that their structures were
distorted by collisions with other galaxies

II. Milky way galaxy:

A. Introduction
The name Milky Way is derived from Greek mythology, in which the band of light was said to be
milk from the breast of the goddess Hera. Its hazy appearance results from the combined light of
stars too far away to be distinguished individually by the unaided eye. All of the individual stars
that are distinct in the sky lie within the Milky Way Galaxy. Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy about
30,000 parsecs across. The sun revolves around the nucleus of the galaxy once in 225 million
years. This duration is also called the cosmic year.
B. Characteristics of Milky way galaxy:
 Our Galaxy – The Milky Way:
 Disk shaped, arms spiralled outwards. Our solar system is in the arm called Orion Spur or
Orin Arm.
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  100,000 light years in diameter.
 Sun takes 250 million years to orbit around the galaxy.
 Our solar system is 30,000 light years away from the centre of the galaxy.
 Nearest Galaxy to us is Andromeda.
 Our Galaxy is part of the cluster know as the local group.

UNIVERSE – Super Cluster: VIRGO – Cluster: Local Group – Galaxy: Milky way – Solar System

Planet: Earth

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Solar system:
1. Overview of Solar system
Our Solar system consists of the Sun, planets, dwarf planets, moons, an asteroid belt, comets,
meteors and other objects. Sun is the centre and has more than 99% of the total mass of the Solar
System. Our Solar System is elliptical in shape, shaped like an egg. It is about 4.5 billion years
old.

Solar system

Planets Dwarf Satellites Asteroids Meteoroids Comets Sun

planets
Pluto
Plutoids

Ceres
Eris

Make make

Terrestrial Gaseous

Mercury
Jupiter

Venus
Saturn

Earth Uranus

Mars Neptune

2. Theories related to Solar System:

All the theories about the formation of the solar system agree on two facts. One is that the age of
solar system is 4.5billion years and secondly the planets were formed from the gas and dust within
the vicinity of the sun. The gas and dust condensed into tiny bodies which eventually built up the
present day planetary system.
3. Motion of the planets:
The planets perform two types of motions. Rotation at their axis is
 Evolution or
 The orbital motion along their orbits around the sun.

4. The age of the solar system: Meteoric evidence suggests that the solar system is
4530+20 million years old. And that was formed in less than 25 million years. The solar

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 system is believed to be formed from a globe of gas and dust that consisted mainly of
hydrogen
5. The sun:
Sun is a star, huge ball of gas, mostly helium and hydrogen. It is the star around which solar
system revolves. It is a medium sized star and next closest star to sun is Proxima centauri. It has
an age of 4.5 billion years and the time taken by sun to complete one rotation is known as cosmic
year. Sun is predominately composed of 74% Hydrogen, 24% helium and 2% heavy metals. The
energy released from the sun is due to the fusion reactions that occur inside.
I. Layers of Sun
The sun is divided into three main regions:

Layers of sun

Interior Surface Atmosphere

Photosphere

Core Radioactive Convectional Chromosphere Corona

zone zone

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 A. The Interior:
i. The core
Core of the sun is considered to extend from the center to about 25% of the solar radius. It has a
density of about 150 times the density of water. The Core is the only section of the sun that
produces heat through fusion. The temperature is 15 Million degree Celsius.
ii. Radiative Zone
The Radiative Zone, extends from 25% to 70% of the solar radius, the Radiative material is hot
and dense enough that thermal radiation (not fusion) transfers the intense heat of
the Core outward. Heat is transferred by photon radiation.
iii. Convective Zone
The third part of the solar interior is named the convective (or convection) zone. It is also named
after the dominant mode of energy flow in this layer; heat moves upward convection.
The convection plasma is not dense or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior
outward through radiation. As a result, thermal convection occurs.

B. The surface: Photosphere

The boundary between the sun’s interior and the solar atmosphere is called photosphere. It is
what we see as the visible surface of the sun.

II. Physical Features of the Sun

 Diameter = 1,391,940 km
 Mass = 1.989x1030 (330,000 times the mass of the earth)
 Composed of = 74% Hydrogen, 24% Helium, and 2% heavy materials
 Density = 1.41 g/cm3
 Temperature at the core = 15 million degrees centigrade
 Temperature at Surface = 5500 degrees centigrade

III. Solar wind:

The sun also generates magnetic field that rises above its surface in the form of loops. When
these loops collide with each other they emit highly hot and charged particles. These are known as
solar wind. Solar winds cannot be observed or reach the surface of the earth because of earth’s
magnetic field. This can be observed by astronauts with their eyes shut.

IV. Sun spot

Sunspots are cool, dark patches on the Sun’s surface. These are caused by extremely strong
magnetic field that prevents the radiations coming out of core. As a result they have almost half
the temperature of surrounding sun. the largest is 10 time the size of earth.
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 V. Nuclear Fusion in the Sun
The Sun is basically a huge ball of hydrogen gas held together by the gravity created by its own
mass. Under the intense pressure created at the center of the Sun by gravity, hydrogen nuclei are
fused together to produce helium nuclei. Four hydrogen nuclei are fused into one helium nucleus,
however one helium atom has less mass than four hydrogen atoms. The fusion process releases
enough energy to account for the lost mass.

1. Planets:
International Astronomical Union defines planets as a celestial body that:
 Orbits around a star but itself is not a satellite.
 Has sufficient mass so it is nearly spherical in shape and
 Has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
Planet is a term used for a body that is revolving around the sun.
2. Total planets
Our solar system has eight planets. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune. Mnemonic: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles.
There are two types of planets:
Planets

Inner planets/ Terrestrial planets Outer planets/ Jovian planets

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Terrestrial planets Jovian planets

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
Close to Sun Far from sun
Small mass and radii Large masses and radii
Rocky solid surfaces Gaseous surface
High densities Low densities
Slow rotation Fast rotation
Weak magnetic field Strong magnetic field
No rings Many rings
Few moons Many moos

planets Prominent features No of Rings Atmospheric

moons conditions
Mercury Smallest and fastest revolving planet 0 No No air
Venus Hottest, brightest and morning star 0 No CO2
Earth Heaviest and most dense planet 1 No O2 and N2
Mars Red planet and smallest planet 2 No CO2

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Jupiter Biggest, most massive and fastest revolving 67 Yes H2 and He
planet
Saturn Least dense and 2nd largest planet 62 Yes H2 and He
Uranus Green planet 27 Yes H2 and He
Neptune Coldest and slowest revolving planet 13 Yes H2 and He

3. Dwarf planets:
I. Difference between Dwarf planet and Planet

Planet Dwarf planet

Orbits around a star but itself is not a satellite
Has sufficient mass so it is nearly spherical in
shape
Has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
Orbits around a star but itself is not a satellite
Has sufficient mass so it is nearly spherical in
shape
Has NOT cleared the neighbourhood around its
orbit

The only difference between a dwarf planet and a planet is the area surrounding each celestial
body. Dwarf planet could not clear the area because of its small size and weak gravitational pull.

II. Types of Dwarf planets

There are 5 recognised dwarf planets in our solar system; Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake
and Eris.
Dwarf Planets

Asteroid belt Kuiper belt

Ceres

Pluto makemake Eris

Pluto is considered as a dwarf planet because objects in the Kuiper belts are in it orbit and it is
unable to attract them.

4. Moon
Natural satellite that orbits around a planet is known as moon. The planet around which a moon
revolves is as satellite’s primary.

I. Earth’s moon
Earth’s moon is called Luna. It is the 5th largest moon in our solar system.
 Diameter = 3475 km
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  Mass = 7.3 x 1022 (1/81 of earth)
 Density = 3.347 g/cm3
 Distance from Earth = 384,400 km
 Orbit Around Earth = 27 days 7 hours
 Gravity = 1/6 of earth’s
 Light = 1.3s to reach earth
 Size = ¼ of the earth

5. Asteroids
Asteroids are either rocky or metallic objects that orbit the Sun. They are too small to considered
planets but are sometimes called planetoids. They can be anywhere from the size of a pebble up
to a 1000km (620 miles) in diameter; the asteroid Ceres is an example of an asteroid that is this
large.
They have been found inside Earth’s orbit and all the way out past Saturn’s orbit. Most asteroids,
however, are located in the asteroid belt which exists between the orbit’s of Mars and Jupiter.

6. Meteoroids
Interplanetary rocky material smaller than 100m (down to grain size). Meteor burns in the Earth’s
atmosphere. If it makes it to the ground, it is a meteorite. Most meteor showers are the result of
the Earth passing through the orbit of a comet which has left debris along its path.
7. Comet
A comet is an icy small Solar System body that, when passing close to the Sun, heats up and
begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail. These
phenomena are due to the effects of solar radiation and the solar wind upon the nucleus of the
comet. Comets usually have highly eccentric elliptical orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital
periods, ranging from several years to potentially several millions of years.

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12
 SOLAR AND LUNAR ECLIPSE
I. Eclipse
An eclipse occurs any time something passes in front of the Sun, blocking its light. This can be
the Earth or the Moon
II. Solar eclipse:
A solar eclipse happens when the moon while orbiting around the earth comes in between the sun
and the earth. The moon blocks the light coming from the sun from reaching earth. The moon
casts a shadow onto the earth.This shadow on earth consists of two regions, the umbra and
penumbra. It happens almost every 18 months, and lasts only for a few mins. It always occurs at
the time of the new moon.
I. Types of Solar Eclipses

Solar eclipse

Total solar eclipse Partial solar eclipse Annular solar eclipse

A. Total Solar Eclipse:

Occurs when the moon completely covers the sun, as seen from Earth. it can only be seen from a
very small area on earth.
B. Partial Solar Eclipse
When the Sun, Moon and Earth do not align perfectly and the moon partially covers the disc of the
sun.
C. Annular Solar Eclipse
When the moon appears smaller than the sun as it passes centrally across the solar disk and a
bright ring or annulus of sun remains visible during the eclipse.

8. Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse happens when the earth moves in between the sun and the moon and casts a
shadow onto to the moon. The earth blocks the sunlight from reaching the moon, which is normally

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reflected off its surface. Instead of sunlight hitting the moon the earth’s shadow is casted onto it. It
can occur only when the moon is full. And it can be seen from earth at night. It lasts a few hours.
The earth casts a long conical shadow in space which completely blocks the light coming from the
sun. This is known as Umbra. Surrounding this umbra is an area of partial shadow, known as
penumbra.
I. Types: Lunar eclipse

Penumbral lunar eclipse Partial Lunar Eclipse Total lunar eclipse

A. Penumbral Lunar Eclipse

The moon only passes through the penumbra of Earth’s shadow. Slight change in the colour of the
moon and is rarely visible from earth.
B. Partial Lunar Eclipse
When part of the moon passes through the umbra
C. Total Lunar Eclipse
When the complete moon passes through the umbral region of the Earth’s shadow and moon is
totally obscured.
We don’t see a lunar eclipse every month because the orbit of the moon wrt to earth is tilted at
almost 5 degrees.

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 1. Earth
The Earth is a planet. The Earth is the largest of the terrestrial planets, the four smaller, denser,
rocky worlds orbiting close in to the Sun. It’s about 13,000 kilometres across, and has a single,
large Moon. Unlike the other three terrestrial planets, Earth has liquid water on its surface, where it
can flow around, evaporate, become clouds, rain down, and then mix up chemicals so they can do
interesting, complex things—like support life. Earth’s ability to sustain life depends on that water.

I. Layers of earth
A. Core
i. Inner Core:
 Extremely high temperature and pres-sure exists here.
 Its outer surface lies 5100 km below sea level.
 It is a solid layer where predominantly Iron and nickel exist.
ii. Outer Core:
 Its outer surface lies at some 2900 km below sea level.
 Although extremely high temperatures and pressures exist here but because
pressure is comparatively less than inner core, liquid state prevails. Outer
core predominantly consists of iron nickel and radioactive elements.
 The density of the inner and outer core combined has been calculated as 12.5
g/cm^3.
B. Mantle:
Its lower surface lies 2900km below sea level.
 Upper mantle
 lower mantle

i. Solid Lower Mantle:

 Lower mantle is in a solid state.
 This layer is composed of oxide of iron, magnesium and silicon.
ii. Upper Mantle:
 Upper mantle's material is semi sol-id/plastic solid, however, upper mantle just
beneath the crust is solid.
 Convection cells in upper mantle are re-sponsible for movement of tectonic
plates.
 The solid part of the upper mantle to-gether with the crust is referred to as the
lithosphere.

C. Crust:
 The solid outermost layer of the earth is known as crust.
 Crust average density is (2.8g/cm^3)
 Crust with upper solid part of upper man-tle makes lithosphere.
 Crust can be oceanic and continental.
 71% is oceanic while 29% is continental.
i. Oceanic crust:
 It lies below oceans.
 It is denser than continental crust
 It is basaltic in composition
 It has average thickness of 7km whereas it has a range of 5 to 10 km.
ii. Continental crust:

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  The part of earth on which we move is continental crust
 It is lighter than oceanic crust
 It is granitic in composition
 It has an average thickness of 35km whereas it has a range of 20 to 70km.

II. Internal structure of the earth:

A. Evidence:
 Rock samples taken from great depth of earth interior have higher concentrations of iron
and magnesium compared to average crustal rocks.
 Mass and size of earth suggests a density of 5.5gm/cm^3.This is about double the density
of rocks found on earth. This suggest the denser part of the earth should be in the deep
interior.
 The analysis of seismic waves suggests internal layers of earth.

Internal structure of the earth may be most convincingly described with the help of seismic
waves or earthquake waves.
B. Nature of seismic waves:
 They refract upon entering different medium.
 They bounce back when they encounter extremely dense medium which is known as
seismic reflection.
 Their speed increases in denser mediums.
 Their speed increases with depth in a given medium.
i. Types of seismic waves:
a. Surface waves

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They travel along the surface of the crust. They are also called L waves.
b. Body waves:
They only travel through the interior of the earth. The body waves are of two kinds:
c. P waves:
The P waves are compressional waves, sometimes called push waves. They move material
parallel to the direction of their movement. They travel through material of any state.
d. S waves:
The S waves are also called shear or shake waves. These waves move objects at right angles to
their direction of motion. They do not propagate through liquid material.

ii. Observations:
 If an earthquake occurs at zero degrees
 P and S waves are recorded by seismographs everywhere to 103 degrees from its source.
 Neither P nor S waves are recorded from 103 to 142 degrees.
 From 142 to 180 degrees, P waves reappear.
 P waves between 142 to 180 degrees have been refracted four times. Moreover, their
speed has increased.
 Many P waves are reflected back.

iii. Deduction :
I. S waves fail to reach a seismograph in an opposite hemisphere, it may be concluded that
liquid material inside the earth stopped their progress.
II. At the contact between this liquid layer and the layer above it, P waves are refracted. From
the refraction of P waves, we can deduce the contrast in density solid and liquid layer.
III. P waves, between 142 and 180 degrees, have been refracted four times. Moreover, their
speed has increased, and many P waves are reflected back. This shows that the P waves
must have travelled through a very dense mass inside the liquid layer
6. Conclusion
Hence on the basis of seismic evidence, the interior earth believed to have four layers. On top of
all this lies Crust which is the solid outermost part of of the earth.
 Solid inner core
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  Liquid outercore
 Solid lower mantle
 Partially molten upper mantle
 Crust

III. Atmosphere of Earth

The Earth's atmosphere contains several different layers that can be defined according to air
temperature, Figure 7b-1 displays these layers in an average atmosphere.

A. Troposphere
i. Height of layer
The depth of this layer varies from about 8 at the poles to 16 kilometres at the tropics. Its average
height is 12 km
ii. Total mass of atmosphere contained
About 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere is contained in troposphere
iii. Some properties
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 o It is also the layer where the majority of our weather occurs
o At an average temperature of -56.5° Celsius, the top of the troposphere is reached
o Temperature decreases with increase in altitude until the tropopause is reached
o The air here is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The last 1% is made of argon, water vapour,
and carbon dioxide.

B. Stratosphere
i. Height of layer
This layer extends from an average altitude of 12 to 50 kilometres above the Earth's surface.
ii. Total mass of atmosphere contained
This stratosphere contains about 19.9% of the total mass found in the atmosphere
iii. Some properties
o Above the tropopause is the stratosphere
o Very little weather occurs in the stratosphere
o In the first 10 kilometres of the stratosphere, temperature remains constant with height. A
zone with constant temperature in the atmosphere is called an isothermal layer
o From an altitude of 22 to 50 kilometres, temperature increases with an increase in altitude
o The higher temperatures found in this region of the stratosphere occurs because of a
localized concentration of ozone gas molecules. These molecules absorb ultraviolet
sunlight creating heat energy that warms the stratosphere

D. Mesosphere
The mesosphere lies between the thermosphere and the stratosphere
i. Height of layer
It extends from about 50 to 80 km
ii. Some properties
o In the mesosphere, the atmosphere reaches its coldest temperatures (about -90° Celsius)
at a height of approximately 80 kilometres
o At the top of the mesosphere is another transition zone known as the mesopause.
o The sunlight reduces molecules to individually charged particles called ions in a process
known as ionization. Ionized particles concentrated in a zone known as d- layer. Blackouts
in communication between the ground and astronaut occur as the d-layer is crossed in re-
entry

E. Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies between the exosphere and the mesosphere. “Thermo” means heat
i. Height of layer
It is above 80km
ii. Some properties
o the temperature in this layer can reach up to 2400 C
o If you were to hang out in the thermosphere, though, you would be very cold because there
aren’t enough gas molecules to transfer the heat to you. This also means there aren’t
enough molecules for sound waves to travel through
o There is an extremely low concentration of oxygen, and gas particles are very thin and
spread out over long distances.
o Due to ionization E and F layers are found there.
o Auroras are formed here

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 o This is sometimes referred as magnetosphere because here the earth’s magnetic field is
more influential than gravitational field

F. Exosphere: Outer most layer, temperature very high

G. Ionosphere
o An interesting layer called the ionosphere overlaps the mesosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere. Its name comes from the fact that gases in these layers are excited by solar
radiation to form “ions,” which have an electrical charge.
o Ionisation of air molecules in the ionosphere is produced by ultraviolet radiation from the
Sun, and to a lesser extent by high-energy particles from the Sun and from cosmic rays.

I. Aurora
On certain nights at high latitudes shifting patterns of light may been seen in the sky. These are
the aurorae. The bright lights are caused by high-energy particles streaming out from the Sun - the
solar wind - striking the Earth's upper atmosphere or ionosphere

Rotation and Revolution

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 1. Effects of rotation:
Pressure gradient force moves air from high pressure to low pressure. For sea and land breezes,
which are local in nature, this pushes wind in about the same direction as the pressure gradient.
But on global scales, the direction of air motion is more complicated. The difference is caused by
the Earth’s rotation, through the Coriolis effect.
I. What is Coriolis effect
The rotation of the Earth creates another force, termed Coriolis force, which acts upon wind and
other objects. The consequence of Coriolis force opposing pressure gradient acceleration is that
the moving air changes direction. Instead of wind blowing directly from high to low pressure, the
rotation of the Earth causes wind to be deflected off course. In the Northern Hemisphere, wind
is deflected to the right of its path, while in the Southern Hemisphere it is deflected to the
left. Coriolis force is absent at the equator, and its strength increases as one approaches either
pole. Furthermore, an increase in wind speed also results in a stronger Coriolis force, and thus in
greater deflection of the wind. Coriolis force only acts on air when it has been sent into motion by
pressure gradient force.
II. Diagrams

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 Rotation of Earth
Rotation of earth is the spinning at Revolution of earth is the movement of earth
its own axis
Earth completes one rotation in
one day
Due to rotation days and nights
are formed
Earth rotates from west to east
Rotation speed is different at
different points of earth
Rotation speed at equator is
almost 1000 mph
Rotation is the cause of tides,
currents and winds
Rotation causes bulge at the
equator of earth
Rotation of earth affects tides,
currents and winds.
Revolution of Earth
around sun
Earth completes one revolution in one year
Due to revolution seasons are formed
Earth revolves counter clock wise
Revolution speed is similar of all parts of earth
Revolution speed is incredible 66000 mph
Revolution is the cause of equinox and solstice
Revolution balances centrifugal and centripetal
forces of earth
Revolution of earth affects tides only

2. Apogee and Perigee

 When the moon is closest to Earth it is called Perigee
 When the moon is farther from Earth it is called Apogee

3. Aphelion and Perihelion

 When Earth is closest in orbit to the Sun is is called Perihelion, this is during our winter.
 When Earth is farthest in orbit from the Sun is is called Aphelion, this is during our summer.

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Latitude Longitude
Imaginary lines running Imaginary lines running vertically around
horizontally around the globe are the globe are longitudes
called latitude
There are also called parallels These are also called meridians
Latitude lines are equidistant from Meridians meet at the poles and are
each other widest apart at the equator

Zero degrees (0°) latitude is the Zero degrees longitude (0°) is called the
equator prime meridian
Latitude lines run east and west Longitude lines run north and south and
and measure north and south measure east and west.

4. Formation of season
The seasons have an unequal number of days because earth’s orbit is elliptical or oval shaped
and the sun is not exactly at the centre of the orbit. Earth moves slightly faster when it is close to
the sun than when it is farther away, so the seasons that occur when earth is close to the sun
passes more quickly. Earth is closest to the sun in January and farthest away in july, so the
summer is longer than winter in northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere the winter is
longer than summer.

5. Solstices and Equinoxes

 Winter Solstice occurs on December 21-22, we receive the shortest length of sunlight
hours. Summer Solstice occurs on June 21-22, we receive the longest length of sunlight
hours. In December the South Pole is tilted farther towards the sun than it is at any other
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 time of the year and the North Pole is tilted farther away from the sun. The southern has
its summer solstice while the north has its winter solstice. The opposite occurs in the
month of june.
 Equinoxes occur on March 20-21 and on September 22-23. In the northern hemisphere,
the vernal equinox (March) conventionally marks the beginning of spring, while the
autumnal equinox (September) marks the beginning of autumn. In southern hemisphere
the opposite occurs.

Weather
1. Introduction:
Weather, state of the atmosphere at a particular time and place. The elements of weather include
temperature, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, wind, and pressure. These elements are
organized into various weather systems, such as monsoons, areas of high and low pressure,
thunderstorms, and tornadoes. All weather systems have well-defined cycles and structural
features and are governed by the laws of heat and motion. These conditions are studied in
meteorology, the science of weather and weather forecasting. Weather differs from climate, which
is the weather that a particular region experiences over a long period of time.
I. Temperature:
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of the air.
A. Scales used for measuring temperature
Three different scales are used for measuring temperature. Scientists use the Kelvin, or absolute,
scale and the Celsius, or centigrade, scale. Most nations use the Celsius scale, although the
United States continues to use the Fahrenheit scale

B. Factors influencing the distribution of temperature on earth

i. The latitude of location determines how much solar radiation is received
ii. ALBEDO of surface. In general land absorbs less insolation than water because water
albedo is less. Also even if two surfaces have same albedo the specific heat determines the
amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a body
C. Factors affecting horizontal distribution of temperature
i. Latitude or distance from equator
Due to Earth's spherical shape, the solar rays have more intensity around the equatorial regions.
As we move further away from the equator, the energy density decreases as the solar rays are
distributed around a larger geographical region
ii. Altitude
Since troposphere's temperature usually declines with height. Thus, places located at higher
altitude tends to experience lower temperature

iii. Distance from sea

Areas near the sea experience sea breeze due to which its temperature is different than inland
areas.

iv. Ocean currents

Ocean currents also influence the temperature of adjacent land area considerably. Warm currents
raise the temperature, whereas, cold currents lower the temperature. For instance, North Atlantic
Drift an extension of Gulf stream keeps Great Britain and much of western Europe warm during
winter season.

24
 v. Prevailing winds
A windward location will experience the moderating influence of oceans or seas whereas a
leeward side will have a more continental temperature regime

vi. Slope of land

Area exposed to sun will experience more insolation than those away from the sun. Thus, in many
valleys, settlements and cultivation are therefore concentrated on southern slope whereas the
northern remain forested

vii. Nature of surface

Surface covered with ice reflects most of the insolation due to which temperature remains low.
While, in sandy areas the radiation absorbed are greater due to which the temperature remains
high.

viii. Rainfall and clouds

Areas with rainfalls and clouds experience low temperature because most of the solar
insolation are either absorbed or reflected by the clouds. For instance, temperature is lower in
equatorial region than temperature in deserts

II. Wind
The movement of air relative to earth's surface is called wind
A. Why wind occurs?
i. Pressure gradients
The pressure gradient (typically of air, more generally of any fluid) is a physical quantity that
describes which direction and at what rate the pressure changes the most rapidly. The pressure
change over a unit distance is called pressure gradient force, and the greater this force the faster
the winds will blow. Thus, winds blow because of differences in atmospheric pressure
ii. How potential gradient is created

Solar heating creates contrasting surface areas of temperature and atmospheric pressure. As
shown in the diagram, the area to the right receives more solar radiation and the air begins to
warm from heat energy transferred from the ground through conduction and convection. Thus,
a pressure gradient begins to form because of the rising air at the right and descending air at the
left. The air then begins to flow from high pressure to low pressure which results in formation of
convection cell.

B. Types of winds
wind

Local wind Regional wind Global winds

25
 C. Global Wind and Pressure Patterns
Pressure gradient force moves air from high pressure to low pressure. For sea and land breezes,
which are local in nature, this pushes wind in about the same direction as the pressure gradient.
But on global scales, the direction of air motion is more complicated. The difference is caused by
the Earth’s rotation, through the Coriolis effect.
i. What is Coriolis effect
The rotation of the Earth creates another force, termed Coriolis force, which acts upon wind and
other objects. The consequence of Coriolis force opposing pressure gradient acceleration is that
the moving air changes direction. Instead of wind blowing directly from high to low pressure, the
rotation of the Earth causes wind to be deflected off course. In the Northern Hemisphere, wind
is deflected to the right of its path, while in the Southern Hemisphere it is deflected to the
left. Coriolis force is absent at the equator, and its strength increases as one approaches either
pole. Furthermore, an increase in wind speed also results in a stronger Coriolis force, and thus in
greater deflection of the wind. Coriolis force only acts on air when it has been sent into motion by
pressure gradient force.
ii. Diagrams

III. Humidity:
Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapour in the air. The air‘s capacity to hold vapor is
limited but increases dramatically as the air warms, roughly doubling for each temperature
increase of 10° C (18° F)
A. Different measures of humidity
i. Absolute Humidity:
It may be defined as the actual amount of water vapour present in the air.
ii. Relative Humidity
The maximum amount of vapour which air can hold at a particular temperature.
Relative humidity=Total amount of water vapour present in air x 100
Capacity to absorb water vapour

IV. Clouds
Clouds are visible masses of suspended, minute water droplets or ice crystals. As fog occurs
close to the earth's surface. Clouds are generally formed above the ground level, high in the sky.
A. Conditions Necessary for the formation
 The air must be saturated, either by cooling below the dew point or by evaporating enough
water to fill the air to its maximum water holding capacity.
 There must be a substantial quantity of small airborne particles called condensation nuclei,
around which liquid droplets may form nuclei. They are always present in the atmosphere in
the form of dust and salt particles
26
 B. Types of clouds:
 Stratus clouds
 Cumulus clouds.
 Cirrus clouds

C. How rainbows and halos occur

Optical phenomena, such as rainbows and halos, occur when light shines through cloud particles.
Rainbows are seen when sunlight from behind the observer strikes the raindrops falling from
cumulonimbus clouds. The raindrops act as tiny prisms, bending and reflecting the different colors
of light back to the observer‘s eye at different angles and creating bands of color. Halos are seen
when sunlight or moonlight in front of the observer strikes ice crystals and then passes through
high, thin cirrostratus clouds.

V. Precipitation
A. Definition
When moist laden air rises upwards, it is cooled and condensation starts below dew point. Water
droplets are formed around the dust (or salt) particles present in the air and they keep on floating
in the air gathering more condensation. Clouds are formed. After sometime, the size of the water
droplets increases to such an extent that the air resistance cannot hold the water drops and they
fall on the earth as rains
B. Types of precipitation

i. Convergent-lifting precipitation
Where warm airflows converge at or very near the surface their molecules are forced to crowd
together due to which their molecular kinetic energy increases. Resultantly, the air warms and
rises. The cooling of large quantities of water vapour in the uplifted air causes the rainfall. This
type of precipitation is more pronounced in the equatorial zone of convergence where the trade
winds meet.

ii. Convectional airflow

When the land becomes very hot it heats the air above it. This causes the air to rise and
convectional precipitation occurs after condensation of' the upward moving air. It is very common
in tropical areas

27
 iii. Frontal or cyclonic rainfall.
Frontal rain occurs when warm air meets cold air. The warm air being lighter is forced to rise over
the cold air. As it rises it cools, condenses and forms rain. It is common in middle and high
latitudes.

iv. Orographic uplift

During orographic uplift a moving mass of air encounters a mountain range or other upland zone.
Due to the push of air piling up behind it the air is forced to rise over. When prevailing onshore
winds carry air laden with moisture not much cooling is needed to trigger condensation during the
forced ascent of this airflow. This precipitation occurs on windward side, the leeward side is
marked by dryness because most of the moisture is precipitated.

C. Forms of precipitation:
The common forms of precipitation are as follows:
a) Fog

28
Fog is a cloud that touches the ground. In dense fogs, the visibility may drop below 50 m (55 yd).
Fog occurs most frequently when the earth‘s surface is much colder than the air directly above it,
such as around dawn and over cold ocean currents.
b) Mist
c) Haze
d) Rain
Liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of droplet. The drops are not greater than
0.5mm in diameter
e) Snow
Snow forms when water vapour turns directly into ice. For snow to occur the entire temperature
profile in the troposphere needs to be below freezing point.
f) Snowflakes
Snowflakes are either single ice crystals or clusters of ice crystals. Large snowflakes generally
form when the temperature is near 0° C (32° F), because at this temperature the flakes are partly
melted and stick together when they collide.
g) Hail
Deep within cumulonimbus clouds ice crystals form and begin to fall towards the Earth's surface.
As this happens, wind gusts pick up the ice crystals, pushing them back up high into the clouds.
As they begin to again fall down, they continue growing in size. Again, a wind gust might catch the
hail stones, pushing them back up high into the clouds. This process may be repeated several
more times until the hail stones become so large that they are too heavy for the wind to carry,
causing them to fall towards the Earth
h) Sleet
Sleets are formed when there is a warm layer above a relatively subfreezing layer at the surface.
The layer above freezing will allow for liquid precipitation but as the drops hit the cold layer, they
will freeze and hit the ground. Diameter of sleet is 5mm

29
Acid rain:

1. Definition
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i.e., elevated levels of
hydrogen ions (low pH).
2. Formation
In the atmosphere, the oxides of Sulphur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and
fossil fuel combustion, these gases are ultimately converted into sulphuric and nitric acids by
combing with water in atmosphere, this acidic mixture then falls as rain, sleet, mist or snow or as
solid flakes.
3. Formula
SOX + H20 = H2S04
NOx + H20 = HN03
Air pollution in one nation can cause acid rain in another. Rain water is turned acidic when its pH
falls below 5.6.

Acid rain is the phenomenon of wet and dry acidic deposition.

1. Types of deposition
I. Wet deposition
Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow, and so on) removes
acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the Earth's surface.
II. Dry deposition
This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces. This can be
responsible for as much as 20% to 60% of total acid deposition.

The table below shall help you know the sources of gases/materials that contribute to acid rains:
2. Acidic gases and their emission sources
Greenhouse gas Major sources
Carbon Dioxide Fossil fuel combustion; Deforestation; Cement production
Methane Fossil fuel production; Agriculture; Landfills
Nitrogen Oxides Fertilizer application; Fossil fuel and biomass combustion; Industrial
processes
SOX (Sulphur oxides) Fossil fuel burning; industrial sources; volcanoes; oceans.

30
 3. Adverse effects
Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwater and soils, killing insect
and aquatic life-forms as well as causing damage to buildings and having impacts on human
health.
I. Surface water and aquatic animals
The lower pH in surface water that occurs as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish and
other aquatic animals. At pH lower than 5, most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pH can kill
adult fish. Acid rain has eliminated insect life and some fish species, including the brook trout. It is
not only the acid in the water that kills them but also poisonous minerals like aluminium that are
washed out of the surrounding ground into the water. The birds that eat the fish also begin to
suffer as the harmful minerals build up inside them.
II. Soil
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain in following ways.
 Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pH and are killed.
 Soils naturally contain small amounts of poisonous minerals such as mercury and
aluminum. Normally these minerals do not cause serious problems, but when acid
rain falls on the ground and the acidity of the soil increases, chemical reactions occur
allowing the poisonous minerals to be taken up by the plant roots. The trees and
plants are then damaged and any animals eating them will absorb the poisons that will stay
in their bodies.
 The acid takes important minerals away from the leaves and the soil.
In cultivated areas, limestone may also be added to increase the ability of the soil to keep the pH
stable, but this tactic is largely unusable in the case of wilderness lands.
III. Human health effects
The particulates responsible for acid rain (Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) do have an
adverse effect. Increased amounts of fine particulate matter in the air do contribute to heart and
lung problems including asthma and bronchitis.).hair loss is a problem associated with acid rain.
IV. adverse effects on monuments
Acid rain can also damage buildings and historic monuments and statues, especially those made
of rocks, such as limestone and marble that contains large amounts of calcium carbonate. They
react with minerals in the stone to form a powdery substance that can be washed away by rain.
Acids in the rain react with the calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum, which then
flakes off.
CaC03 (s) + H2S04 (aq) ----->CaS04 (aq) + C02 (g) + H20 (1)
The effects of this are commonly seen on old gravestones, where acid rain can cause the
inscriptions to become completely illegible. Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals, in
particular iron, steel, copper and bronze. Famous buildings like the Statue of Liberty in New York,
the Taj Mahal in India and St. Paul's Cathedral in London have all been damaged by this sort of air
Pollution. Effects on infrastructure are damaged stained glass windows in churches, railway
lines and steel bridges.

4. Control of acid rain

I. Clean up smokestacks and exhaust pipes: Almost all of the electricity that powers modem
life comes from burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and oil. Acid deposition is caused
by two pollutants that are released into the atmosphere, or emitted, when these fuels are
burned: sulfur dioxide (S02) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
II. There are several options for reducing S02 emissions including using coal containing less
sulfur, washing the coal, and using devices called scrubbers to chemically remove the S02
from the gases leaving the smokestack. Similar to scrubbers on power plants, catalytic
converters reduce NOX emissions from cars.
III. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.
IV. Public awareness.
V. Use of alternative energy resources.
31
Energy
1. Definition
Energy can be defined as the ability to do work
2. States of energy
All forms of energy can be in either of two states:

Energy

Potential Kinetic

Gravitational Hydrological Elastic Meteorological Biological

I. Kinetic energy
The energy of motion is called kinetic energy.
K.E. = mass x velocity2
2

II. Potential Energy

Potential Energy is stored energy.
A. Gravitational Potential Energy
Potential energy that is dependent on height is called gravitational potential energy.
W = mgh

B. Elastic potential energy

Energy that is stored due to being stretched or compressed is called elastic potential energy.

3. Forms of Energy

Forms of energy

Heat Chemical Nuclear Mechanical Electromagnetic

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Energy resources

1. Sustainable energy system

Sustainable energy is the form of energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, such that the
"provision of this form of energy serves the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future”.
Sustainable energy focuses on renewable energy resources and energy efficiency.

I. Renewable energy resources

Are those resources which are naturally occurring and are replenished naturally without
interference of human beings?
II. Alternative energy
Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel and nuclear energy

33
 A. Geothermal energy
Currently, the most common way of capturing the energy from geothermal sources is to tap into
naturally occurring hydrothermal convection systems where cooler water seeps into the earth's
crust, is heated up, and then rises to the surface. This heated water is then used to drive electric
generators. According to the data from the international Geothermal Association (IGA), the global
potential of convectional geothermal source is approximately 70 GW. Currently, United States is
having the largest geothermal plants.
B. Solar power
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or
indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). The sun is the world's largest power plant. It
provides more renewable energy to the earth in one hour than that produced by all nations in a
year. However, solar power statistics show that we only use the sun for 0.01 % of our electrical
needs. Despite the advances in solar power technology, it still costs 5 times as much to produce
electricity from solar panels than it does from using coal, gas or nuclear sources.
i. Passive Solar Energy
In passive solar building design, windows, walls and floors are made to collect, store and distribute
solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called
passive solar design.
ii. Active solar energy
Converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using
concentrated solar power (CSP). Ziad Alahdad has written in the book Pakistan beyond the crisis
state that if 0.20% of land area of Balochistan is covered with solar panels of 20% efficiency this
would be enough to provide electricity to the entire country.
C. Energy by wind
Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun. This wind flow, or motion
energy, when "harvested" by modem wind turbines, can be used to generate electricity. Areas
where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites are
preferred locations for wind farms. Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is
believed to be five times of total current global energy production. Current capacity of Pakistan to
generate energy by wind is 340,000 MW.
D. Hydroelectric source
Hydroelectricity is the tern referring to electricity generated by hydropower. China is the largest
hydroelectricity producer. Current capacity of Pakistan is 100,000 MW
E. Biogas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by breakdown of organic matter in the absence of
oxygen. It is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such
as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material, and crops. Biogas
comprises primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (C02) and may have small amounts of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases — methane, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (CO) — can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas
to be used as a fuel.
It is argued that only sugar Industry of Pakistan has potential of producing 1000MW of electricity
from biogas. Similarly, it is estimated that if only 50% of waist daily produced is properly
channeled, it can produce 12 million cubic meter of biogas.
F. Tidal power
The power created though tidal generators is generally more environment-friendly and causes
less impact on established ecosystems. Similar to a wind turbine, many tidal stream generators
rotate underwater and are driven by the swiftly moving dense water.

34
 G. Wave power
Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean surface waves, and the capture of that energy to
do useful work — for example for electricity generation, water desalination, or the pumping of
water (into reservoirs). Wave farms have been created and are in use in Europe.
H. Hydrogen energy
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. Fuel cells are
Often compared to batteries. Both convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable
power.

II. Energy conservation

Energy conservation means to reduce the quantity of energy that is used for different purposes. In
general, energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita.
This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy
imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred
methods of energy production. Thus, energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-
renewable resources with renewable energy and reduce emissions. By reducing emissions,
energy conservation is an important method to prevent climate change.
A. Energy conservation vs. Efficiency
Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption through using less of an energy
service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using less energy
for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of energy conservation. Driving the
same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an example of energy efficiency. Energy
conservation and efficiency are both energy reduction techniques.
B. Importance of Energy Conservation
The earth provides enough energy to satisfy every man's needs but not every man's greed. Hard
facts on why energy conservation is a must are outlined below:
 We use energy faster than it can be produced. For instance, coal, oil and natural gas the
most utilized sources take thousands of years for formation.
 We save the country a lot of money when we save energy
 Most of the energy sources we use cannot be reused and renewed — non-renewable
energy sources constitute 80% of the fuel use. It is said that our energy resources may last
only for another 40 years or so.
 Energy production and use account to large proportion of air pollution and more than 83
percent of greenhouse gas emissions.
 An old saying describes it this way - The earth, the Water and the air are not a gift to us
from our parents but a loan from our children. Hence we need to make energy conservation
a habit.
C. How can we Conserve Energy?
We can conserve energy through following:-
i. Renewable Options
We should switch our energy production on "renewable resources" as much as we can.
ii. Balance of Energy Mix
Energy mix means total energy of a region/country from all resources. If all resources share
appropriate portion to energy mix, it is called "balance of energy mix". But if energy mix relies
more on one or two resources than the others, we called it "imbalance of energy mix". For
example, Pakistan produces 65% energy from fossil fuel (36% gas + 29% oil). We can conserve
our energy by increasing the share of non-exhaustible resources

35
 iii. Avoiding Loss of Energy
Due to use of bad or weak electricity infrastructure (poles, wires, and meters), large quantity of
energy is lost. We should improve our infrastructure to avoid the loss of energy. For instance, the
numbers of units lost due to weak infrastructure was recorded at 16,762 in 2015-16.
iv. Sustainable Transport
Energy can be conserved by using the transport which is more economical, more efficient; which
gives more mileage and which is more environment-friendly.
v. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (3Rs)
Reduce the amount of waste you produce by buying minimally packaged goods, choosing
reusable products over disposable ones, and making products from recycled material.
Example from back
vi. Home Improvements
Insulate walls and ceilings
vii. Smart cities
Making streets walkable.
viii. Home Heating and Cooling
Be careful not to overheat or overcool rooms.
ix. Public Awareness
Large portion of our population is unaware of consequences of waste of energy and its hazardous
impacts on our environment. A well-organized campaign should be launched to educate people
about energy conservation.
x. Do not put Appliances on Standby Power
Standby power, also called leaking electricity refers to the electric power consumed by electronic
and electrical appliances while they are switched off but are designed to draw some power.
xi. Government Policies
Government should implement policy to ensure "energy conservation". The policy should be long-
term focusing on sustainability, affordability and less consumption of energy. Pakistan announced
its National Energy Policy 2013-18 in July 2013.
xii. Population growth
Following a slower population growth path could reduce emissions from fossil fuel use by 1.4 to
2.5 billion tons of carbon per year by 2050.19 This is roughly 16 to 29 percent of the emissions
reductions needed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that
would prevent the most damaging climate change.

xiii. Other Ways to Conserve Energy

 Insulate your house and keep it cool or warm, depending on the season. It is an important
way to save energy
 Minimize your use of outside lights, use only when necessary.
 Save energy by reducing your use of appliances.

2. How are oil and gas made?

36
Difference between renewable and non-renewable

37
Biofuels
1. Definition
Biofuels are solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels consisting of, or derived directly or indirectly from
biomass, or biological materials. Biofuel is a renewable form of energy
2. Process through which biofuels are formed
Biofuels are derived from biomass formed through a process of carbon fixation

3. Commonly used bio fuels

 Bioethanol
 Biodiesel
 Bio-methane

4. Classification of biofuels
I. 1st generation bio fuels
Also called conventional biofuels. It includes sugar, starch, or vegetable oil
II. 2nd generation bio fuels
Known as advanced biofuels and can be manufactured from different types of biomass. These are
non-food biomass The biomass contains wood, straw and waste plastic
III. 3rd generation bio fuels
Extract from algae mostly marine algae

5. Advantages of Biofuels over Fossil Fuels

 Lower emissions Green gas
 Renewable
 Biodegradable
 Safer

6. Disadvantages of Biofuel
High Cost of Production

38
 PLATE TECTONICS
Plates pics
1. Introduction:
According to plate tectonics theory, the outer most part of earth is not a uniform shell but fractured
into pieces. The outermost part of the Earth's interior is made up of two layers: the lithosphere,
comprising the crust, and the solidified uppermost part of the mantle. Below the lithosphere lies
the asthenosphere, which forms the inner part of the mantle. The asthenosphere behaves like a
superheated and extremely viscous liquid. The lithosphere essentially floats on the asthenosphere
and is broken up into what are called tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move
in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries, convergent, divergent and
transform. Earthquakes, volcanism, mountain building, island, island arc and oceanic trench
formation can occur along these plate boundaries. This theory has its foundation i
 Continental drift theory.
 Sea floor spreading theory.
2. Main plates:
 African plate
 Antarctic plate
 Australian plate
 Eurasian plate
 North American plate
 South American plate
 Pacific plate

3. Types of plate boundaries:

The boundaries where plates meet are known as plate margins. The type of geologic activity that
occurs when two plates interact is dependent on the nature of the plate interaction and of the
margins. Plate margins come in three varieties: oceanic-oceanic, continental-continental, and
continental-oceanic.
I. Divergent plate boundaries:
A. Oceanic divergent plate boundaries:
At divergent plate boundaries, two tectonic plates diverge from one another due to magma
convection cells. The rising magma current pushes up on bottom of the lithosphere, lifts it and
flows laterally beneath it. The lateral flow causes the plate material above be dragged along in
direction of flow. At the uplift, the plate gets thinner and breaks apart. It results in sea floor
spreading and forming of new oceanic crust.
i. Landforms:
islands, oceanic ridges deep sea vents and black smokers.
ii. Examples:
Mid Atlantic oceanic ridge and island of Iceland.

39
 B. Continental divergent plate boundaries:
When a divergent boundary occurs beneath a thick continental plate, the pull-apart cannot break
through the thick plate material. Here the thick continental plate is arched upwards from the
convection current's lift and pulled thin by extensional forces. As the two plates pull apart central
blocks slide downwards.
i. Landforms:
volcanoes and rifts.
ii. Example:
Great African rift valley and mount Kenya volcano.

II. Convergent plate boundaries

A. Continental-continental convergent plates:
At continental-continental convergent margins neither plate subducts. The two continental plates
converge, buckle, and compress to form complex mountains ranges of great height.
i. Landforms:
mountain ranges
ii. Example:
Convergence of this sort produced the Himalayas when the Indian-Australian plate collided with
the Eurasian plate.

B. Convergent oceanic plate boundaries:

one oceanic plate subducts under another oceanic plate forming a deep ocean trench just
offshore. The subducted crust puts further pressure on magma inside. The crust also melts from
the heat inside to form magma. The magma rises resulting in volcanism.
i. Landforms:
It results in island arcs.
ii. Example:
Japanese archipelago, Indonesia, the Philippine Islands, and the Aleutian Islands of Alaska is a
result of this interaction.

40
 C. Convergent continental-oceanic plate boundaries:
The oceanic plate subducts under continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore.
The subducted crust puts further pressure on magma inside. The crust also melts from the heat
inside to form magma. The magma rises resulting in volcanism in continental plate.
i. landforms:
Volcanic mountains
ii. Example:

Volcanoes in Andes mountains in South America and Mount Fuji in japan is its example.

III. Transform boundary:

Transform motion may occur along plate margins sliding past one another
A. landforms:
It results in a crack or fault.
B. Example:
San Andreas fault.

41
 EARTHQUAKE
1. Definition
An earthquake is the sudden movement and release of energy that has been slowly built up,
during the stress of increasing deformation of rocks.

2. Some important terminologies

 Seismology :The study of how seismic waves behave in the Earth.
 Crack along which the rock slips are known as faults. The location on a fault line where the
slip occurs is called focus. The position directly above it on the ground surface is know as
epicentre. Earthquakes normally occur at some depth below the earth’s surface. the point of
generation of earthquake is known as focus of earthquake.
 Seismograph: It is used to record the intensity of earthquake.
 Measurement units:
 Richter scale
 Mercalli scale

3. Types of earthquakes
 Shallow:
When depth of focus is less than 60km
 Intermediate:
When the depth of the focus is between 60km – 300km
 Deep:
When the depth of the origin is greater than 300km
4. Nature of seismic waves:
 They refract upon entering different medium.
 They bounce back when they encounter extremely dense medium which is known as
seismic reflection.
 Their speed increases in denser mediums.
 Their speed increases with depth in a given medium.

5. Types of seismic waves:

I. Surface waves: They travel along the surface of the crust. They are also called L waves.
II. Body waves: They only travel through the interior of the earth. The body waves are of two
kinds:
A. P waves:
The P waves are compressional waves, sometimes called push waves. They move material
parallel to the direction of their movement. They travel through material of any state.
B. S waves:
The S waves are also called shear or shake waves. These waves move objects at right angles to
their direction of motion. They do not propagate through liquid material.

42
 6. Explanation of earthquake waves by elastic rebound theory:
Elastic rebound theory was given by harry Fielding Reid in 1910.This theory is considered the best
explanation for how energy is generated during earthquake. He is of the view that rocks on either
side of fault provide a rough interface.as they move against each other, sometimes, they are stuck
due to friction. This subjects interface rocks to stress which in turn causes strain in these rocks.
When the stress exceeds the elastic limit of rocks they break resulting in emission of energy in
large quantity. This energy is dissipated in the form of heat and seismic waves. This also results in
large movement along the fault.
7. Causes of earth quakes:
I. Movement of plate tectonics:
According to plate tectonics theory, tectonic plates are moving. This results in different
interactions along plate boundaries. As the interacting surface is rough, Sometimes, these plates
stuck along the plate boundaries. This subjects boundary rocks to stress. When this stress
exceeds elastic limit of rocks, it causes breaking of rocks which results in release of seismic
waves. It is also accompanied by sudden movement of plates. The sudden movement may also
result in formation of different landforms.

II. Volcanic Activity

Earthquakes can also be produced by volcanic activity. They are caused by the movement of
magma. The magma exerts stress on the rocks until it cracks the rock. This cracking results in
release of seismic waves resulting in earthquake.

III. Accumulation of Water:

Whenever there is large scale accumulation of water, it causes strain in the underlying rocks.
When the strain crosses the elastic limit of rocks are broken and sudden vibrations take place in
the form of an earthquake. Such earthquakes are associated with dams, lakes and tanks.
IV. Local Causes:
Miner earthquakes take place due to local causes, such as landslides, or sudden collapse of the
caves in Karst region etc.
8. Zones of earthquake
I. Circum-Pacific belt:
The heaviest concentration of earthquakes is along the Circum-Pacific belt. This belt is also known
as the Ring of Fire. It is a 25,000-mile horseshoe shaped area surrounding the Pacific Ocean
where large numbers of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. Areas affected are:
 Japan, Philippines, Indonesia and New Zealand.
 Southern Alaska.
 U.S. West especially (California), Mexico and Central America.
 Virtually all western Southern America including major population centres in Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru and Chile.

II. Trans Eurasian Belt:

Another zone of high earthquake incidence is the Trans Eurasian belt which extends generally
eastward from Mediterranean Sea through Southwest Asia and the Himalayas into Southeast
Asia where it meets the Circum-Pacific belt. The incidence of major earthquakes in the corridor is
not as high as it is in parts of the Circum-Pacific belt. Areas affected are: Former Yugoslavia,
Greece, Iraq, Iran, highlands of Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, northernmost India and Nepal.
III. Midocean Ridges:

43
A third zone of earthquakes is associated with the global system of midocean ridges. The
earthquakes there are generally less frequent and less severe than they are in the Circum-Pacific
belt and except for population clusters on islands formed by these ridges, this earthquakes zone
does not endangers large number of people.
IV. Intraplate Earthquakes:
No doubt, earthquakes occur most frequently at the tectonic plate boundaries, but earthquakes,
some of them severe, can and do occur in other areas of the world.
The causes of these intraplate earthquakes are still not well understood, but they cause huge loss
as areas are less well-prepared for earthquakes. Areas affected are:
 Interior Asia
 Eastern Africa from Ethiopia to south Africa
 Some of North America's eastern parts.

9. Disadvantages:
 Earthquakes bring about large scale destruction of life and property.
 When the earthquake occurs in the sea, it causes strong waves in the sea (known as
Tsunamis) which result in heavy damage causing heavy damage to life and property.
 Earthquakes are responsible for big faults, thrusts and folds which obstruct transport and
communication.
 Earthquakes cause landslides in mountainous areas which result in large scale destruction.
 Glaciers are breached, and their avalanches scatter to far off places. The number of ice-
bergs increases suddenly which causes the accidents of ships.
 Underground water is also affected by earthquakes

VOLCANO
A mountain or hill, typically from which magma (molten subsurface rock) and associated gases
and ash erupt or have been erupted. It is produced by the ejected material. This phenomenon
of eruption is known as volcanism or volcanicity. Some hazards associated are earth quakes,
landslides lahars and acid rain.

44
 1. Causes of volcanism:

I. Divergent plate boundaries:

At divergent plate boundaries, two tectonic plates diverge from one another due (magma
convection cells). The crust gets thinner due to the pull of the tectonic plates. Either it breaks apart
(oceanic) or subsides(continental).it is accompanied with hot molten rock rising towards surface
resulting in volcanism. 15 percent of volcanism occurs where plates separate.
A. Oceanic divergent plate boundaries:
Results in sea floor spreading and forming of new oceanic crust. The volcanic activity is
submarine.
i. Examples:
Black smokers, deep sea vents, mid oceanic ridges and islands for instance Iceland.
B. Continental divergent plate boundaries:
Results in rifts and volcanoes.
i. Example:
Mount Kenya in Great African rift valley

II. Convergent plate boundaries

Subduction zones are places where two plates collide. Oceanic plate subducts forming a
deep ocean trench just offshore. The subducted crust puts further pressure on magma inside. The
crust also melts from the heat inside to form magma. The magma rises resulting in volcanism.
About 80 percent are found at boundaries where plates converge.

A. Convergent oceanic plate boundaries:

The oceanic plate subducts under another oceanic plate forming a deep ocean trench just
offshore. The subducted crust puts further pressure on magma inside. The crust also melts from
the heat inside to form magma. The magma rises resulting in volcanism. It usually results in island
arcs.
i. Example:
Japanese archipelago, Indonesia, the Philippine Islands, and the Aleutian Islands of Alaska is a
result of this interaction.
B. Convergent continental-oceanic plate boundaries:
The oceanic plate subducts under continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore.
The subducted crust puts further pressure on magma inside. The crust also melts from the heat
inside to form magma. The magma rises resulting in volcanism in continental plate.
i. Example:
Volcanoes in Andes mountains in South America and Mount Fuji in japan is its example.

III. Hotspots:
Hotspots are regions of volcanoes which are not a result of plate boundaries. They are caused by
anomalously hot mantle which rises through the crust in the form of column as mantle plumes. As
tectonic plates are moving, each volcano formed becomes dormant after some time and new
volcanoes are formed.
A. Example:
Hawaiian Islands
IV. Intraplate volcanoes:
No doubt, volcanoes occur most frequently at the tectonic plate boundaries, but some of them
do occur in other areas of the world. The causes of these intraplate volcanoes are still not well
45
 understood, but they can produce severe damage because people in the affected areas are less
well-prepared for volcanoes.

2. Classification on the basis of Activity:

I. Active Volcanoes:
These volcanoes continue to eject lava, gas, etc. Mount Etna and Stromboli are its best examples.
Dormant Volcanoes:
These volcanoes have stopped ejecting lava but they can become active at any time. Visuvius and
indian heaven is a good example of a dormant volcano.
II. Extinct volcanoes:
These volcanoes were active in the past but they have not ejected lava for hundreds of years.
Mount Kulal in Kenya is its example.
Landforms created by landforms:
 Extrusive landforms.
 Intrusive landforms.

Tsunami
1. Literal meaning:
Tsunami is a Japanese word means “hardbour wave”. As a scientific term it means the class of
abnormal sea waves that can cause destruction on a catastrophic scale when it hits the coast line.
2. Causes of Tsunami
3.
 Undersea earthquake: Undersea EQs are the most common cause of the of
Tsunamis, when the ocean floor is uplifted or offset during an earthquake, a set
of waves is created. These set of waves are like concentric waves that form when
an object is dropped into water.
 Undersea landslide
 Eruption of an undersea volcano
 Asteroid crashing into the ocean
4. Area with most tsunamis
Almost 80% of the tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean region know as Ring of Fire due to the
seismic activity in that area. This is because the amount of seismic and volcanic activity in the
area which occur due to the tectonic shifts in the earth’s plates.
5. Requirements for tsunami
For a Tsunami to occur three things must happen
A. Magnitude of earthquake
The EQ must 7.0 or above on Richter Scale. only an EQ of this magnitude can have enough
energy to displace enough amount of water to cause a Tsunami.
B. Vertical movement of sea bed
The sea bed must be lifted or lowered by the EQ. Horizontal displacement of seabed do not result
in tsunamis
C. Closeness of epicentre to coastal are
The epicentre must be close to a costal area.

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 6. Formation of tsunami

7. Characteristics of Tsunami

Distance between wavelengths 100-300km

Wave height in deep water 1-1.5m
Wave height near land Up to 30 m
Wave speed 1000km/h

8. Difference between wave and tsunami

Tsunami Waves
The entire body of water from the surface Only the surface water is in motion
to the sea bed is in motion
caused by energy originating underwater Energy comes from wind
from a volcanic eruption, a submarine
landslide or an earthquake on the ocean
floor
The waves are limited in size and speed

9. How tsunami occurs

Tsunamis are caused by energy originating underwater from a volcanic eruption, a submarine
landslide or most commonly an earthquake on the ocean floor caused when the tectonic plates of
the Earth's surface flip releasing a massive amount of energy into the water. This energy travels
up to the surface displacing water and raising it above the normal sea level but gravity pulls it back
down which makes the energy ripple outwards horizontally thus the tsunami is born
Tsunami is a wave, and if trough of that wave hits the land area first, the water will be pulled back
into the sea by enormous currents. Vast stretches of sea bed are often drained. This is a sign of
the upcoming crest of the wave that will cause tremendous destruction, if recognised, the people

47
on the beach have some time (mins to half an hour) to escape to higher ground. The first wave
crests can reach up to 30meterse and are followed by subsequent waves which are more
dangerous. Not only the crest of the tsunami wave is dangerous but also the trough is, which
sweeps people and things back into the ocean

10. How tsunami are detected

Tsunamis can be predicted if the undersea EQs are detected using seismographs. Early warning
systems can be installed to provide ample time for the people to escape to higher ground.

11. Difference between tsunami and tidal waves

Tsunamis are commonly known as tidal waves they're actually unrelated to the tidal activity
caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and Moon
12. How to prevent tsunami
A. The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was one of the deadliest natural disasters in history killing
over 200,000 people throughout South Asia so how can we protect ourselves against this
destructive force of nature. people in some areas have attempted to stop tsunamis with sea
walls flood gates and channels to divert the water but these are not always effective in
2011. A tsunami surpassed the flood wall protecting Japan's Fukushima power plant
causing a nuclear disaster in addition to claiming over 18,000 lives many scientists
B. Policymakers are instead focusing on early detection monitoring underwater pressure and
seismic activity and establishing global communication networks for quickly distributing
alerts when nature is too powerful to stop the safest course is to get out of its way.

FLOODS
1. Definition
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.
or
Flood is a high-water stage in which water overflows its natural or artificial banks onto normally dry
land, such as a river inundating its floodplain.

2. Characteristics of a Flood
A number of criteria determine the dangers of a flood.
I. Velocity-
High velocities of flow create erosive forces and can do things like destroy foundations.
II. Depth of Water
Floatation, failures on foundation, vegetation survival, etc..
III. Rate of Rise
Is the rate at which the water level increases.
IV. Seasonal
The land during growing season, the effects on agriculture production and other things like that.
V. Inundated Area
The extent of the area covered by the flood Water.
3. Causes:
A. Meteorological Causes
 Prolonged intense rainfall.
 Cyclones
 Typhoons, storms and tidal surges
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 B. Hydrological Causes: Flood can also be caused by increased runoff due to:
 Ice and snow melt
 Impermeable surfaces
 Saturated land
 Land erosion
C. Anthropogenic Causes
 Population growth
 Land use change, deforestation
 Urbanization
 Climate change and global warming

4. Effects:
A. Primary:
Damage to economy, loss of human life and infrastructure
B. Secondary:
Soil erosion and degradation, epidemics, poisoning, unhygienic conditions, sedimentation in river
channels reducing their capacity, damage to communication infrastructure, water pollution
(contamination of water bodies)
C. Tertiary/Long Term
Economic hardships, rebuilding costs, food shortage, poverty, loss of production,

5. Flood Prevention:
A. Monitoring and forecasting:
Flood control starts with information. Constant observation of weather conditions and storage
facilities can provide an estimate of the amount of flooding. By integrating meteorology,
hydrology, geo-technology and crisis management, forecasting of floods can be made more
reliable. A warning can be issued so preventive measures can be opted well in advance.
B. Management of Floods
i. Structural or Hard options:
More expensive and have a greater impact
a. Dams: built on river course, to store water and release in a controlled way.
b. River engineering: River channels may be widened and deepened to increase it capacity.
Altering river channels to divert water from populated areas.
ii. Non-Structural measures:
a. Afforestation:
Trees are planted near to the river. This means greater interception of rainwater and lower river
discharge. This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the environmental quality of the
drainage basin
b. Managed flooding:
Intentional flood in areas to prevent flooding in other ones. For example, flooding of an
unsettled area to prevent flooding of a settled one.
c. Urban Planning
Control of urban development near or on the flood plain, thus reducing the chance of property
loss.
d. Awareness
If the drainage system is choked, it can also cause flooding. Creating awareness among the
people to keep the drainage system unchoked by controlling pollution can also help in
preventing floods.

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 Droughts
1. Definition
Droughts are defined as deficiency of rainfall over an extended period of time. (Season, year,
several years)
The deficiency of rainfall is compared to the average rainfall the area has received over the past,
this can cause shortages of water.
2. Causes:
I. Lack of Rainfall
Lack of expected rainfall (snow and rain).
II. Dry Season
Within the tropics, distinct wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the intertropical
convergence zone or Monsoon trough. The dry season increases the drought occurrence.
III. Surface water flow
Flow in water streams and channels may be reduced if the sources of such water bodies is
affected upstream. For example, construction of dams, diversion of water, low amounts of snowfall
during winter
IV. Deforestation
Vegetation is key to the water cycle, plants reduce evaporation, store water and contribute to
atmospheric moisture through transpiration. Loss vegetation means the ground loses the ability to
hold water
V. Global warming and Climate Change:
Changing weather patterns, reduced rainfall in certain areas, increase in global temperature
IV. Human causes
A. Mismanagement of Resources:
Wastage of water, lack of storage facilities, archaic irrigation methods, depletion of ground water
resources etc
B. Over mining
C. Overgrazing
D. Cutting irregularly

3. Effects:
There are direct and indirect impacts of droughts
 Loss in production capacity of crops
 Food shortage and famine, malnutrition
 Desertification: habitat damage,
 Mass migration
 Wildlife migration
 Social unrest, conflict over resources
 Wildfires and bushfires
 Loss of life
 Loss to economy
 international refugees crisis


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 4. Management of Droughts
I. Construction of dams
Can provide storage of water in rainy season that can be used in dry season.
II. Desalination:
Desalination of sea water for irrigation purposes.
III. Drought monitoring
Continuous monitoring of rainfall levels and demand levels
IV. Land use planning
Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow farmers to plant less water
dependent crops in drier years
V. Outdoor water-use restriction
VI. Rainwater Harvesting
Collection and storage of rain water from roofs and other catchments
VII. Recycle Water
VIII. Redirecting water
Building canals or Redirect Rivers to serve the irrigation needs of drought prone areas.
I. Water conservation
Drip irrigation, water metering, canal lining, and construction of dams

Land slide
1. Definition
A landslide is a downward or outward movement of soil, rock or vegetation, under the influence of
gravity.

2. Common types of landslides

Landslides

Creep Rotational Topple Fall flow

Translational
Slide (subsidence) (slump)

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 3. Causes of landslides
I. Natural Factors:
A. Gravity:
Gravity works more effectively on steeper slopes.
B. Heavy and prolonged rainfall:
Slides occur often with intense rain by creating zone of weakness, also water tables rise with
heavy rain makes some slopes unstable.
C. Earthquakes:
Ground vibrations created during Earthquakes.
D. Erosion-
Removal of underlying support due to erosion and weathering
E. Increase of load i
Snow, rain, vegetation, slides, etc
F. Decrease of material strength
Due to weathering
G. Waves:
Wave action can erode the beach or the toe of a bluff, cutting into the slope, and setting the stage
for future slides.
H. Volcanoes:
Volcanic ash deposits (sometimes called as lahars deposits) are prone to erosion and subjected to
mud flows due to intense rainfall.
I. Fluctuation of water levels due to the tidal action.

52
 II. Anthropogenic Factors:
A. Inappropriate drainage system:
Surface runoff of irrigated water on slopes exposes soil under cultivation to erosion. Part of this
water is absorbed by soil increasing its weight, which can put an additional load on the slope.
B. Cutting & deep excavations on slopes for buildings, roads, canals & mining:
Causes modification of natural slopes, blocking of surface drainage, loading of critical slopes and
withdrawal to toe support promoting vulnerability of critical slopes.
C. Change in slope/land use pattern, deforestation, agricultural practices on steep
slopes:
Contributed to creep and withdrawal of toe support in many cases.

4. Effects and losses due to landslides

I. Direct Effects:
A. Physical Damage
Debris may block roads, supply lines (telecommunication, electricity, water, etc.) and waterways.
B. Loss of Life ,Causalities
Deaths and injuries to people and animals.
C. Loss of property
Infrastructure and lifeline facilities, Resources, farmland and places of cultural importance.
D. Landslides and flooding
Debris flow can cause flooding by blocking valleys and stream channels, forcing large amounts of
water to backup causing backup/ flash flood.
II. Indirect effects:
A. Loss in productivity of agricultural or forest lands,

53
 B. Reduced property values,
C. Loss of revenue,
D. Increased cost,
E. Adverse effect on water quality and
F. Loss of human productivity,
G. Influence of landslides in dam safety- failure of the slopes bordering the reservoir,

5. How to minimise landslide hazards

I. Passive Intervention
 Choose a safe location to build your home, away from steep slopes and places where
landslides have occurred in the past.
 Prevent deforestation and vegetation removal.
 Avoid weakening the slope.

II. Active Preventive Intervention

A. Reforestation:
Root systems bind materials together and plants do both prevent water percolation and take
water up out of the slope.
B. Proper water
Runoff must be ensured by providing a proper canalization network.
C. Drainage:
Good ground drainage is essential to prevent saturation and consequent weakening. Drainage is
also needed in civil work, like retaining walls.
D. Proper land use measures:
Adopt effective land-use regulations and building codes based on scientific research.
E. Structural measures:
Nets, Retaining walls and major civil works to mitigate landslides. (Bioengineering).

III. Non- Structural measures:

A. Awareness generation:
Educate the public about signs that a landslide is imminent so that personal safety measures may
be taken.
B. Legal and Policy:
Legislation to direct a governmental or private program to reduce landslide losses should be
strengthened.

IV. Landslide Hazard Mapping and Use of GIS:

A. Landslide Hazard Zonation of the Vulnerable Areas.
B. Use of remote sensing and ground truth data for making landslide hazard zone map.
C. Here, such maps are used to develop mitigation plans in consultation with experts.

Avalanches
1. Definition
An avalanche is a sudden and often rapid mass movement of snow and ice down a mountainside
due to gravity. An avalanche (also called a snowslide) is a cohesive slab of snow lying upon a
weaker layer of snow in the snowpack that fractures and slides down a steep slope when
triggered.

54
 2. Diagram

1. Causes of avalanches

I. Seismic activity
Seismic activity may also trigger the failure in the snowpack and avalanches.
II. Wind :
Wind direction and speed.
III. Terrain
Slope angle, slope shape. The majority of avalanches occur on slopes between 30°- 45°
IV. Snowpack
Stability of snow layers
V. Solar radiation
The second largest cause of natural avalanches is metamorphic changes in the snowpack such as
melting due to solar radiation.
VI. Human Factors
Humans have contributed to the start of many avalanches in recent years.
 Winter sports that require steep slopes often put pressure on the snow-pack which it cannot
deal
 The use of vehicles and snowmobiles creates vibrations within the snow that it cannot
withstand.
 The other is construction work done with explosives, which tend to weaken the entire
surrounding area
VII. Heavy snowfall
It deposits snow in unstable areas and puts pressure on the snow-pack.
VIII. Heavy snowstorms
Are more likely to cause avalanches. The 24 hours after a storm are considered to be the most
critical.
IX. Deforestation
The heavy deforestation and soil erosion in mountain regions, gives the snow little stability in
the winter months.

2. Types of Avalanches:
I. Loose snow avalanche:
55
It simply loose snow that originates at a single point on a slope and gather cohesionless snow on
the surface of the pack as it descends. This type of avalanche often appears as an inverted V
pattern on the snow slope. These are not large enough to carry out significant destruction.
II. Slab Avalanche
When a cohesive layer of snow slides down a slope. Also referred to as wind slab since slab
avalanches often form from new snow and wind.

3. Effects of Avalanche
 Loss of Life:
 Loss of Property
 Traffic blockage and road damage:
 Floods:
 Impact on Tourism
 Loss of Flora and Fauna

4. Management of Avalanche
 Land use planning.
 Landslide hazard, vulnerability, and risk assessment:
 Research and development, monitoring and early warning:
 Capacity building and training:
 Public awareness and education:
 Emergency preparedness and response:
 Afforestation:

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Disaster Risk Management
1. Disaster
A disaster is any event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a community or a society and
causes human, material, economic or environmental loss and impacts, which exceeds the ability
of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.

2. Formula
Disaster = (Hazard + Vulnerability)/Capacity
3. Hazard
A threatening event or probability of occurrence of a potentially damaging phenomenon within a
given period of time and area.
4. Vulnerability
In this context can be defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate,
cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or man-made hazard.
– Vulnerability increase by
• Poverty
• Poor infrastructure
• Lack of natural resource
5. Capacity
It can be defined as the resources available to individuals, households and communities to cope
with a threat or to resist the impact of a hazard. Such resources can be physical or material, but
they can also be found in the way a community is organized or in the skills or attributes of
individuals and/or organizations in the community.

I. Types of Disasters
Disasters

Natural Technological or man-

made

Geophysical Hydrological Climatological Meteorological Biological

Road Terrorist And many

accidents attacks more

57
 A. Natural hazards
Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena.

Disaster subgroup Disaster main types

geophysical earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity
hydrological avalanches and floods
climatological extreme temperatures, drought and wildfires
meteorological cyclones and storms/wave surges
biological disease epidemics and insect/animal plagues

B. Technological or man made hazards

Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts, famine, displaced
populations, industrial accidents and transport accidents) are events that are caused by humans
and occur in or close to human settlements. This can include environmental degradation, pollution
and accidents. Technological or man-made hazards (complex emergencies/conflicts, famine,
displaced populations, industrial accidents and transport accidents).

II. Factors influencing disaster

Scale of Disaster depends upon:
 Lead time available
 Intensity of hazard
 Duration
 Spatial extent
 Density of population & asset
 Time of occurrence
 Vulnerability of elements at risk
III. Elements at risk:
 Human, Animal and Plant population
 Property and physical infrastructure
 Utilities: such as water supply system, sewerage system, electricity system
 Communications network
 Irrigation infrastructure

IV. Effects of Disaster:

A. Primary Effects:
Occur as a result of the process itself e-g flood causing damage to irrigated fields, damage to
infrastructure due to earth quakes
B. Secondary Effects
Occurs only because primary effect has caused them e-g fires caused by earth quakes
C. Tertiary Effects
Long term effects set off as a result of primary event e-g loss of irrigated land, permanent changes
in the position of river channels due to floods or earth quakes
6. Disaster Management
It is a systematic approach to identify, asses, reduce and avoid the risk of disaster. It is proactive
method of dealing with disaster.

58
 I. Goals of Disaster Management
 Reduce, or avoid, losses from hazards
 Assure prompt assistance to victims
 Achieve rapid and effective recovery
II. Phases of disaster management

Disasters management

Pre disaster phase Post disaster phase

Mitigation Preparedness Response

Recovery

III. Disaster Management Cycle:

A. Mitigation:
Pre-disaster mitigation efforts
These activities reduce or eliminate the possibility of a disaster or reduce the impact of
unavoidable disasters. It includes enforcement of building and safety codes, zoning and land use
management, preventive health care and public awareness and education. Effectiveness of

59
mitigation activities depends upon the availability of information on hazards, emergency risks and
counter measures to be taken.

B. Preparedness
Education, outreach and training, emergency management planning
During this phase the government, organizations and individuals develop plans to that will be
followed in case a disaster happens. These plans are intended to reduce the impact of the disaster
and save lives and enhance disaster response operations. This phase includes:
 Preparation of plans,
 Emergency exercises and training,
 Establishment of warning systems and emergency communication system
 Evacuation trainings and plans
 Resource inventories e-g food, medicine, shelter etc
 Public information and education

C. Response
Immediate response after the disaster
The aim is to provide immediate assistance to maintain life, improve health and support the morale
of the affected population. E-g carrying out rescue operations, providing shelter, food and
healthcare. The response also includes the activities that help in starting out the recovery phase,
for example in response phase the communications system is established, if effected, so the
recovery phase can start.

D. Recovery:
Post disaster recovery plan.
The recovery phase includes restoring the disaster hit area. Activities in this phase are related to
rebuilding the affected infrastructure, providing aid to the population in terms of finance, health
care and support and to restore the area so that normal life can once again be carried out by its
inhabitants.

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 IV. Disaster Management in Pakistan
Earthquake of Oct 2005 exposed the vulnerability of the existing emergency and disaster-
response apparatus.
A. Relevant department
National Disaster Management Authority was created along with provincial authorities. These are
supposed to serve as the focal point and coordinating bodies to facilitate the implementation of
disaster management.
B. Flaws in Disaster Management Framework in Pakistan
i. Primary focus on rescue and relief
The DM in Pakistan revolves around flood disasters with primary focus on rescue and relief.
Prevention and mitigation measure are hardly the focus of the authorities, for example floods can
be prevented and its impacts mitigated with the construction of water storage facilities. As a result
the government incurs heavy expenditure due to rehabilitation, recovery and rescue operation
after a disaster.
ii. Biased in nature
DM policies are biased in nature as they are aimed at protecting locations and infrastructure of
greater economic, political and strategic significance at the cost of areas and communities with
lesser influence and importance.
iii. Lack of information
There is lack of knowledge and information about hazard identification, risk assessment and risk
management.
iv. Town planning concepts are not incorporated
Building and safety codes are rarely enforced. The concept of zoning and land use is still unknown
to many of the major city development authorities.
v. Lack of awareness
There is a lack of public education regarding disasters and their impacts.
vi. Lack of technical capoacity
Departments and organisations that are tasked with DM are under resourced and untrained.
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 C. Recommendations
i. There is need to implement integrated disaster management policy at national and
provincial level.
ii. Government must invest in capacity building of the DM authorities. Risk assessment can
identity vulnerable areas that require capacity building, training and education. Volunteer
services should be encouraged, volunteers should be trained so they can perform recovery
and response activities in cases of disaster.
iii. Research activities can be funded at different universities to enhance knowledge base. To
conclude there is a need for a proper DM system that works in an integrated fashion with
the development activities.

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 Rocks
1. Definition
Rock or stone is a natural
substance, a solid aggregate
of one or more. Some Rocks
are made up of just one
mineral - like the rock salt.
Others Rocks are made up of
many minerals - like the
igneous rock granite and the
metamorphic rock gneiss. The
Earth's outer solid layer, the
lithosphere, is made of rock

2. Types of rocks

Types of
rocks

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Foliated Non-foliated
Clastic Chemical Organic
Plutonic Volcanic sedimentary
sedimentary sedimentary
rocks rocks rocks

I. Igneous rocks
These are rocks formed by the cooling of
molten rock (magma). Magma cools and Volcano
solidifies forming igneous rocks.

A. Common igneous rocks types

i. Plutonic rocks
Plutonic or intrusive rocks crystallize within
the crust of the earth, and as a result
plutonic rocks cool at a much slower pace Magma
then volcanic rocks
ii. Volcanic Rock
Volcanic rocks, or extrusive rocks or lava rocks, crystallize when the magma reaches the earth’s
surface cooling quickly.
II. Sedimentary rocks

63
Sedimentary Rocks are rocks formed when particles of sediment build up and are “cemented
together” by the effect of pressure and minerals.
A. Types of sedimentary Rocks
i. Clastic sedimentary rocks
Such as sandstone, siltstone, and shale are formed from mechanical weathering of debris.

ii. Chemical sedimentary rocks

Such as rock salt, iron ore and
some limestones, form when
dissolved materials precipitate from
solution.

iii. Organic sedimentary rocks

Such as coal, and some limestones,
form from the accumulation of plant or
animal debris.

III. Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the effect of heat and pressure on existing rocks.
This can greatly affect the hardness, texture or layer patterns of the rocks.

A. Types of metamorphic rock

i. Foliated
It shows band of layers or minerals
ii. Non-foliated
Smooth

3. Rocks cycle

The Rock Cycle does not go in just one

direction.
Any given rock can go through any part
of the cycle any number of times.

Rocks are weathered, eroded, transported, deposited,and lithified to form sedimentary rocks.

The igneous rock granite can be

physically weathered to produce
clay and sand. These sediments
can be transported deposited and
lithified to form sedimentary rocks.

The metamorphic rock gneiss

can be physically weathered
to produce clay and sand. These 64
sediments can be transported
deposited and lithified to form
sedimentary rocks.
Pressure, heat and fluids cause
preexisting rocks or sediments to
become metamorphic rocks

65
Modern materials/ Chemicals

Ceramic materials
1. Definition
Inorganic, nonmetallic materials that consist of metallic and nonmetallic elements bonded together
primarily by ionic and/ or covalent bonds

2. Properties of Ceramic Materials

 High hardness,
 electrical and thermal insulating,
 chemical stability, and
 high melting temperatures
 Brittle,
 virtually no ductility –
 Some ceramics are translucent, window glass (based on silica) being the clearest example
 Density – most ceramics are lighter than metals but heavier than polymers
 Some ceramics decompose rather than melt

3. Classification of ceramics based on application

Ceramics

Traditional Advanced ceramics

Electro ceramics such Advanced structural

Tiles Bricks etc.
as capacitor ceramics such as nuclear
dielectric ceramics

Composites
1. Definition
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in
better properties than those of the individual components used alone

2. How composites is formed

Composite materials are formed by combining two or more materials that have quite different
properties. The different materials work together to give the composite unique properties, but
within the composite you can easily tell the different materials apart – they do not dissolve or blend
into each other.

66
 3. Parts of composite

Composites

Primary Secondary

Interface
Reinforcement Matrix

4. Diagram

I. Role of Reinforcement
To carry the load

II. Role of Matrix

Threww major functions:
 Binds the fibers together
 Transfers loads to the reinforcement (evenly)
 Protect the reinforcement from environmental effects (chemical and mechanical)

III. Role of Interface

Matrix-fiber interaction (infiltration, load transfer, etc.) is carried out through the interface (better
interface leads to better coupling of two phases)

Plastics
1. Literal meaning
The word plastic is derived from the Greek (plastikos) meaning capable of being shaped or
molded.
2. Definition

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Plastics are a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic polymerization products that can be molded into
a permanent object having the property of plasticity.

3. Properties of plastics
 Durable
 Insulators
 Inexpensive
 Easy to produce

4. Composition
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are based on chains
of carbon atoms alone or with oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen as well.

5. Classification
I. Thermoplastic
Plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be
molded again and again. PVC is an example of thermoplastics.
A. Properties
 Becomes soft when heated and hard when cooled.
 Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times.
 They can be recycled.
 When thermoplastics are heated, they melt to a liquid. They also freeze to a glassy state
when cooled enough.
 Thermoplastic can be moulded into any shape
 They are brittle and glossy


II. Thermosetting plastics

Thermosets are permanently "set" once they're initially formed and can't be melted. The reason is
that they undergo chemical change.
A. Properties
 These are durable, strong and hard.
 They are available in a variety of beautiful colours.
 They are mainly used in engineering application of plastics.
 They can never be melted

III. Bio degradable plastics

Biodegradable plastic decomposes in the natural environment. It is produced from biopolymers.
This reduces the harmful effects on environment and wildlife. However degradation of
biodegradable plastic occurs very slowly. Proper composting methods are required to degrade the
plastic, which may actually contribute to carbon dioxide emissions.

6. Uses of plastic
 Overhead water tanks
 Paints and varnishes
 Pipes to carry cold water
 Roof lights
 Safety glass

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  Films for water proofing, damp proofing and concrete curing
 Floor tiles
 Foams for thermal insulation

7. Advantages
 Corrosion resistance
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity, insulator
 Easily formed into complex shapes, can be formed, casted and joined.
 Wide choice of appearance, colors and transparencies

8. Disadvantages
 Low strength
 Low useful temperature range (up to 600o F)
 Becomes brittle over time
 Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
 Plastic bags, once ingested, cannot be digested or passed by an animal so it stays in the
gut. Plastic in an animal’s gut can prevent food digestion and can lead to a very slow and
painful death.
 Careless disposal of plastic bags chokes drains, blocks the porosity of the soil, and causes
problems for groundwater recharge

9. Alternative
 We currently recover only 5% of the plastics we produce. Designing eco-friendly,
biodegradable plastics is the need of the hour. Though partially biodegradable plastics
have been developed and used, completely biodegradable plastics based on renewable
starch rather than petrochemicals have only recently been developed and are in the early
stages of commercialization.
 Paper , Cloth, Jute, Cane, etc., are the most preferable

Semi-conductors
1. Definition
A solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an insulator and that of most metals,
either due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects

2. Types of semi-conductors
I. Intrinsic semi-conductors
Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon & germanium
II. Extrinsic semi-conductor
Semi-conductor that is doped. In other word, the one in which impurity is added.

3. Doping
I. Donor/ n-type semi conductor
 We use Silicon (Si) as an example
 Substitute one Si (Group IV) atom with a Group V atom (e.g. As or P)
 Si atoms have four valence electrons that participate in covalent bonding
 When a Group V atom replaces a Si atom, it will use four of its electrons to form the
covalent bonding
 One electron will be left behind

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 II. Acceptor/ P-type semi-conductor
 Use Silicon (Si) as an example
 Substitute one Group III atom (e.g. Al or In) with a Si (Group IV) atom
 Si atoms have four valence electrons that participate in the covalent bonding
 When a Group III atom replaces a Si atom, it cannot complete a tetravalent bond scheme
 An “electronic vacancy” – hole – is formed when an electron from the valence band is
grabbed by the atom so that the core is negatively charged, the hole created is then
attracted t the negative core
 At T = 0 K this hole “stays” with atom – localized hole
 At T > 0 K, electron from the neighboring Si atom can jump into this hole – the hole can
then migrate and contribute to the current

4. Difference between conductor and semi-conductor

The conductivity increases with increasing temperature.

5. Light emitting diode

I. Definition
LEDs (that's “ell-ee-dees”) are a particular type of diode that convert electrical energy into light.

70
 II. Working
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode that
emits light when activated.[5] When a suitable current is applied to the leads,[6][7] electrons are
able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding to the energy
of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

III. Diagram

Fertilizers
1. Definition
Fertilizer is a substance added to soil to improve plant’s growth and yield. Basically it is a chemical
or natural substance is added to soil or land to increase its fertility.
Or
Fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic origin added to the soil to supply one or more plant
nutrients.

2. Classification of fertilizers

Fertilizers

Straight Complex Mixed fertilizers

fertilizers Fertilizers

I. Straight fertilizers
Straight fertilizers are those which supply only one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or
phosphorus or potassium. E.g. Urea,
II. Complex fertilizers
Complex fertilizers contain two or three primary plant nutrients of which two primary nutrients are
in chemical combination.
These fertilizers are usually produced in granular form e.g ammonium phosphate.
III. Mixed fertilizers:

71
Physical mixtures are straight fertilizers. They contain two or three primary plant nutrients. Mixed
fertilizers are made by thoroughly mixing the ingredients either mechanically or manually.

3. Types of fertilizers
I. Complete vs. Incomplete
Contain all 3 primary nutrients of nitrogen, phosphorus, & potassium.
DO NOT have all 3 primary nutrients.
II. Soluble vs. insoluble
Dissolves in water & are applied as a liquid solution.
Includes granular & slow release fertilizers applied to the growing media.
III. Organic vs. Inorganic
Come from plant or animal matter & contain carbon compounds.
Come from sources other than animals or plants.

4. Disadvantages
 Environmental hazards comprise air pollution, global warming, and other problems.
 Synthetic fertilizers are largest source of nitrous oxide emissions. They are 300 times more
toxic than carbon dioxide gases.
 It will affect air pollution and intensify global warming if continued
 They run off through irrigation and contaminate ground water
 Preponderance of nitrogen in fertilizers generates algal overgrowth
 Industrial mono-cropping is the process in which one crop is planted repeatedly on a single
field. The process relies on the use of synthetic fertilizers. Mono-cropping kills
microorganisms needed to produce soil nutrients. Infertile soil leads to erosion,
unsustainable farmlands, and reduced biodiversity.

5. Solutions
I. Organic farming
Organic farming is a type of agriculture or farming which avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers,
pesticides, growth regulator, and livestock feed additives. Organic farming systems rely on crop
rotation, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manure, off-farm organic wastes and bio-
fertilizers, mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks.
II. Bio-fertilizers and their use in agriculture
For a sustainable agriculture system, it is essential to use renewable inputs (fertilizer, pesticides,
water etc.) which can benefit the plant and cause no or minimal damage to the environment. One
possible way is to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. One of the energy efficient
and pollution-free methods is to exploit the ability of certain microorganisms like bacteria, algae
and fungi to fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus, decompose organic material or
oxidize sulphur in the soil. When they are applied in the soil, they enhance growth and yield of
crops, improve soil fertility and reduce pollution. They can be used separately or in combination to
enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter etc.
III. Vermicomposting
Vermicomposting uses earthworms to turn organic wastes into very high quality compost. Vermi-
composting is an appropriate technique for efficient recycling of animal wastes, crop residues and
agro-industrial wastes.
IV. Planting cover crops.
Cover crops, like clover or hairy vetch, are planted during off-season times when soils might
otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by preventing erosion,
replenishing soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
72
 V. Crop rotation
Generally soil cannot sustain continuous cropping with high yielding single crop because certain
nutrients required by the crop get exhausted totally while others remain unutilized leading to
serious nutrients imbalance in soil and encouraging certain diseases and pests. In crop rotation, a
crop that leaches the soil of one kind of nutrients is followed during next season by a type of crop
that returns the nutrient to the soil and draws the nutrient that was previously not used.

Pesticides
1. Definition
Any substance or mixture of substances, intended for preventing, destroying, or mitigating any
pest, or intended for use as a plant growth regulator
2. Classification of pesticides

Pesticides

Insecticides Herbicides Fungicides Rodenticides

3. Uses of pesticides
 Forests to control insects and under-story vegetation;
 Landscapes, parks, and recreational areas to control weeds, insects, and disease pests;
 Rights-of-way along railroads and under electric wires to control vegetation;
 Houses, schools, and commercial and office buildings to control insects, rodents, and fungi;
 Aquatic sites to control mosquitoes and weeds
 Wood products to control wood-destroying organisms
 Food preparation areas to control insects and rodents
 Human skin to kill or repel insects
 Household pets to control fleas and ticks
 Livestock to control insects and other pests

4. Benefits of Pesticides
• Inexpensive
• Greater control confidence
• Effective and rapid
• Therapeutic
• Management efficiency
• Can enable other management practices

5. Harmful effects of pesticides

When Rachel Carson wrote Silent Spring in 1962, she raised public awareness about the effects
of pesticide use on our health and our environment. However, almost forty years after Carson
drew attention to the health and environmental impacts of DDT, use of equally hazardous
pesticides has only increased. And all the time there is more evidence surfacing that human
exposure to pesticides is linked to health problems.
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 I. On human
 In May 2010, scientists from the University of Montreal and Harvard University released a
study that found that exposure to pesticide residues on vegetables and fruit may double a
child’s risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD
 Pesticides have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards, ranging from short-
term impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reproductive
harm, and endocrine disruption.
II. On fertility of land
Pesticide use can damage agricultural land by harming beneficial insect species, soil
microorganisms, and worms which naturally limit pest populations and maintain soil health.
III. On environment
 Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended
in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them.
 Pesticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals
called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a
pollutant called tropospheric ozone
IV. On plants
Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil
V. On aquatic life
Application of herbicides to bodies of water can kill plants on which fish depend for their habitat
VI. On birds
Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use.
Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring dealt with damage to bird species due to pesticide
bioaccumulation.

6. The Solution to Pesticides

I. Inter cropping
It means the cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. It reduces pest
population because of diversity of crops grown
II. Planting cover crops.
Cover crops, like clover or hairy vetch, are planted during off-season times when soils might
otherwise be left bare. These crops protect and build soil health by preventing erosion,
replenishing soil nutrients, and keeping weeds in check, reducing the need for herbicides.
III. Better testing.
State and federal agencies should require stricter independent testing, including testing of
synergistic effects of pesticides. Pesticides known or suspected of causing human health
problems should be phased out.
IV. Protect our children.
Because our children are the most vulnerable population to pesticides, pesticide use should be
prohibited in places where our children live and play, including schools, parks, and playgrounds.
Require strict non-toxic pest management programs for such places.
VII. Other solutions
 Removing pest breeding sites
 Maintaining healthy soils that breed healthy
 More resistant plants should be cultivated
 Cropping native species that are naturally more resistant to native pests and supporting
biocontrol agents such as birds and other pest predators.

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Chemical bonding
1. Atoms:
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can take part in a chemical change. Every atom
has a nucleus which has most of its mass concentrated in it. Nucleus has two types of particles
protons and neutrons (together called nucleons). Outside the nucleus, particles know as electrons
move around in regions called orbitals.
I. History of the atom
A. Thomson
Thompson develops the idea that an atom was made up of electrons scattered unevenly within an
elastic sphere surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's charge. Like
plums surrounded by pudding

B. Rutherford
He fired Helium nuclei at a piece of gold foil which was only a few atoms thick.
they found that although most of them passed through. About 1 in 10,000 hit. They found that
while most of the helium nuclei passed through the foil, a small number were deflected and, to
their surprise, some helium nuclei bounced straight back.

Rutherford’s new evidence allowed him to propose a more detailed model with a central nucleus.
He suggested that the positive charge was all in a central nucleus. With this holding the
electrons in place by electrical attraction.
C. Neil bohr
Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by adding that the electrons were in orbits. Rather like planets
orbiting the sun. With each orbit only able to contain a set number of electrons

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 2. Neutral atom
No of protons = no of electrons
3. Masses and Charges

Particle Electron Proton Neutron

Symbol E P N
Nature -ve charge +ve charge Neutral
Relative Charge -1 +1 0
Absolute charge 1.6x10-19 c 1.6x10-19 c 0
Mass 1/1836 a.m.u 1 a.m.u 1 amu
Absolute Mass 9x10-24 g 1.6x10-24 g 1.6x10-24 g

4. Atomic Number (Z):

The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom. Proton number is what makes the atom what it is.
Every atom of the same element has the same number of protons in its nucleus. An atom of
proton number 11 must be an atom of the element Sodium. The periodic table of elements is
arranged in order of the proton numbers of the individual elements.
5. Mass Number (A):
The number of protons + the number of neutrons. Mass number of carbon is 12.
Number of neutrons in an atom = Mass number - Atomic Number
Number of neutrons in a Carbon Atom = 12 – 6 = 6
6. Element Representation:
76
An element in the periodic table is represented in the following form

7. Isotopes
Atoms of same element which have the same Atomic Number but different mass number are
known as isotopes. The number of protons is the same, the difference is in the number of
neutrons. Isotopes of an element have same chemical properties but slightly different physical
properties like density, melting and boiling point.

8. Ions
An Ion is formed when an atom loses or gains an electron, it becomes either positively or
negatively charged.

9. Shells
Electron in atoms are distributed in shells. The number of shells in an atom depends on the
number of electrons in the atom. The shells are numbered as n=1,2,3,4 etc. The shells increase in
size and energy as they move away from the nucleus.
10. Sub-Shells
Shells are further divided into subshells. The maximum number of subshells is equal to the shell
number. For example, n=1 (first shell) will only have one subshell “s”. Shell number 2, n=2, will
have 2 subshells “s and p”.
There are four different types of sub-shells denoted by: s,p,d,f. Each subshell has a maximum
number of electrons it can hold (s=2, p=6, d=10, f=14). Subshell-s is the lowest energy subshell
and subshell-f is the highest energy subshell.
The shell number is equal to the possible number of subshells.
Shell n=1, will have only one possible subshell 1s.
Shell n=2, will have two possible subshells 2s, 2p

77
 Shell n=3, will have three possible subshells 3s, 3p, 3d
Shell n=4, will have four possible subshells 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

11. Orbitals:
Subshells are further divided into orbitals. An orbital is a region of space where an electron can be
found. Only two electrons are possible per orbital.
Shell Number (n) Sub-shell Orbitals
Name Electrons Name Electrons Number of Electrons
Orbitals
1 2 s 2 1 2
2 8 s 2 1 2
p 6 3 6
3 18 s 2 1 2
p 6 3 6
d 10 5 10
4 32 s 2 1 2
p 6 3 6
d 10 5 10
f 14 7 14

12. Electron Configuration

It is the arrangement of electrons in an atom in different shells, sub-shells and orbitals. Electrons
fill into shells, subshells and orbitals according to provision for lowest energy arrangement or
ground state electron configuration of an atom. This is known as the Aufbau process. Three rules
are followed in order to attain the lowest energy arrangement of electrons:
Rule-1: lowest energy orbitals fill first.
Rule-2: two electrons are permitted per orbital, and they must be of opposite spin.
Rule-3: Hund’s Rule – the most stable arrangement of electrons in a subshell occurs when the
maximum number of unpaired electrons exist, all possessing the same spin direction. This occurs
due to the degeneracy of the orbitals, all orbitals within a subshell are of equal energy. Electrons
are repulsive to one another and only pair after all the orbitals have been singly filled.
There is no need to remember these rules. The electron configuration follows the following
principle.

Atomic Number = 23, Mass Number = 50

Electron configuration of Vanadium will be written as: 1s 2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d3, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
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Chemical bonds:
1. What is a chemical bond?
A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the
formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds; or through the sharing of electrons as in
covalent bonds.
2. Why do atoms form a chemical bond?
Atoms form chemical bonds to achieve the electronic structure of the nearest noble gas or atoms
form chemical bonds in order to make their outer electron shell more stable. For this, atoms follow
the octet rule.
3. Octet Rule
Atoms of main-group elements tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons
in its valence shell, giving it the same electron configuration as a noble gas. The rule is especially
applicable to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to metals such as sodium or
magnesium.

CO2
4. Exceptions:
 The first exception to this is hydrogen, which follows the duet rule.
 The second exception is helium which does not form bonds because it is already “full” with
its two electrons

5. Types of bonds
I. Ionic Bond
Ions are atoms that have gained or lossed an electron(s). the electrostatic attraction between
these two oppositely charged ions results in chemical bonding.
A. Example:
Sodium (Na) has an atomic number of 11 (2,8,1), with a single electron in its outer most shell.
According to the octet rule it will try to lose one electron to have 8 electrons in its outer most shell.
Fluorine (F) has an atomic number of 9 (2,7) and has 7 electrons in its outer most shell. It will try to
gain an electron to have 8 electrons in its outer most shell.
Sodium losses an electron and Flourine gain an electron to form an ionic bond. The resultant
compound in Sodium Flouride (NaF).

II. Covalent Bond

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When two non-metallic atoms combine, they share one or more pair of electrons. the stable
balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as
covalent bonding.
A. Single Covalent Bond
When atoms share a single pair of electrons, it is known as Single covalent bond
i. Example:
Chlorine exists in a diatomic state because chlorine atoms for a covalent bond among themselves.
Chlorine Atomic Number: 17 (2, 8, 7)

B. Double Covalent Bond

When atoms bond together by sharing two pairs of electrons then it is known as double covalent
bond. It is represented by a double line (=) for example O=O is the representation of oxygen gas.
i. Example:
Oxygen molecule is formed when an oxygen atom form shares a pair of electrons with another
oxygen atom.
Oxygen Atomic Number: 8 (2,6)

C. Triple Covalent Bond

Atoms can also bond together by sharing three pairs of electrons. It is called as three a triple
covalent bond. It is represented by 3 lines (≡).
i. Example:
Nitrogen gas molecule atom is formed by sharing of 3 pairs of electrons.
Nitrogen Atomic Number: 7 (2, 5)

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 D. Coordinate Covalent Bond
When the shared pair of electron comes from only one atom and not one each from the two atoms
involved in the bonding then it is called as coordinate covalent bond or dative bond. For
Coordinate covalent bond we need an atom or a molecule that has a lone pair of electron and an
atom that has deficiency for an electron pair.
Atom donating the electron pair is known as donor atom. Atoms accepting the electron pair is
knows as acceptor atom.

i. Explanation:
Nitrogen has an Atomic Number of 7 (2, 5). It forms 3 single covalent bonds with 3 other Hydrogen
atoms to form an Ammonia Gas. It a lone pair of left. Which is then donated to an H positive ion.
Thus forming the Ammonium Ion NH+.
ii. Formation of Ozone

E. Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

i. Electronegativity
Electronegativity, symbol χ, is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to
attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself. An atom's electronegativity is
affected by both its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the

81
charged nucleus. Fluorine (the most electronegative element) is assigned a value of 4.0, and
values range down to cesium and francium which are the least electronegative at 0.7.
ii. Non-Polar Covalent Bond
When electronegativity values of the two atoms forming a covalent bond are the same. The pair of
electrons is equally shared. Then the bond is called as a Non-Polar Covalent Bond. For example,
H2, Chlorine Cl2, Bromine Br2.
iii. Polar Covalent Bond
When a covalent bond is formed between atoms of different electronegativity, then one atom
attracts the shared electron pair more towards itself. As a result, a partial negative and a partial
positive charge is formed on the atoms. This kind of a polar bond is known as Polar Covalent
Bond
iv. How do we know which type of bond it is ?
Electronegativity difference = Electronegativity of one element - electronegativity of the other
Electronegativity difference = 0 to 0.5 = Non-polar covalent bond
Electronegativity difference = 0.5 to 1.7 = Polar Covalent Bond
Electronegativity difference = above 1.7 = Ionic Bond

a. Example:
 Sodium Chloride.
Sodium has an electronegativity of .93
Chlorine has an electronegativity of 3.16
Electronegativity difference = 3.16 - .93 = 2.23
That greater than 1.7, So the bond is an Ionic bond.
 Water H2O
Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.20
Oxygen has an electronegativity of 3.44
Electronegativity difference = 3.44 – 2.20 = 1.24
That greater than 0.5 but less than 1.7, So the bond is polar covalent bond.

F. Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal atoms. It is the
sharing of many detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons act as a
"glue" giving the substance a definite structure. It is unlike covalent or ionic bonding.
i. Explanation
Atoms in metals are closely packed together in a regular pattern called lattice. Metal atoms in a
lattice tends to lose their outer shell electrons and become positively charged. These “free”
electrons now attain a higher energy level and can move throughout the lattice. These electrons
are called “delocalised electrons” and are not associated with any one particular atom or bond.
Metallic Bond is strong. It is because of the ions are held together by the electrostatic forces
between the positive charges (ions) and negative charges (delocalised electrons).
ii. Effect of Metallic bonding
 The metallic bond causes many of the traits of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility,
luster, conduction of heat and electricity.
 Because the electrons move freely, the metal has some electrical conductivity. It allows the
energy to pass quickly through the electrons, generating an electric current. Metals conduct
heat for the same reason: the free electrons can transfer the energy at a faster rate than other
substances with electrons that are fixed into position.

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 G. Hydrogen Bonding
It is the strongest type of intermolecular force. Two things are necessary for hydrogen bonding to
take place.
 One molecule having a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen
(these three elements are the most electronegative elements).
 A second molecule having a Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen atom available with an available
lone pair of electron.
i. Explanation
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded with a highly electronegative atom, the bond formed
is highly polarised. There is a partial positive charge on the Hydrogen atom of the molecule. This
partial positive charge is attracted toward the lone pair of electrons on Fluorine, Oxygen, Nitrogen
atom.
H2O is a classic example of Hydrogen Bonding, it is excessively hydrogen bonded with other water
molecules. It has an average of two hydrogen bonds with

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 ii. Benefits
 Hydrogen Bonding gives water a greater viscosity and also allows water to dissolve other
molecules that have either a slightly positive or negative charge.
 Hydrogen bonds hold complementary strands of DNA together

Anomalous behaviour of water

Normally, liquids contract on cooling & the density increases. However, water is special. It
contracts when cooled, down to a temperature of 4°C but thereafter begins to expand as it
reaches 0°C and turns into ice.

Water attains its maximum density at 4°C. This is caused by the hydrogen bonding between the
oxygen atoms that are negatively charged and the hydrogen atoms that are positively charged,
from two different molecules of water. Due to this hydrogen bonding, hexagonal crystal structure is
formed after 40C which in turn results in expansion. The density of ice is lower, and so it floats on
water. This anomalous expansion of water is an abnormal property of water whereby it expands
instead of contracting when the temperature goes from 4°C to 0°C, and it becomes less dense.
The density becomes less as it freezes.

1. Importance
This phenomenon is useful for the preservation of marine life in very cold temperatures. During
winter, the surface water in water lakes and rivers starts cooling. Upon reaching the temperature
of 4°C, the surface water descends to the bottom as it denser. Upon further cooling to freezing
point, a temperature gradient is set up in depths of the water body whereby, the bottom-most layer
is at 4°C and the temperature gradually drops towards the surface where it is ice. . Further, water
and ice are not good conductors of heat.

Difference between Physical Change and Chemical Change

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Physical change Chemical change
substance doesn't change a new substance is formed
Physical changes can be reversed Cannot be reversed
If one decided to mix sugar into water to make sugar water, this would be a physical change as
the water could be left out to evaporate and the sugar crystals would remain. However, if one
made a recipe for a cake with flour, water, sugar and other ingredients and baked them together, it
would take extraordinary means to separate the various ingredients out to their original form.

1. Melting-
The process by which a substance changes from its solid state to its liquid state.
2. Freezing
The process by which a substance changes from its liquid state into its solid state.
3. Evaporation
A process by which a substance changes from its liquid state to its gas state by random particle
movement.
4. Sublimation
The process by which a substance changes directly from its solid state to its gas state without
becoming a liquid first.
5. Boiling
A process by which a substance changes from its liquid state to its gas state.
Condensation- The process by which a gas becomes a liquid.

6. Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation is any chemical reaction that involves the moving of electrons. Specifically, it means the
substance that gives away electrons is oxidized. When iron reacts with oxygen it forms a chemical
called rust because it has been oxidized (The iron has lost some electrons.) and the oxygen has
been reduced (The oxygen has gained some electrons.). Oxidation is the opposite of reduction. A
reduction-reaction always comes together with an oxidation-reaction. Oxidation and reduction
together are called redox (reduction and oxidation).
The chemical reaction is:

2 Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

An example of a reaction is that between hydrogen and fluorine gas to form hydrofluoric acid:
85
H2 + F2 → 2 HF
In this reaction, hydrogen is being oxidized and fluorine is being reduced. The reaction may be
better understood if it is written in terms of two half-reactions.
H2 → 2 H+ + 2 e-
F2 + 2 e- → 2 F-

7. Efflorescence
The property by which certain hydrous crystals lose their water of crystallization completely or
partially, when exposed to air and crumble into powder.
Na2CO3.10H20  Na2CO3.H20+9H20

8. Deliquescence
Deliquescence is the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it
dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution.

9. Halogen
Halogen element, any of the six nonmetallic elements that constitute Group 17 (Group VIIa) of the
periodic table. The halogen elements are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),
astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts).

10. Dry ice

Dry ice, sometimes referred to as "cardice" (chiefly by British chemists), is the solid form of carbon
dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling agent.

11. Plaster of Paris

Is a white powder consisting especially of the hemihydrate of calcium sulfate.
CaSO4.2H2O. It is produced by heating gypsum until it is partially dehydrated. It forms a water
paste that quickly sets. It is also called calcined gypsum. Its uses are building materials, surgical
bandages etc.

12. Aqua regia

Aqua regia is a mixture of nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, optimally in a molar ratio of 1:3. Aqua
regia is a yellow-orange fuming liquid, so named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble
metals gold and platinum, though not all metals.

13. Iron
 The crude impure iron, which is extracted from iron ores, is known as pig-iron and it forms
the basic material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought iron and steel.
 Cast iron is manufactured by remelting pig iron with coke and limestone. This remelting is
done in a furnace.
 Wrought Iron is iron that has been heated and then worked with tools. The fundamental
distinction between cast iron and wrought iron is in how they are produced. The differences
can be found in the names: wrought is a past participle of work (“worked iron”), and cast
describes anything formed by the casting process.

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Electromagnetic radiation

1. Definition
Electromagnetic radiation refers to the waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating through
space-time, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy. It includes radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, (visible) light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays
2. Explanation
Electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized oscillations
of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum. The
oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of
energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave. Electromagnetic waves are emitted by
electrically charged particles undergoing acceleration, and these waves can subsequently interact
with other charged particles, exerting force on them. EM waves carry energy, momentum and
angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to matter with
which they interact.

3. Properties of electromagnetic waves

I. Amplitude
It is the measure of how big the wave is. For example, a wave in the ocean can be a little ripple or
a 30m tsunami. Amplitude is measured as:
1. The height from the equilibrium point to the highest point of a crest.
2. The depth from the equilibrium point to the lowest point of a trough.

II. Wavelength
The distance between two adjacent Crests or Troughs is know as a wavelength. It is denoted by
lambda (λ). It is measured in meters (m)
III. Frequency
The number of waves produced by a source in a second is known as the frequency of that wave.
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 IV. Velocity of the wave
Velocity of the wave can be calculated by multiplying frequency (1/s) with the wavelength (m).
Frequency (1/s) x Wavelength (m) = Velocity (m/s)

4. Electromagnetic spectrum
EM waves can be characterised by either the frequency or wavelength of their oscillations to form
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Waves in EM spectrum characterised by increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength are:
radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma
rays.

I. Radio waves:
Wavelength: Longer than 1mm to several Kilometers
Radios waves are the longest and are associated with the lowest temperature. These are found
everywhere, in the background radiation of the universe, in interstellar clouds and in the cool
remnants of supernova explosions etc.
A. Applications
Data in the form of Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, WiMAX as well as 3G and 4G networks the common link
between all of them is the use of RF or radio waves to transmit and receive information
Radio waves are also used for radar, which is why both words start with the same three letters.
II. Microwaves
Microwaves are shorter than radio waves. Microwaves can penetrate clouds, smoke and light rain,
this is why they are used to transmit information and used in radar to predict the weather.

A. Applications
 Microwave ovens
 Bluetooth headsets
 Broadband Wireless Internet
 Radar
 GPS

III. Infra-red
Wavelength: 710nm to 1 millimetre
At a temperature of 37 degree centigrade, our bodies give out infrared wavelengths with a peak
intensity near to 900nm. Infrared waves are classified as near infrared waves and far infrared
waves
A. Near Infrared Waves
These are the waves that are close to visible light in the wavelength
B. Far Infrared Waves
Are further away from visible light in the wavelength
C. Applications
 Used to treat strained muscles and tissue.
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  Diagnose tumours
 Used in security lights and burglar arms as they are invisible to the naked eye
 Used to send signal over short distances such as remote controls.

IV. Visible light

Wavelength Range: 350-700 nm
Visible light is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes are sensitive to.

V. Ultraviolet
Wavelength Range: 10-310 nm
Uv waves have the next shortest wavelength after visible light. It is found naturally in sunlight.
There are three main types of UV light:
Type Frequency Hazard
UV C High Cause severe damage to cells
UV B Medium Causes severe sunburn and damage to cells
UV A Low Weaker effects tha UV B

A. Applications:
 Used in telescopes to observe far away stars
 UV-C is germicidal, it destroys bacteria, viruses and mould in the air, in water and on
surface. Therefore it is used in laboratories for sterilization
 UV synthesises Vitamin D in the skin.
 It controls endocrine system and is a painliller
 UV light is used to detect forge bank notes, they fluoresce in UV light. Real bank notes
don’t.
 Used to detect item outside the visible spectrum, know as “black lighting”

VI. X-RAYS
Wavelength Range: 0.01-10 nm
These have a shorter wavelength than UV light. They are Generated from superheated gas from
an exploding stars where the temperature is above a million degree centigrade
A. Applications
X-Rays have a shorter wave length so they can penetrate tissue but not hard bone. That is why
they are used for medical purposes. They can cause damage to cells and cause cancer if the
exposure is prolonged.

VII. Gamma rays

Wavelength Range: < 0.01 9about the size of an atomic nucleus)
Gamma rays are of the highest frequency and most energetic region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. These can result from a nuclear explosion or reactions and from processes taking
places in objects such as pulsar, quasar and black holes.
A. Applications
Used in taking detailed images for diagnostic medicine and in treating cancer. High doses can kill
cells and cause cancer. These are also used to sterilize food and research equipment.

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Environmental science
1. Definition of environment
The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to surround.
“Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting a direct influence on it.”
2. Types of environments
The two major classifications of environment are :
I. Physical Environment:
External physical factors like Air, Water, and Land etc. This is also called the Abiotic Environment.
II. Living Environment:
All living organisms around us viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. This is also called the
Biotic Environment.

3. Components of Earth
Earth’s environment can be further subdivided into the following four segments:

Earth

Atmosphere Hydrosphere Biosphere Lithosphere

I. Atmosphere
Atmosphere is a gaseous layer surrounding the earth. In other words, we can say that our earth is
surrounded by a thin layer of gases, called atmosphere
A. Gases in atmosphere
Gases that in the atmosphere are divided into two kinds, based on their concentration, viz.,
constant gases and variable gases.
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 i. Constant gases
Are the ones, whose concentrations do not change over time, and their concentrations almost
remain same. Nitrogen and oxygen are the two major constant gases.
ii. Variable gases
Are hose gases whose concentrations change from time to time and from place to place. Some of
those gases are important to weather and climate.

B. Layers in atmosphere
The four layers of the atmosphere include:
 the troposphere, where we live;
 the stratosphere, which contains the ozone layer;
 the mesosphere, where meteors burn; and
 the thermosphere, where satellites orbit Earth.

II. Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the part of the earth that contains water.
The vast majority of Earth’s water is in the oceans (salt water), with smaller, but geologically
important, quantities of fresh water in lakes, rivers, and ground water.
The components of the hydrosphere, as well as the cryosphere (frozen water), the atmosphere,
and the biosphere, participate in the global hydrologic cycle.

A. The Hydrologic Cycle

Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly being cycled through the atmosphere, ocean, and
land. This process, known as the water cycle, is driven by energy from the sun. The water cycle is
crucial to the existence of life on our planet.

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The sun heats up liquid water and changes it to a gas by the process of evaporation. Water that
evaporates from earth’s oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist soil rises up into the atmosphere.

The process of evaporation from plants is called transpiration. (In other words, it’s like plants
sweating.)

As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in the atmosphere, it starts to cool and become a liquid
again. This process is called condensation. When a large amount of water vapor condenses, it
results in the formation of clouds.

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When the water in the clouds gets too heavy, the water falls back to the earth. This is called
precipitation.

When rain falls on the land, some of the water is absorbed into the ground forming pockets of
water called groundwater. Most groundwater eventually returns to the ocean. Other precipitation
runs directly into streams or rivers. Water that collects in rivers, streams, and oceans is called
runoff.

III. Biosphere
Earth’s organisms live in the biosphere.
The biosphere consists of the parts of the planet in which all life exists.
A. Ecosystem
An ecosystem includes all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their physical
environment.
B. Biomes
A group of ecosystems that have similar climates and organisms is called a biome.
i. Examples
 Tropical Rain Forest
 Desert
 Temperate Forest

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Biome Water Temperature Soil Plants Animals

Desert Almost hot or cold poorsparse - sparse - insects,

none succulents arachnids, reptiles
(like and birds (often
cactus), nocturnal)
sage
brush
Chaparal dry hot summer, poor shrubs, drought and fire-
(scrub) summer, cool winter some adapted animals
rainy woodland
winter (like scrub
oak)
Tundra dry cold permafrost lichens migrating animals
(frozen and
soil) mosses
Taiga adequate cool year- poor, conifers many mammals,
(coniferous round rocky soil birds, insects,
forest) arachnids, etc.

Temperate adequate cool season fertile soil deciduous many mammals,

Deciduous and warm trees birds, reptiles,
Forest season insects, arachnids,
etc.

Grassland wet warm to hot fertile soil grasses many mammals,

season, (often with a (few or no birds, insects,
dry cold season) trees) arachnids, etc.
season
Tropical very wet always warm poor, thin many many animals
rain forest soil plants

Swamp very wet warm nutrient- many many animals

rich soil plants
Cave variable cool (and rocks almost no few animals
(terrestrial) dark) plants

Environmental pollution
1. Definition
Pollution is derived from Latin word 'polluere' which means 'to contaminate'. Environmental
Pollution may be defined as the "unfavourable alteration of our surroundings".

2. Air pollution:

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The World Health Organization (WHO) defines air pollution as "the presence of materials in the air
in such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment".

3. Sources of air pollution:

Sources of air pollution are of two types:
I. Natural sources: Pollution caused by natural phenomenon.
 Volcanic eruptions smoke.
 Carbon monoxide from wild fires.
 Methane emitted by digestion of food by ruminant animals.
II. Anthropogenic sources: pollution caused by human activities.
 Combustion of natural gas, petroleum, coal and wood in industries, automobiles,
aircraft, railways, thermal plants, agricultural burning, kitchens, etc.
III. Stationary Sources: chimneys of homes, stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities
(industries) and waste incinerators etc.
IV. Mobile Sources: motor vehicles, marine vessels and aircrafts etc.

Pollutant Sources Health Effects Environmental

impacts
Oxides of Vehicles, industry Respiratory and Global warming
nitrogen (NOX) and agriculture. Cardiovascular
illnesses.
Ozone (03) Automobile Respiratory
emissions diseases and eye
Ozone generators irritations.
Aircraft cabins
Reaction between
NOx and VOCS in
air also yield
ozone.
Sulphur dioxide Industry. Respiratory and Acid rain
(SO2) Cardiovascular
illnesses.

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Carbon monoxide Vehicles Nausea, Global warming
(CO) (Combustion), headaches,
Incomplete reduces mental
combustion of alertness and
organic materials reduces oxygen
(Carbon supply to blood
containing). Wood, and cells.
coal, oil, gas.

Lead (Pb) lead-based paints. Accumulates in Bioaccumulation in

Metal refineries. blood overtime living organisms.
Battery damaging Brain
manufacturing. and nervous
system and
causes digestive
problems.

4. Control measures
The most effective method is to control pollutants at their source through preventive or control
technologies.
Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:
I. Using unleaded petrol.
II. Using fuels with low emission for instance natural gas in vehicles or high-octane number.
III. effective town planning.
a. Encourage people to use public transport.
b. Enhance walkability or cyclability.
c. prevent carbon sinks from elimination
IV. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide, and absorb
noise.
V. industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside the city or preferably on the
downwind side.
VI. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be made
mandatory.
VII. Use of tall chimneys shall reduce the air pollution in the surroundings.
VIII. Use of high temperature incinerators for reduction in particulate ash production.
IX. Development and employment of non-combustive sources of energy, e.g., nuclear power,
geothermal power, solar power, tidal power, wind power, etc.
X. Attempts should be made to develop pollution-free fuels for automobiles, e.g., hydrogen,
battery power. Automobiles should be fitted with exhaust emission controls.
XI. Reducing waste.
XII. Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide, e.g. Common Bean etc.
XIII. Afforestation.

Water pollution:
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater) which becomes harmful to living organisms or unfit for use.

1. Categories:

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  Point sources of water pollution (PS): refers to contaminants that enter a waterbody
from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this
category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory or a city drain.
 Nonpoint sources of pollution (NPS): refers to contamination that does not originate from
a single discrete source. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds
from fertilized agricultural lands.

2. Types of water pollution:

I. Surface water pollution:
Surface water pollution is caused by
 agricultural runoff.
 untreated sewage.
 untreated industrial waste.
Impacts:
 eutropication.
 Bioaccumulation of harmful elements like mercury in fishes.
 Unfit for domestic and industrial uses.
 Disesases.

II. Marine Pollution:

Oceanic pollution is caused
 ship-generated discharges of oil (oil spicks).
 packaged dangerous goods.
 untreated sewage.
 garbage (mostly plastic) etc.
Impacts:
 Migrating birds caught in the oil slicks losing their power of flight.
 Consumption of plastics may result in death of marine species.

III. Groundwater Pollution:

Groundwater is used for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses.
 Improper sewage disposal (leachate).
 Leachate from dumped farm yard manures.
 Leaching of agricultural chemicals.
 Industrial effluents are causing pollution of groundwater.
Impacts:
 Diseases.
 Unfit for domestic and industrial uses.

3. Sources of water pollution:

I. Untreated Sewage:
 Raw sewage contaminates water with pathogens.
 Microorganisms causing degradation of sewage take up most of the oxygen
present/dissolved in water
 Sewage produces foul-odour and makes the water brownish and oily that makes
water unfit for recreational and industrial use.
II. Improper disposal of waste:
Leachate from landfills contaminate groundwater.
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 Dumping of plastic kill fish.
III. Agricultural chemicals:
Fertilizers added to the soils are either washed down into water reservoirs during rains or leached
down to groundwater. This flow of fertilizer-rich water into streams give rise to eutrophication.
IV. Industrial Effluents
The important toxic chemicals present in them are:
 Mercury:
 Lead:
 Cadmium:
 iv)Other Metals: Copper, zinc, nickel, titanium
V. Thermal Pollution
Many industrial processes are causing thermal pollution leading to higher temperatures. These
industries do not contaminate the water supply, but use a lot of water for cooling purpose and
return this water to the stream at a higher temperature, which affects the biotic components in the
aquatic
Habitat.
VI. Radioactive waste:

4. Classification of water pollutants

Sr. Occurrence Nature Examples

No.
1. Physical Temperature Waste from industry
Turbidity Organic waste
Colour Dyes and pigments
Suspended and floating matter Silt, sand, metal pieces, rubber,
foam, sewage
2. Chemical Inorganic Nitrates, phosphates, chlorides
Organic fluorides, salts
Pesticides, detergents, plastic
3. Biological Pathogens Bacteria, virus, nematodes,
Nuisance organisms worms Slime, algae,

Controling water pollution

I. Treatment of sewage water shall be done. The same water can be reused in factories and
even for irrigation. Such treated water is rich in nutrients (phosphorus, potassium and
nitrogen) which makes it very beneficial for plants.
II. Oxidation ponds can be useful in removing low level of radioactive wastes.
III. Thermal pollution can be reduced through cooling ponds, wet cooling towers and dry
cooling towers.
IV. Suitable strict legislation should be enacted to make it obligatory for the industries to treat
the waste water before discharge into water bodies.
V. Water hyacinth also known as Kaloli can purify water polluted by chemical wastes. It can
filter out heavy metals like cadmium, mercury, lead and nickel as well as other toxic
substances found in industrial waste waters.
VI. Using modern landfills for solid wastes can reduce leachate and prevent contamination of
groundwater.
VII. Sustainable agriculture can reduce fertilizer and pesticide need.

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Soil pollution
1. Causes of soil pollution
Below are the sources of soil pollution:
I. Agricultural activities:
With growing human population, demand for food has increased considerably. Farmers often use
highly 'toxic fertilizers and pesticides to get rid of insects, fungi and bacteria from their crops.
However, the overuse of these chemicals results in contamination and poisoning of soil.
II. Overcrowded landfills:
Each household produces tons of garbage each year. Garbage like aluminum, plastic, paper,
cloth, wood is collected and sent to the local recycling unite. Items that cannot be recycled
become a part of the landfills that hampers the beauty of the city and cause land pollution.
III. Industrialization:
Due to increase in demand for food, shelter and house, more goods are produced. This results in
creation of more waste that needs to be disposed of.
IV. Construction activities:
Due to urbanization, large amount of construction activities are taking place which have resulted in
large waste articles like wood, metal, bricks, plastic that can be seen with naked eyes outside any
under-construction building or office.
V. Nuclear waste:
Nuclear plants can produce huge amount of energy through nuclear fission and fusion. The
leftover radioactive material contains harmful and toxic chemicals that can affect human health.
They are dumped beneath the earth to avoid any causality.
VI. Sewage treatment:
Large amount of solid waste is leftover VOI any oncceas ua the ty.sewage has been treated. The
leftover material is sent to landfill site which ends up in polluting the environment.

2. Effects of soil pollution

I. Soil pollution:
Soil pollution is another form of land pollution, where the upper layer of the soil is damaged. This is
caused by the overuse of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running water and other pest
control measures; this leads to loss of fertile land for agriculture, forest cover, fodder patches for
grazing, etc.
II. Change in climate patterns:
The effects of land pollution are very hazardous and can lead to the loss of ecosystems. When
land is polluted, it directly or indirectly affects the climate patters.
III. Environmental impact:
When deforestation is committed, the tree cover is compromised. This leads to a steep imbalance
in the rain cycle. A disturbed rain cycle affects a lot.
IV. Effect on human health:
The land, when contaminated with toxic chemicals and pesticides, leads to problem of skin cancer
and human respiratory ills. The toxic chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables
we eat as they are grown in polluted soil.
V. Air pollution:
Landfills across the city keep on growing due to increase in waste and are later burned which
leads to air pollution. They become home for rodents, mice etc. which, in turn, transmit diseases
VI. Aesthetic repercussions:
The city loses its attraction, as polluted tourist destinations do not look good when you move
around the city. It leads to loss of revenue for the government,
VII. Effect on wildlife:

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The animal kingdom has suffered the most in the past decades. They face a serious threat with
regards to loss of habitat and natural environment. The constant human activity on land is leaving
it polluted; forcing these species to move further away and adapt to new regions or die trying to
adjust. Several species are pushed to the verge of extinction, due to no homeland.
VIII. Other issues:
Other issues that we face include increased temperature, unseasonal weather activity, acid rains
etc. The discharge of chemicals on land makes it dangerous for the ecosystem too. These
chemicals are consumed by the animals and plants and thereby make their way in the ecosystem.
This process is called bio-magnification and is a serious threat to ecology.

3. Control measures of soil pollution

I. Prober dumping of unwanted materials:
Excess waste by humans and animals pose a disposal problem. Open dumping is the most
commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping is followed for solid waste disposal.
II. Production of natural fertilizers:
Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be
used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers e.g. Organic wastes in animal dung may be used
to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them wastefully and polluting the soil.
III. Proper hygienic condition:
People should be trained regarding sanitary habits e.g. Lavatories should be equipped with quick
and effective disposal methods.
IV. Public awareness:
Informal and formal public awareness programmers should be imparted to educate people on
health hazards by environmental pollution e.g. mass media, educational institutions and voluntary
agencies can achieve this very goal.
V. Recycling and reuse of wastes:
To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics, metals, glasses, petroleum products
and industrial effluents, etc., should be recycled and reused.
VI. Ban on toxic chemicals:
Ban should be imposed on Paper can be recycled only six chemicals and pesticides like DDT
etc., which are fatal times, After that, theirs are to plants and animals. Too weak to hold together.
VII. Some other solutions:
 Avoid buying packaged items as they will lead to garbage and end up in landfill site.
 Ensure that you do not litter on the ground and do proper disposal of garbage.
 Buy biodegradable products.
 Do organic gardening and eat organic food that will be grown without the use of pesticides,
 Create dumping grounds away from residential areas.
 Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.

Ozone depletion

1. Introduction
Ozone is a gas found in the atmosphere in very trace amounts. Depending on where it is located,
 ozone can be beneficial ("good ozone")
 Detrimental ("bad ozone").

2. Chemical composition of ozone

Chemically, the ozone molecule consists of three atoms of oxygen arranged in the shape of a wide
V. Its formula is 03.

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Color: Gaseous ozone is bluish in color.
Smell: Gaseous ozone has a pungent, distinctive smell.
3. Presence of ozone in the atmosphere
Ozone is mainly found in the two regions of the atmosphere:

I. Ozone in troposphere
In this layer ozone is formed in a series of chemical reaction that involve the interaction of nitrogen
oxides, volatile organic compounds and sunlight. Most ozone resides in the stratosphere
II. Ozone in Stratosphere
The stratosphere begins between 8 and 18 kilometers above the earth's surface and extends up to
about 50 kilometers. The ozone in this region constitutes stratospheric ozone layer. Stratospheric
ozone is formed when the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation breaks apart molecular oxygen (02) to
form O atoms, which then combine with 02 to make ozone. This formation mechanism differs from
the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere.

4. Role of ozone in atmosphere

I. Role of Ozone in the Stratosphere
In the upper atmosphere, stratospheric ozone plays a beneficial role by absorbing most of the
sun's biologically damaging ultraviolet sunlight (called UV-B), allowing only a small amount to
reach the earth's surface. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat,
which actually defines the stratosphere (a region in which the temperature rises as one goes to
higher altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role in the temperature structure of the earth's
atmosphere. Without the filtering action of the ozone layer, more of the sun's UV-B radiation would
penetrate the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface. Ozone is "good up high."
II. Role of Ozone in the Troposphere
In the troposphere, ozone comes into direct contact with life-forms. Although some amount of
ozone is naturally present in the lower atmosphere, excessive amounts of this lower-atmospheric
ozone are undesirable (or bad ozone). Ozone is "bad nearby."

5. Environmental issues associated with ozone

I. Increases in Ozone in the Troposphere (The Bad Ozone)
Human activities that add nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds to that atmosphere,
such as the fossil fuel burning associated with power-generating plants and vehicular exhaust, are
contributing to the formation of larger amounts of ozone near the earth's surface. This ozone is a
key Component of photochemical smog. Higher amounts of surface-level ozone are increasingly
being observed in rural areas as well.
II. Loss of Ozone in the Stratosphere (The Good Ozone)
Ground-based and satellite instruments have measured decreases in the amount of stratospheric
Ozone in our atmosphere, which is called ozone-layer depletion.
The CFCs themselves do not destroy ozone molecules but they decay those at low temperatures.
A small amount of chlorine atom and chlorine mono-oxide functions as a catalyst in the process of
destruction of ozone.

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 Chlorine atom in the above reaction functions as a catalyst and is not consumed in the reaction.
Chlorine atom used in the reaction remains the same even at the end of the reaction. Once
chlorine has broken one ozone molecule, it is free to repeat the process until it is removed by
another reaction in the atmosphere. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are very stable molecules and
can live up to 100 years.
6. Ozone Hole
In May 1985 scientists with the British Antarctic Survey shocked the world when they announced
the discovery of a huge hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
7. Main ozone depleting substances (ods)
Name of compound Major sources

CFCs Refrigeration, aerosol, foam, food freezing, warming devices,

Halon Fire fighting

HCFC-22 Refrigeration, aerosol, foam, fire fighting

Carbon tetrachloride Solvent

8. Effects of ozone depletion

Harmful effects on human beings Harmful effects on plants

 Increases susceptibility of skin  Inhibits photosynthesis
cancer  Destroys cell
 Damages DNA  Causes mutation
 Causes eye diseases  Declines forest productivity
Harmful effects on other organisms Harmful effects on non-living materials
 Plankton population severely  Accelerates breakdown of paints
damaged,  Accelerates breakdown of plastics
 Affects fish/shrimp/crab larvae  Affects temperature gradient levels
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 in the atmosphere
 Affects atmospheric circulation
Pattern, climatic changes

9. Actions taken to protect ozone layer

Research on ozone depletion advanced very rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s, leading to the
identification of CFCs and other halocarbons as the cause. Governments and industry acted
quickly on the scientific information.
I. Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is a landmark international
agreement designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. The treaty was originally signed in
1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and 1992. Governments decided to eventually
discontinue production of CFCs halons, and other halocarbons (except for a few special uses). If
nations adhere to international agreements, the ozone layer is expected to recover by the year
2050. Ninety-six (96) chemicals are presently controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
A. Approaches:
 Production Control
 Consumption Control
 Trade, Import, export and reimport control
 Adaptation to Ozone Friendly technology
 Training and Capacity Building
B. Results to date
 The Montreal Protocol is working. There is clear evidence of a decrease in the
atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances in the lower atmosphere and in the
stratosphere;
 Some early signs of the expected stratospheric ozone recovery are also evident.

10. How to reduce ozone layer depletion

Steps should be taken to reduce ozone layer depletion:
 Don't buy aerosol products with chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
 Purchase new refrigerators, freezers or air conditioners that don't contain Freon or other
chlorofluorocarbons.
 Limit private vehicle driving.
 Ban the use of dangerous nitrous oxide.
 Ending the production, import and use of ODS, often ahead of the Montreal Protocol
schedule;
 Ensuring that ODS are recycled properly, and prohibiting unnecessary releases of ODS;
 Identifying safe alternatives through the Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP)
program; Banning the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service,
maintenance, and disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment; and
 Requiring that manufacturers label products containing or made with the most harmful
ODS.

Global warming:
Causes, effects and remedies
1. What is global warming:
"Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere occuring due to
both natural and human induced activities.

2. Global warming process:

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The greenhouse effect is a process by which the greenhouse gases absorb thermal radiation
(infrared ); these are then reradiated in all directions. But when some of these radiations come
back to the surface and the lower atmosphere, it causes increase in the average surface
temperature leading to global warming. Greenhouse Effect may also be equated with "Hot Car
Effect". Without the greenhouse effect, earth's average temperature would be (-18 C), rather than
the present (15 C).

3. Manifestations:
Since 1992, each year has been one of the 20 warmest years on record. 2015 was the hottest
year on record, worldwide. The consequences of the rise in temperature are being felt all over the
globe. The findings of the scientific research, done in this field, reveal that the temperature of the
earth is likely to rise from 1.4 C to 5.8 C within a period of next 100 years.

4. Global warming causes

The causes are many of which the main culprits are:

I. Deforestation:
Trees play a significant role in the global carbon cycle. They are the largest land-based
mechanism for removing carbon dioxide from the air. It is the second principal cause of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation is responsible for 25 percent of all carbon emissions
entering the atmosphere, by the burning and cutting.
II. Fossil fuels:
Approximately, 80 percent of atmospheric C02 increases are due to man's use of fossil fuels in the
form of coal, gas or oil. A large portion of carbon emissions is attributed to the burning of gasoline
in internal-combustion engine of vehicles.
III. Mining:

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Mining for coal and oil releases methane in the atmosphere. Moreover, the leakage from natural
gas fields and landfills are additional source of methane. Another source of methane is methane
clathrate, a compound containing large amounts of methane trapped in the crystal structure of ice.
As methane escapes from the Arctic seabed, the rate of global warming increases significantly.
IV. Agriculture:
The nitrous oxide from fertilizers, gases used for refrigeration and industrial processes are other
factors that cannot be forgotten as the cause of global warming.
V. Melting of ice:
Ice caps and glaciers reflect sunlight, bouncing high temperature sunrays back into space away
from the earth. When these icecaps are removed, the earth gets warmer as the dark oceans
absorb much thermal radiation from the sun.

5. Effects of global warming

The effects of global warming are dangerous to life on earth — both the human and animal.
I. Higher level of carbon dioxide causes the acidification of the oceans. According to a WWF
report of on coral reefs, coral populations will collapse by 2100 due to increased
temperatures and ocean acidification.30-40% of CO2 is absorbed by oceans. This has
resulted in decrease of PH from 8.25 to 8.14.
II. The climatic changes are seen worldwide. Exceptional warm summers are another effect of
global warning and Europe and America have already witnessed these changes
considerably.
III. The rise in sea levels is a major concern. Island countries will ultimately "lose their
existence and will be washed away from the surface of the earth. The damage of rising sea
levels is diverse. Buildings and roads close to the water could be flooded and they could
suffer damage from hurricanes and tropical storms. In addition, as the sea rises, beach
erosion takes place, particularly on steep banks.
IV. The freshwater polar ice caps melting into the saltwater oceans alter the ocean gulf- stream
patterns causing major changes on the temperature pattern around the earth.
V. Scientists have warned that most of the glaciers will disappear within a period of 15 to 25
years. It will create problems of drinking water and floods. The Himalayan glaciers have
shrunk about 30 percent after 1970.
VI. In Pakistani context, the impact of global warming is a matter of grave concern. Pakistan is
mainly an agricultural country and agriculture here is gamble of the monsoon. Though it is
to affect the whole country, the worst likely impact would be on central and northern
Pakistan which are high-yielding parts of the country. These are the regions which produce
the largest agricultural yield. The rise in atmospheric temperature and fall in rain would
naturally result in decline in crop production. Moreover, it would have harmful effect on
biodiversity as well.

Fig: Impacts of global warming

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 6. Global warming — prevention and human efforts on reducing it
Global warning has become a major problem in the 21st century and beyond. An old saying goes,
"Prevention is better than cure." We have done enough damage and have contributed to global
warning. Our efforts and contribution to reduce global warming and spare the ecosystem to
recover are urgently needed.
I. Deforestation should be stopped as it causes the concentration of carbon at a greater
extent. It has been said that it takes roughly 19 trees to make one tome of paper and that
the usage of one ton of recycled paper will save approximately 17 trees.
II. Fuel-efficient cars, using bio-fuels, correcting the engine design, or using an electric car.
III. Public transport
IV. Sustainable agriculture
V. Town planning
VI. Effectively implementing laws
VII. Renewable energy
VIII. By not wasting energy at home we can avoid, to some extent, the global warming. This
includes shutting down the systems when not in usage and also buying energy efficient
equipment. Solar energy, wind energy and hydro-electricity can be used that reduces the
pollution of the atmosphere to a greater extent.
IX. Media can play a positive role in educating the people about the phenomenon of global
warming that is already taking a heavy toll on our lives.
X. Forestation.
XI. 'Reduce, reuse, recycle'.
XII. Public awareness campaign can be of great help in this regard because unless each and
every individual is aware only governments' effect cannot bring desired difference.
Remember, together we can make a difference! Raise your voice, first believe that global
Warming is not a myth and it is really happening, most of the people you meet would argue
that it is a global propaganda, and make them believe through above mentioned facts that
global warming is real and spread awareness. Governments needs to enact new laws that
cap carbon emissions and require polluters to pay for the global warming gases that they
produce.
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 7. Short-lived and long-lived climate forcers:

Climate forcers

Short lived Long lived

CO2, NO2
Negative climate forcers Positive climate
(cooling) forcers (warming)

Sulphate aerosols CH4, O3

8. Indicators of climate change

The earth's climate is changing. Scientists are highly confident that many of these observed
changes can be linked to the climbing levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere, which are caused by human activities. Following are, inter-alia, important indicators
of climate change:

Indicators Details Change

Annual greenhouse Heat trapping capacity of 34% increase since 1990
gas index atmosphere
Arctic sea ice surface area of Arctic covered 40% decreased since 1979
extent by sea ice
Atmospheric CO2 concentration in
From 278 ppm in pre-industrial
carbon dioxide Atmosphere era to 407.62 (2017)
Global Earth’s surface temperature Has risen about 20 F (1.10C)
temperatures rise since 1880
2016 the warmest year on record
Sea level rise Rise in sea level caused by Rose about 8 inches in the last
changes in the volume of century (3.2mm rise)
water and ice on land and
expansion of water due to
heating
Ocean acidification Change in PH PH has decreased from 8.25 to
8.19

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Glacial retreat Melting of Glaciers Himalayan glaciers are shrinking
quicker than anywhere else and
that if current trends continue
they could disappear altogether
by 2035
Extreme weathers Includes floods, droughts and An average of 21.5 million people
heat waves have been forcibly displaced
since 2008 due to climate
changed-related weather
hazards, according to the United
Nations High Commissioner For
Refugees

Kyoto protocol to UNFCCC:

Kyoto protocol to UNFCCC puts binding obligation on developed countries to reduce their ghgs
emission by 5.2% below the emission level of 1990 by 2012.

Year of signing 1997

Year of entering into force 2005
members 169
Noted omissions USA and Australia

1. Commitment periods:
 2008-2012. (Will only talk about this) EU has met its targets.
 2013-2020. (Has not been agreed open)
2. Goals
“ to protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of mankind. ”

3. Aims:
I. First commitment:
37 developed countries and European community committed to reduce GHG emission to an
average of 5% below 1990 levels. The 5.2% target is collective one, individual countries were
assigned higher or below targets.
II. Second commitment:
Reducing GHG emission by at least 18% below 1990 levels. A second commitment period was
agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol, in which 37 countries have
binding targets. As of July 2016, 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into
force requires the acceptances of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, 7
have ratified.
4. Salient features:
I. Annex I (37 industrialized) countries are required to reduce GHGs emission by 5.2% below
1990 levels.
II. The gases mentioned in protocol are:
CO2 CH4 NO2/NO SF4 Hydro Fluorocarbons Per Fluorocarbons

I. It allows flexible mechanisms for meeting targets. The mechanisms are:

 Emission Trading
 Clean development
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  Joint implementation

II. The countries of the developing world are exempted from making targeted reductions but
are to measure their emissions
III. Minimizing impacts on developing countries by establishing an adaption fund for climate
change.

I. Alternatives:
I. Kyoto mechanisms:

According to the Protocol, the participant Annex-I countries Can do so by taking actions in their
own countries or by using one of the three flexibility mechanisms provided by the protocol. These
are International Emissions Trading, Joint Implementation or Clean Development Mechanism. Of
these, first two apply to developed countries while CDM is a mechanism between the developed
and developing countries. The concept of emissions trading Implies that a country that has a
higher emission level than that prescribed can buy quotas from that have emission levels lower
than that prescribed. The joint implementation package Implies that countries that are financing
emission reduction measures in other developed countries would be allowed to accumulate credits
to emit greenhouse gases. The CDM was defined in the protocol for funding of project activities in
developing countries for mitigating climate change which would allow the developed, countries to
gain credit for investing in developing countries. Over the period 2001-2012 CDM projects has
contributed $15-24 billion for climate change mitigation in developing countries. European Union
Emissions Trading scheme is the largest carbon market in the world.

5. Why the protocol is not fully implemented till now

I. Geopolitics of the protocol
The European Union and Japan, which are the two large players that firmly support the Protocol
and have ratified it, have been working frantically to keep support for the Kyoto Protocol in place.
Both are relatively small, densely populated, developed countries that do not have access to their
own low-cost sources of fossil fuel or hydro power. Setting aside environmental considerations,
they see economic advantages for themselves if the Protocol were put into effect. The most
reluctant supporters of the treaty are the large, sparsely populated, developed countries such as
the United States, Australia, Russia, and Canada. All of these countries have relatively cheap
energy supplies and, in the short run, their economies and businesses would likely be at a
disadvantage if the Protocol were implemented without added incentives.
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 I. Exclusion of Developing Countries
While many argue that it would not be viable to require developing nations to meet reduction
targets under the Kyoto Protocol, their exclusion raises serious questions about the overall
effectiveness of the agreement. This shortcoming is best shown by the fact that China and India,
which together represent one third of the world' population and are growing rapidly in terms of
industrial capacity, are left completely unchecked in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. If the
Kyoto Protocol is to achieve its goal of reducing global emissions, it will have to be changed to
include all countries of the world, each contributing accordingly.
II. Costs and Economic Implications
A global reduction in greenhouse gas emissions provided by the Kyoto Protocol might be
beneficial in the future, but a comparison of its immediate benefits to its costs is hardly favorable.
The costs of implementing the treaty, when considered in terms of direct costs, loss of jobs, and
long-term economic implications, are of such a magnitude that many experts think there are far
more important immediate global priorities to be considered. While no finite estimate of how much
the Kyoto Protocol would cost has been prepared, projects such as providing clean water to the
worlds population, which would save millions of lives annually, could be realized for a fraction of
the cost and have far more immediate benefits.

. What is solid waste management?

Solid waste management is the collection, transportation, processing and disposal of waste
material produced by human activities in order to reduce their effect on human health and
environment.
1. What is solid waste:
Any unwanted or discarded material which is no use or has served its purpose and is no longer
useful, but in temporary world, one man’s garbage/waste is another man’s treasure.
2. Types of solid waste:

I. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable.

II. Recyclable and non-recyclable.
III. Hazardous and non- hazardous.
IV. Source based:
a. Municipal solid waste.
b. Industrial waste.
c. Agricultural waste.
d. Construction waste.
e. Institutional waste. (hospital, school, offices etc. )
f. Commercial waste.

3. Elements of solid waste management:

 Generation.
 Storage.
 Collection.
 Transport and transfer.
 Processing and recovery.
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  Disposal.

4. Integrated solid waste management (iswm):

ISWM is a complete waste reduction, collection, composting, recycling and disposal system. An
efficient ISWM system considers how to reduce, reuse, recycle and manage waste to protect
human health and environment. ISWM puts more focus on 4 Rs approach i.e. reduce, reuse,
recycle, recover instead of existing 3Rs approach i.e. reduce, reuse, recycle of waste
management.
I. Strategies of integrated solid waste management at source:
I. Reduce.
II. Reuse
III. Segregation.
I. Segregation:
Segregation of waste is one of the efficient ways of solid waste management. This not only
facilitates recycling and composting.3 bin system is one of the ways of segregating waste.

 Green Bin is for organic waste.

 Yellow Bin is for recyclable waste.
 Black Bin is for other than recyclable and organic waste.
II. Reduce:
Waste shall be reduced by consumers. This can be done by using non-disposable items, items
having greater life, repairing and reassembling used items and redesigning products etc.

Example:

 Buying of items in bulk saves the waste generated by smaller packs.

 Opting for brands that have less packaging.
III. Reuse:
Reusing the items used once for the same or different purposes.
Example:
 Using of a Pepsi bottle for water.
 Using old cloth as a dust cloth.

5. Approaches of integrated solid waste management at disposal:

 Recycling.
 Recovering.
 Dumping.
 Composting.
 Incineration.
 Landfilling.
 Bio gasification.

I. Recycling:
The process of converting of waste materials into same or new materials. This reduces the need
of raw materials and helps in saving energy. Europe recycles 41% of its waste while USA recycles
32% of its waste.

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 II. Recovering:
Extracting of materials or components from waste that have value in other products. For instance,
salvage of lead from car batteries, copper wire from old fans and gold from computer components.

III. Open dumping:

In this method the solid wastes collected from the town are deposited in low lying areas usually on
the outskirts of the town in most of the under developed and developing countries. Since the open
dumps are uncovered these attract flies, birds, insects, rodents and also emit odors. This method
is the easiest, and used in many urban places of the world, because of lack of planning and
funding.
IV. COMPOSTING:
Composting is a biological process in which microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria, convert
degradable organic waste into humus like substance. This finished product, which looks like soil, is
high in carbon and nitrogen and is an excellent medium for growing Plants. The organic fertilizer
can be used instead of chemical fertilizers and is better specially when used for vegetables. It
increases the soil's ability to hold water and makes the soil easier to cultivate. In this method,
worms are added to the compost. These help break the waste and the added excreta of the
worms makes the compost very rich in nutrients.
Composting Benefits:
 Compost allows the soil to retain more plant nutrients over a longer period.
 It helps reduce the adverse effects of excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the excessive use of
chemical fertilizers.
 It makes soil easier to cultivate.
 It aids in preventing soil erosion by keeping the soil covered. It helps in controlling the
growth of weeds in the garden.
Disadvantages:
 Non-consumables have to be disposed separately.
 The technology has not caught up with the fanners and hence does not have an assured
market.
V. Incineration:
Incineration is a disposal method in which solid wastes are subjected to combustion so as to
convert them into residue and gaseous products. Incinerators convert waste materials into heat,
gas, steam and ash. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are
sometimes described as "thermal treatment
Advantages:
 Residue is only 20-30% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment.
 Requires very little space.
 Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits.
 Safest from hygienic point of view.
 An incinerator plant of 3000 tonnes per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.
Disadvantages:
 Its capital and operating cost is high.
 Operation needs skilled personnel.
 Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air
pollution.
VI. Land filling:
In a sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay or
plastic foam. In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an impermeable liner, usually
several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand. The liner protects the groundwater from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate. When landfill is full, it is covered with clay, sand,

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gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of water. Several wells are drilled near the landfill site to
monitor if any leakage is contaminating groundwater. Methane produced by anaerobic
decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.
Two types of land filling have been practiced:

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VII. BIOGAS:
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by breakdown of organic matter in the absence of
oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal feces and kitchen waste
can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas.
6. Effects of unavaibility of proper waste disposal:
The unavailability of proper disposal methods and resources for solid waste managing results in
various environmental and human health hazard effects. Problems can spread over a wide area.
I. Health Hazards:
 Eye infections are common.
 Dust in the air at dumpsites can cause breathing problems in children and adults.
 Flies breed on uncovered piles of rotting garbage and spread diseases lilse diarrhea,
dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis, and cholera.
 Mosquitoes transmit many types of diseases like malaria and yellow fever.
 Dogs, cats and rats living around refuse carry a variety of diseases including plague and
flea born fever.
 Intestinal, parasitic and skin diseases are found in workers engaged in collecting refuse.

II. Ground Water Pollution:

The most serious problem is groundwater contamination. As water filters through any material,
chemicals in the material may dissolve in the water, a process called leaching. The resulting
mixture is called leachate. Contaminated water can have a serious impact on all living creatures,
including humans, in an ecosystem.
III. Air Pollution:

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When waste is burnt heavy metals like lead, toxic gases and smoke spreads over residential
areas. The wind also carries waste, dust and gases caused by decomposition. Putrefaction of
waste in sunlight during daytime results in bad smells and reduced visibility.
IV. Land Pollution:
V. Tourism/Ethics/Recreation:
If tourism is important then aesthetic nuisance may reduce the number of visitors with the resultant
economic loss.
VI. Odour:
While passing through a crowded city in tropical areas a traveller may experience bad smell. It is
due to the combination of rotting vegetation and faecal matter and other solid wastes
indiscriminately discarded.
VII. Rats and other vertebrate vectors:
The main source of food for rats and other smaller rodents is refuse and rubbish dumps where
they can quickly proliferate and spread to neighboring houses. The rats become vectors to
diseases like rat bite fever etc. In addition to this the other birds like pigeons, crows seagulls also
serve as vectors.

7. Problems (Pakistan Perspective):

Solid waste generation in Pakistan ranges between 0.283 to 0.612 kg/capita/day and the waste
generation growth rate is 24% per year. Solid domestic waste is typically dumped on low-lying
land. This land could be used for more productive purposes and potentially valuable recyclable
materials are lost. Lakhodair in Lahore by LWMC is the first ever sanitary landfill in Pakistan.
Waste management came under public health engineering department but was shifted to local
governments after 2001 Act.
The following are the main problems regarding solid waste management in Pakistan:


There is no proper waste collection system

Waste is dumped on the streets.

Different types of waste are not collected separately.

There are no controlled sanitary landfill sites.

Citizens are not aware of the relationship between ways of disposing off waste and the
resulting environmental and public health problems.
8. Currently Available Legal Framework Regarding SWM in Pakistan:
Presently the legal rules and institutional framework for dealing with SWM in the country include:
I. Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (PEPA) 1997. Section 11 of the PEPA 1997
prohibits discharge of waste in an amount or concentration that violates the National
Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS).
II. Hospital Waste Management Rules 2005.
III. Hazardous substance rules.
IV. Section 132 of the Cantonment Act 1924 deals with disposal of rubbish etc.
V. Guidelines for Solid Waste Management (Draft), 2005; Pakistan Environmental Protection
Agency.
9. What is required:

I. Basic Recycling rules.

II. Waste Management rules.
III. E-Waste Management rules.
10. NGOS:
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 I. GUL BAHAO.
II. PAKSITAN ENVIRIONMENT WELFARE AND WASTE RECYCLING TRUST (PEWWRT).

SATELLITES
1. Introduction
A satellite is any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. There are two
types of satellites:
 Natural Satellites such as Luna (earth’s moon).
 Artificial Satellites such as sputnik, explorer and Hubbles Telescope

2. History
 First satellite was launched by USSR on Oct 4, 1957
 Name of the first satellite was Sputnik-1
 The second satellite was Sputnik-2 that was launched a month after sputnik-1
 Sputnik-2 carried a dog (Laika). The first known living creature to escape earth and enter
outer space
 Feb 1958, USA launched the Explorer-1
 First Communications satellite (SCORE) was launched on Dec 18, 1958. It broadcasted a
Christmas message from President Eisenhower “Peace on Earth, Good will toward men”. It
orbited the earth for 12 days.

3. How Do Satellites Stay in Orbit?

An object in motion will stay in motion unless something pushes or pulls on it. This statement is
called Newton's first law of motion. Without gravity, an Earth-orbiting satellite would go off into
space along a straight line. With gravity, it is pulled back toward Earth. An object's momentum
and the force of gravity have to be balanced for an orbit to happen. Orbital velocity is the speed
needed to stay in orbit. At an altitude of 150 miles (242 kilometres) above Earth, orbital velocity is
about 17,000 miles per hour. Satellites that have higher orbits have slower orbital velocities.
4. Escape velocity
Escape velocity is the speed that an object needs to break free of a planet or moon’s gravity
or
Escape velocity is the minimum speed needed for an object to escape from the gravitational
influence of a massive body.
If given escape velocity, the object will move away from the other body, continually slowing, and
will asymptotically approach zero speed as the object's distance approaches infinity, never to
come back.
The escape velocity from Earth is about 11.186 km/s (6.951 mi/s; 40,270 km/h; 25,020 mph) at the
surface. More generally,
I. Practical considerations
In most situations it is impractical to achieve escape velocity almost instantly, because of the
acceleration implied, and also because if there is an atmosphere the hypersonic speeds involved
(on Earth a speed of 11.2 km/s, or 40,320 km/h) would cause most objects to burn up due to
aerodynamic heating or be torn apart by atmospheric drag.
For an actual escape orbit, a spacecraft will accelerate steadily out of the atmosphere until it
reaches the escape velocity appropriate for its altitude (which will be less than on the surface).
5. Types of satellites based on orbits

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There are three types of earth orbits:
I. Low Earth Orbit
Satellites that orbit the earth at the height of 160 to 2000 km are known as LEO Satellites. Most of
scientific and weather satellites are LEOs and orbit earth in nearly circular path. These satellites
cover small area but the signal strength is really strong..

II. Medium Earth Orbit

The orbit range of MEOs is greater than 2000km to slightly less than geo-stationary orbit (35786
kms). It covers less area than Geostationary Satellites. Two medium earth orbits are notable

III. High Earth Orbit

Satellites orbiting the earth at or more than 35786 kms, then it is said to be in a High Earth
Orbit.

A. Geosynchronous or Geostationary
When a satellite is orbiting the earth at 35786 kms above the earth, the speed required to keep the
satellite in motion is equal to the speed of the rotation of the earth. that is why the satellite always
seem to be in the same place over the earth. such satellites are called geostationary satellites as
they are always in the same location.
6. Types of satellites wrt to function
I. Weather Satellite
Helps meteorologists observe the atmospheric condition, observe and predict the weather.
II. Communications Satellite
Used for communication of Radio, television or mobile communications.
III. Astronomical Satellites
Basically a big telescope floating in space that is used to observe the universe. Hubble’s telescope
is an example.
IV. Navigational Satellites
These help ships and planes navigate, for example Global Positioning System
V. Search and Rescue Satellites
These are designed to provide a way for vessels at sea and in the air to communicate from remote
areas in case of an emergency as these satellites can detect and locate the emergency beacons
carried by ships, aircrafts or individuals in remote or dangerous places.

VI. Remote Sensing

VII. Military Satellites
Used for military purposes like relaying encrypted information, reconnaissance, early warning
system etc

Global positioning system

The Navigation Satellite Time and Ranging (NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
worldwide radio-navigation system created by the U. S. Department of defence (DOD) to provide
navigation, location, and timing information for military operations. System testing using a limited
number of satellites began in 1978 with the system being declared fully operational in 1995. The

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 system was declared available for civilian uses in the 1980s and has seen burgeoning civilian
application for navigation and mapping.
1. Basic elements
The GPS system consists of three basic elements: the space segment, control segment, and user
segment.
I. The Space Segment
The satellites in the GPS constellation are arranged into six equally-spaced orbital planes
surrounding the Earth. Each plane contains four "slots" occupied by baseline satellites.

II. The Control Segment

GPS control segment consists of a global network of ground facilities that track the GPS satellites,
monitor their transmissions, perform analyses, and send commands and data to the constellation.

III. The User Segment

All GPS receivers on land, on sea, in the air and in space are known as user segments. The user
segment consists of the GPS receiver which will typically consist of:
 an antenna that is tuned into the frequency that is transmitted by the satellites,
 multi-channel receiver
 processing unit
 a highly stable clock.

2. Working Principle
Each satellite broadcasts different signals which can be tracked by a GPS receiver on earth, which
are then analysed by the GPS receiver to determine its precise location. The signals operate in all
weather conditions but can’t penetrate through solid objects, so GPS receivers perform best when
they have a clear view of the sky.
GPS receiver is tracking signals from multiple satellites. GPS receivers use a mathematical
process called trilateration

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 3. Applications
I. Military Application
GPS was developed by US Department of Defence for military purposes such as:
 positioning infantry brigades and armoured divisions in theatre of war
 guiding air crafts, ships and missiles
 Assisting military units in navigation
 Provide accurate position-based intelligence back to headquarters
II. Road Transport
GPS has a number of applications in transportation sector such as:
 Freight tracking
 Public transport monitoring
 Taxi services (careem, uber)
 Navigation and location services for private car owner
 Commercial fleet management (oil tankers)
III. Aviation
GPS can provide location and navigation services to the aircrafts. It can also inform the operator at
ground and in the plane about the location of an airport.
GPS is also used in unmanned aircrafts UAVs, such as Drones. UAVs are used for resource
mapping and aerial surveying.
IV. Science
GPS has widespread scientific applications such as
 Environmental and atmospheric monitoring
 Animal behavioural studies
 Botanical specimen location
 Meteorology and climate research
 Precision planting of crops
 Spraying and harvesting
 Autonomous vehicle control
V. Surveying Mapping and Geophysics
GPS is widely used in mapping, surveying and demarcations. It is also used in Geographical
Information System application.
In geophysics GPS is used to time stamp seismic activity and to monitor position changes in
sensitive physical formations such as volcanoes and earthquake fault lines.

Remote sensing
1. Definition
It is the science of acquiring information about the Earth’s surface without actually being in contact
with it.

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making
physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation.
2. Principle of Remote Sensing
Different objects on earth return different amount of incident energy in different wavelength ranges
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Everything in nature has its own unique pattern of reflected,
emitted or absorbed radiation. A senor is to record reflected o emitted energy from the surface of
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 the object. The energy is recorded and processed into an image. Then it is transmitted to the user
for analysis to extract information about the target. The information is the applied to assist in
decision making.

3. Process of Remote Sensing

I.Energy Source or Illumination (A)
The first and most important requirement for a remote sensing is to have an energy source which is
used to illuminate the target or which provides the electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
II.Radiation and Atmosphere (B)
As the energy travels from its source to the target it interacts with atmosphere.
III.Interaction with the Target (C)
The energy after interacting with the atmosphere then interacts with the target.
IV.Radiation and Atmosphere (B)
The energy after coming in contact with the target is then reflected back.
V.Recording by the Sensor (D)
The reflected light after travelling the atmosphere is captured by the sensor and is recorded
VI.Transmission (E)

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 The recorded reflected back light is then transmitted to a processing station
VII.Reception and Processing (E)
The data is received and is then processed into an image
VIII. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
The processed imaged is then analysed used different techniques to gather the required
information
IX. Application (G)
The acquired information is then used in assisting decision making.

3. Types of Remote Sensing:

RS are classified on the basis of source of illumination
I. Passive Remote Sensing
Remote sensing system that use sun as their source of illumination are known as Passive
Remove Sensors.

II. Active Remote Sensing

ARS on the other hand provide their own energy source for illumination. Sensors emit radiation
which are directed towards the target that is under observation. The reflected back radiation from
the target is then detected by the senor and is recorded.

4. Advantages of Remote Sensing

 Data of large earth’s surfaces can be collected with relative higher speed. It saves time and
human effort.
 Data of inaccessible or remote areas can also be collected through satellite remote
sensing.
 Remote sensing data can be shared by many users

5. pApplications of Remote Sensing

I. Geology
existing geological maps are updated and new features are added when changes occur.

II. Agriculture
Remote sensing can identify different types of crops, the area under each kind of crop, the
stage the crop is in and the expected yield of the crop

III. Forestry
RS can provide information about extent of forest cover, that is the area under the forest. It
can also provide information about the type of the forest, the conditions of the forest, the
maturity stage of the forest. As the RS data is temporal it can also be used to keep a check
in illegal deforestation and theft.

IV. Land Use mapping

It can provide land use pattern data for a large area any time. This is important for planning
and decision-making purposes.

V. Oceans and Costal Zones

RS can identify areas of fish concentration and it can also monitor the environmental
degradation that occurs due to overexploitation

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VI. Disaster Management Assessment
Remote sensing can provide an assessment of disaster that struck by comparison of before
and after data.

Information Technology

1. Basics

I. Hardware
Physical aspects of computers, telecommunications, and other information technology devices
Example: Keyboard, monitor
B. Six Categories of Hardware
 Input Device
 Output device
 Storage device
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Telecommunications device
 Connecting device

i. Computer Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A device that interprets and runs the commands that you give to the computer. Also referred to as
the processor.
a. Parts
 Control unit
Interprets software instructions and tells the other hardware devices what to do, based on the
software instructions
 Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
Performs all arithmetic operations and all logic operations
a. CPU Speed
 Megahertz (MHz) - the number of millions of CPU cycles per second
 Gigahertz (GHz) - the number of billions of CPU cycles per second

b. Examples:
Intel Core 2 Duo, AMD Turion X2

II. Software
A general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate computers and related devices

A. Example:
Microsoft Excel
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 B. Categories
Two categories of software
 Application
 System

i. System Software
System software controls how the various technology tools work together along with the
application software. Moreover, operating System controls application software and manages how
the hardware devices work together
Example: Microsoft Windows XP Home,
Mac OS, Linux
a. What Is a GUI?
Nearly all modern operating systems use a graphical user interface (GUI). This lets users click on
images or text on the screen instead of having to type commands.
ii. Application Software
Application software is used for specific information processing needs, including:
Payroll, customer relationship management, project management, training, word processing and
many others

I. Programs
The hardware and the operating system together are referred to as a platform. Programs, also
called applications, use this platform to perform tasks. There are many types of programs:
Type of Software Sample Task
Web browsers Conduct Internet research
Instant messaging Communicate with friends
E-mail Send a file to your teacher
Word processing Write a letter, paper, or essay
Presentation Create a slide show
Spreadsheet Make calculations
Database Organize and access large amounts of information,
such as at a library

1. Storage memories
Memory is where information is stored and retrieved by the CPU.
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 2. Types of main memory

3. Hierarchy

I. Types of storage devices

A. Random Access Memory – RAM
RAM is the physical hardware inside a computer that temporarily stores data, serving as the
computer's "working" memory. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any
memory cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell. Additional RAM
allows a computer to work with more information at the same time, which usually has a dramatic
effect on total system performance.

i. Function and Use:

The purpose of RAM is to provide quick read and write access to a storage device. Your computer
uses RAM to load data because it's much quicker than running that same data directly off of a
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hard drive. All the data you're actively using on your computer (or smartphone, tablet, etc.) is
temporarily stored in RAM. This type of memory, like a desk in the analogy, provides much faster
read/write times than using a hard drive. Most hard drives are considerably slower than RAM due
to physical limitations like rotation speed.

ii. Difference between RAM and hard disk

1 GB of memory (RAM) isn't the same thing as 1 GB of hard drive space. Unlike a hard drive,
which can be powered down and then back on without losing its data, the contents of RAM are
always erased when the computer shuts down. This is why none of your programs or files are still
open when you turn your computer back on.

One-way computers get around this limitation is to put your computer into hibernation mode.
Hibernating a computer just copies the contents of RAM to the hard drive when the computer
shuts down and then copies all of it back to RAM when powered back on.
iii. Difference between RAM and SAM
The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM). SAM stores data as a series of memory
cells that can only be accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current
location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is found. SAM works very well for
memory buffers, where the data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good
example is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data, on the other hand, can be
accessed in any order.

B. Read-Only Memory – ROM

Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that permanently stores data on personal
computers (PCs) and other electronic devices. It contains the programming needed to start a PC,
which is essential for boot-up; it performs major input/output tasks and holds programs or software
instructions.
Data stored in ROM is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to change (unlike RAM,
which can be changed as easily as it is read).
i. Difference between RAM and ROM
Read only memory Random access memory
Read-only memory or ROM is also a form of Random access memory or RAM is a
data storage that cannot be easily altered or form of data storage that can be
reprogrammed accessed randomly at any time, in any
order and from any physical location.
ROM is a permanent memory RAM is a volatile memory

ROM stores the programme required to RAM allows the computer to read data
initially boot the computer. It only allowsquickly to run applications. It allows
reading. reading and writing.
The types of ROM include PROM, EPROM The two main types of RAM are static
and EEPROM. RAM and dynamic RAM.
ROM is the memory that comes with RAM is the memory available for the
computer that is pre-written to hold the operating system, programmes and
instructions for booting up the computer. processes to use when the computer is
running.
ROM will retain data without the flow of RAM requires a flow of electricity to retain
electricity (e.g. when computer is powered data (e.g. the computer powered on).
off).

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 C. Cache Memory:
Cache memory is a small-sized type of volatile computer memory that provides high-speed data
access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs, applications and data. It is
the fastest memory in a computer, and is typically integrated onto the motherboard and directly
embedded in the processor or main random access memory (RAM).
i. Purpose
Cache memory provides faster data storage and access by storing instances of programs and
data routinely accessed by the processor. Thus, when a processor requests data that already has
an instance in the cache memory, it does not need to go to the main memory or the hard disk to
fetch the data.
ii. Primary and secondary cache
Cache memory can be primary or secondary cache memory, with primary cache memory directly
integrated into (or closest to) the processor. In addition to hardware-based cache, cache memory
also can be a disk cache, where a reserved portion on a disk stores and provides access to
frequently accessed data/applications from the disk.

D. Hard Disk:
A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive or fixed disk[b] is an electromechanical data storage
device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve digital information using one or more rigid
rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material.
i. Working
Hard Disk contains a large shiny, circular "plate" of magnetic material called a platter, divided into
billions of tiny areas. Each one of those areas can be independently magnetized (to store a 1) or
demagnetized (to store a 0). Magnetism is used in computer storage because it goes on storing
information even when the power is switched off.
Platters are disks made from a hard material such as glass, ceramic, or aluminum, which is coated
with a thin layer of metal that can be magnetized or demagnetized. A small hard drive typically has
only one platter, but each side of it has a magnetic coating. Bigger drives have a series of platters
stacked on a central spindle, with a small gap in between them. The platters rotate at up to 10,000
revolutions per minute (rpm) so the read-write heads can access any part of them.
There are two read-write heads for each platter, one to read the top surface and one to read the
bottom. The read-write heads are mounted on an electrically controlled arm that moves from the
center of the drive to the outer edge and back again. To reduce wear and tear, they don't actually
touch the platter: there's a layer of fluid or air between the head and the platter surface.
ii. How data is stored
The data is stored in a very orderly pattern on each platter. Bits of data are arranged in concentric,
circular paths called tracks. Each track is broken up into smaller areas called sectors. Part of the
hard drive stores a map of sectors that have already been used up and others that are still free. (In
Windows, this map is called the File Allocation Table or FAT.) When the computer wants to store
new information, it takes a look at the map to find some free sectors. Then it instructs the read-
write head to move across the platter to exactly the right location and store the data there. To read
information, the same process runs in reverse.

E. Flash Memory
Flash memory is an electronic (solid-state) non-volatile computer storage medium that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed.
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transfering data between a
personal computer (PC) and digital devices. It has the ability to be electronically reprogrammed
and erased.

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Flash memory incorporates the use of floating-gate transistors to store data. Floating-gate
transistors are electrically isolated and use a floating node in direct current (DC). Flash memory
transistor has two gates instead of one.
i. Features
Flash memory has many features. It is a lot less expensive and does not require batteries for
solid-state storage such as static RAM.
It is non-volatile, has a very fast access time and has a higher resistance to kinetic shock
compared to a hard disc drive.
Flash memory is extremely durable and can withstand intense pressure or extreme temperatures.
ii. Uses
It is often found in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras and solid-state drives

4. Memory units
A. Bit
A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit has a single binary
value, either 0 or 1. The two values of a binary digit can also be interpreted as logical values
(true/false, yes/no), algebraic signs (+/−), activation states (on/off), or any other two-valued
attribute

B. Byte
When 8 Bits are combined they form a BYTE. To store data in a BYTE the 8 bits are configured in
different series to represent different things. For example to alphabet “A” in binary is represented
by 01000001.

Decimal

Value SI

1000 103 kbit kilobit

10002 106 Mbit megabit

10003 109 Gbit gigabit

10004 1012 Tbit terabit

Computerps

1. Network
Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers.
2. Size of a network
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of
compputers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices
within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.

3. Classification of networks

Networks
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Transmission Network size Management Topology
media method

LAN WAN Bus Star Ring Mesh

Peer to Client/
Wired Wireless
peer server
PAN

MAN

I. On network size
A. Personal Area Network
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person
within a single building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would
include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and other
personal entertainment devices. If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence,
the network is sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a
residence will have a single wired Internet connection connected to a modem. This modem then
provides both wired and wireless connections for multiple devices. The network is typically
managed from a single computer but can be accessed from any device.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:
i. Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch
with your laptop.
ii. Upload a photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
iii. Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

B. Local Area Network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an
individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and
printers. LANs can be built with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters
and Ethernet cables.
The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands
of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security,
but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost are the
defining characteristics of LANs.
LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among themselves
but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where everybody should be
able to access files on a central server or be able to print a document to one or more central
printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same office, but you would not
want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a document to the printer from their cell
phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local area
network, or WLAN.
C. Metropolitan Area Network
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A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city,
college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single
building or site. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from
several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a
bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is
sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

D. Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the entire
world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the
best-known example of a public WAN.
E. Private Networks
One of the benefits of networks like PAN and LAN is that they can be kept entirely private by
restricting some communications to the connections within the network. This means that those
communications never go over the Internet.
For example, using a LAN, an employee is able to establish a fast and secure connection to a
company database without encryption since none of the communications between the employee's
computer and the database on the server leave the LAN.

II. Network topology

A network topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected together. Topology may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
Common networks layouts are:
A. Bus network
A bus network is an arrangement in a local area network (LAN) in which each node (workstation or
other device) is connected to a main cable or link called the bus.
A bus network is simple and reliable. If one node fails to operate, all the rest can still communicate
with each other. For a major disruption to take place, the bus itself must be broken somewhere.
Bus networks are easy to expand. Additional nodes can be added anywhere along the bus.
There are several limitations to the bus network topology. The length of the bus is limited by cable
loss.

B. Star Network
A star network is a local area network (LAN) in which all nodes (workstations or other devices) are
directly connected to a common central computer. Every workstation is indirectly connected to
every other through the central computer. In some star networks, the central computer can also
operate as a workstation.
The star network topology works well when workstations are at scattered points. It is easy to add
or remove workstations.
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In a star network, a cable failure will isolate the workstation that it links to the central computer, but
only that workstation will be isolated. All the other workstations will continue to function normally,
except that they will not be able to communicate with the isolated workstation. But if the central
computer goes down, the entire network will suffer degraded performance or complete failure.

C. Mesh Network
A mesh network is a local area network (LAN), wireless local area network (WLAN) or virtual LAN
(VLAN) that employs one of two decentralized connection arrangements: full mesh topology or
partial mesh topology. In a full mesh topology, each network node (workstation or other device) is
connected directly to each of the others. In a partial mesh topology, some nodes are connected to
all the others, but others are only connected to those nodes with which they exchange the most
data.
There are two types
 Full Mesh
Each node is connected to every other node
 Partial Mesh
Each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbours in the such a way that there is at
least one traversal from any node to any other.

FULL MESH Partial Mesh

D. Ring Network
A ring network is a local area network (LAN) in which the nodes (workstations or other devices)
are connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of nodes are directly connected.
Other pairs of nodes are indirectly connected, the data passing through one or more intermediate
nodes. The ring topology may prove optimum when system requirements are modest and
workstations are at scattered points. If the workstations are reasonably close to the vertices of a
convex polygon (such as the pentagon shown in the illustration), the cost can be lower than that of
any other topology when cable routes are chosen to minimize the total length of cable needed. A
break in the cable of a ring network may result in degraded data speed between pairs of
workstations for which the data path is increased as a result of the break. If two breaks occur and

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they are not both in the same section of cable, some workstations will be cut off from some of the
others.

E. Tree Network
In a tree network the nodes are arranged in a hierarchical form as per the requirements of the
client. In telecommunication networks, a tree network is a combination of two or more star
networks connected together. Each star network is a local area network (LAN) in which there is a
central computer or server to which all the workstation nodes are directly linked. The central
computers of the star networks are connected to a main cable called the bus. Thus, a tree network
is a bus network of star networks. The tree network topology is ideal when the workstations are
located in groups, with each group occupying a relatively small physical region. An example is a
university campus in which each building has its own star network, and all the central computers
are linked in a campus-wide system. It is easy to add or remove workstations from each star
network. Entire star networks can be added to, or removed from, the bus.

In a tree network, a cable failure in one of the star networks will isolate the workstation that it links
to the central computer of that star network, but only that workstation will be isolated. All the other
workstations will continue to function normally, except that they will not be able to communicate
with the isolated workstation. If any workstation goes down, none of the other workstations will be
affected. If a central computer goes down, the entire portion of the network served by it will suffer
degraded performance or complete failure, but rest of the network will continue to function
normally.

Telecommunications
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 1. Definition
Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, words, writings, images and
sounds or information of any nature by wire, radio, optical or electromagnetic systems.
2. Purpose
The purpose of any telecommunications system is to transfer information from the sender to the
receiver by a means of a communication channel.
3. How information is carried
The information is carried by a signal, which is certain physical quantity that changes with time.
The signal can be a voltage proportional to the amplitude of the voice, like in a simple telephone, a
sequence of pulses of light in an optical fibre, or a radio-electric wave irradiated by an antenna.

4. Wireless Communication
Wireless communication, or sometimes simply wireless, is the transfer of information or power
between two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The most common
wireless technologies use radio waves. With radio waves distances can be short, such as a few
meters for Bluetooth or as far as millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications.

5. Types of Wireless Communication

I. Satellite Communication
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio
telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a
source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are
used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are over 2,000
communications satellites in Earth’s orbit, used by both private and government organizations.
Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals.

II. Microwave Communication

Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by microwave radio waves.
Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength
allows conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly
at the receiving antenna. This allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies
without interfering with each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another advantage is that
the high frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying
capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum
below it. A disadvantage is that microwaves are limited to line of sight propagation; they cannot
pass around hills or mountains as lower frequency radio waves can.
F. Methods of transmission
There are two methods
 Satellite Method: the data is transmitted to a satellite that then amplifies it and send it
towards the receiver.
 Terrestrial Method: two microwave towers with clear line of sight between them are used to
communicate as microwaves cannot pass through mountains and hills

III. Wi-Fi:
Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide
wireless high-speed Internet and network connections.
Wi-Fi networks have no physical wired connection between sender and receiver by using radio
frequency (RF) technology -- a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum associated with
radio wave propagation. When an RF current is supplied to an antenna, an electromagnetic field is
created that then is able to propagate through space.
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The cornerstone of any wireless network is an access point (AP). The primary job of an access
point is to broadcast a wireless signal that computers can detect and "tune" into. In order to
connect to an access point and join a wireless network, computers and devices must be equipped
with wireless network adapters.
It is used by devices like smart phones, laptops etc

IV. Bluetooth Technology:

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves) from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks
(PANs). It permits the user to connect various electronic devices wirelessly to a system for
transferring of data.
Handsfree, wireless headphones, mouse or keyboard.

Optical fiber
1. Definition
An optical fiber is a thin fiber of glass or plastic that can carry light from one end to the other. It
refers to the medium and technology associated with the transmission of information as light
pulses along a hollow glass tube or plastic wire or fibre.
Optical fibers are mainly used in telecommunications, but they are also used for lighting, sensors,
toys, and special cameras for seeing inside small spaces.
2. Working Principle:
Total Internal Reflection
If light hits glass at a really shallow angle (less than 42 degrees), it reflects back in again – as if
the glass was really mirror.
In fibre optics transmission involves transferring of data in the form of light from one place to
another.
3. Parts of fiber optics network
Fibre optics network consists of:
 Transmitting and receiving circuity
 A light source
 Detector devices

4. The process of Transmission of Data

When input data is given to the transmitter circuitry in the form of electrical signals, it converts
them into light signal with the help of a light source
The light beam from the source is carried by a fibre optic to the destination circuitry
At the destination, a detector device converts the light signal back into electrical signal

5. Types of Optical Fibres

I. Single mode:
The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode. It has a very thin core about 5-10 microns
(millionths of a meter) in diameter. In a single-mode fiber, all signals travel straight down the
middle without bouncing off the edges (yellow line in diagram). Cable TV, Internet, and telephone
signals are generally carried by single-mode fibers, wrapped together into a huge bundle. Cables
like this can send information over 100 km (60 miles).

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 II. Multi mode:
Another type of fiber-optic cable is called multi-mode. Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is
about 10 times bigger than one in a single-mode cable. This means light beams can travel through
the core by following a variety of different paths (yellow, orange, blue, and cyan lines)—in other
words, in multiple different modes. Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively
short distances and are used (among other things) to link computer networks together.

6. Structure of Optical Fibre

It consists of four parts

I. The core
Generally made out of glass, the medium through which light travels through the principle of total
internal reflection.
II. The cladding
Made out of glass or plastic. Performs the following functions
o Reduces loss of light from the core into the surrounding air
o Reduces scattering loss at the surce of the core
o Protects the fibre from absorbing surface contaminants
o Adds mechanical strength

III. The coating or buffer

Used to protect an optical fibre from physical damage
IV. Extra jacket
Used to bundle all the fibers together

7. Advantages of Fibre Optics

 Bandwidth – much greater bandwidth than metal cables.
 Low power loss – it offers low power loss, which enables transmission of data over longer
distances
 Interference – immune to electromagnetic interference
 Size – compared to cooper wire the size of optical fibre is very small
 Safety – dielectric, it does not present a spark hazard
 Security – difficult to tap, as they do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emission cannot be
intercepted.
 Flexible – greater tensile strength than cooper or steel fibres of the same diameter. Flexible,
bends easily and resists most coercive elements that attack copper cable.
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 Cost – glass and plastic are plentiful, can be made out of recycled material. Cheaper than
copper. Although initial cost of installation is high.

8. Uses
 Telecommunication – high speed and large amounts of data can be transmitted efficiently
 Medical Uses – extremely thin, flexible strands, enables doctors to view internal organs without
performing surgery

Artificial intelligence
1. Definition
‘Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of a machine or a computer program to think and learn. The
concept of AI is based on the idea of building machines capable of thinking, acting, and learning
like humans.’
“Artificial Intelligence is an interdisciplinary concept that studies the possibility of creating
machines capable of interacting with their environment and acting upon the received data in a
manner considered intelligent.”

2. Pre requisites for artificial intelligence

There are certain things a machine/computer program must be capable of to be considered AI.
 It should be able to mimic human thought process and behaviour.
 It should act in a human-like way—intelligent, rational, and ethical.

3. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:

Although the two terms are often used interchangeably, they are not the same. Artificial
intelligence is a broader concept, while machine learning is the most common application of AI.
Machine learning as a current application of AI that is focused on development of computer
programs that can access data and learn from it automatically, without human assistance or
intervention.
Artificial intelligence, in its turn, is a bunch of technologies that include machine learning and some
other technologies like natural language processing, inference algorithms, neural networks, etc.

4. Classification of Artificial Intelligence

I. Cognitive Science
This area of AI is based on research in biology, neurology, psychology, mathematics etc. Focus is
on researching how the human brain works and how human thinks and learn

A. Applications
 Expert system: An expert system is a knowledge-based information system that uses its
knowledge about a specific, complex application area to act as an expert consultant to end
users. They must also be able to explain their reasoning process and conclusions to a
user.
 Neural Network: Massively parallel neurocomputer systems whose design is based on the
human brain’s mesh-like neuron structure. Advantages of such a structure is that it can
process many pieces of information simultaneously.

II. Robotics
AI also has applications in robotics. AI helps in creating robot machines with computer intelligence
and computer-controlled human like physical capabilities.

Ai can give robots the following capabilities

 Visual perception
 Tactility: ability to use the sense of touch
 Locomotion: physical ability to move around
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  Navigation: find ways to the destination
5. Real life Uses of Artificial Intelligence
I. Virtual Personal Assistants
Take Siri or Alexa—personal assistants that have already become the new normal for thousands
of people around the globe. These and similar intelligent gadgets are able to recognize our speech
(read: “understand what we want or need”), analyze the information they have access to, and
provide an answer or solution. What is remarkable about such assistants is that they continuously
learn about their users until the point at which they are able to accurately anticipate users’ needs.
Spotify, Pandora, and Apple Music are some other touching points between AI and you. These
services are capable of recommending music based on your interests. These apps monitor the
choices you make, insert them into a learning algorithm, and suggest music you are most likely to
enjoy. This particular use of AI is probably one of the simplest among all, but it does a good job
helping us discover new songs and artists.
II. Video Games
One of the instances of AI that most people are probably familiar with, video game AI has been
used for a very long time—since the very first video games, in fact. But the complexity and
effectiveness of that AI has increased exponentially over the past several decades, resulting in
video game characters that learn your behaviors, respond to stimuli, and react in unpredictable
ways.
III. Smart Cars
You probably haven’t seen someone reading the newspaper while driving to work yet, but self-
driving cars are moving closer and closer to reality; Google’s self-driving car project and Tesla’s
“autopilot” feature are two examples that have been in the news lately. Earlier this year, the
Washington Post reported on an algorithm developed by Google that could potentially let self-
driving cars learn to drive in the same way that humans do: through experience.
IV. Security Surveillance
A single person monitoring a number of video cameras isn’t a very secure system; people get
bored easily, and keeping track of multiple monitors can be difficult even in the best of
circumstances. Which is why training computers to monitor those cameras makes a great deal of
sense. With supervised training exercises, security algorithms can take input from security
cameras and determine whether there may be a threat—if it “sees” a warning sign, it will alert
human security officers.
V. Medicine
Tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed by artificial intelligence and are beginning to
be developed include:
 Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems help scan digital images,
e.g. from computed tomography, for typical appearances and to highlight conspicuous
sections, such as possible diseases. A typical application is the detection of a tumor.
 Heart sound analysis
 Companion robots for the care of the elderly
 Mining medical records to provide more useful information.
 Design treatment plans.

Cell phone
Cell phones use radio waves over a networked area and is served through a cell site or base
station at a fixed location enabling calls data to transmit wirelessly, that can be used for various
purposes but mainly for making phone calls.
1. Fundamental Characteristics of Cellular telephone systems:
 The geographic area served by a cellular system is broken into smaller geographic areas or
cells. Uniform hexagons are used to represent them on a map.

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  All communications to a portable device in a cell is made through the base station that
serves that cell
 Frequencies assigned to a cell may be reused but not in adjacent cells.
 There is a central controller, known as Mobile telephone switching office, which keeps track
of the movement of the mobile subscriber. If a mobile devices during a call moves from one
cell to another the Central Controller reroutes the call from the old cell to the new cell.
 If a demand for the radio channels within a cell increases beyond its capacity of the cell, the
cell is split into smaller cells. The smaller cells then have their own base station.
2. Concept
In a cellular radio system, a land area
to be supplied with radio service is
divided into cells, in a pattern which
depends on terrain and reception
characteristics but which can consist of
roughly hexagonal, square, circular or
some other regular shapes, although
hexagonal cells are conventional.
Each of these cells is assigned with
multiple frequencies (f1 – f6) which
have corresponding radio base
stations. The group of frequencies can
be reused in other cells, provided that the same frequencies are not reused in adjacent
neighbouring cells as that would cause co-channel interference.

3. Components of a Cell Phone

 Power source – battery
 Circuit board – microprocessor
 ROM and RAM
 Antenna
 Display
 Input Mechanism – Touch Screen
 Microphone
 Speaker

Tropical cyclone or cyclone and Hurricane.

A tropical cyclone is a generic term used by meteorologists to describe a rotating, organized

system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters and has
closed, low-level circulation. Once a tropical cyclone reaches maximum sustained winds of 74
miles per hour or higher, it is then classified as a hurricane, typhoon, or cyclone depending upon
where the storm originates in the world. Tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere.

Hurricanes are tropical storms that form over the North Atlantic Ocean and Northeast Pacific.

Cyclones are formed over the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.
Typhoons are formed over the Northwest Pacific Ocean.

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They are classified as follows:

Tropical Depression: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 38 mph (33 knots) or
less.
Tropical Storm: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 39 to 73 mph (34 to 63
knots).
Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 74 mph (64 knots) or higher. In the
western North Pacific, hurricanes are called typhoons; similar storms in the Indian Ocean and
South Pacific Ocean are called cyclones.
Major Hurricane: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 111 mph (96 knots) or
higher, corresponding to a Category 3, 4 or 5 on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale.

Tornados
Del Genio says tornadoes are nature’s hardest weather event to predict. They are essentially
flukes of nature. Unlike hurricanes, they form spontaneously, are short-lived, and traverse a much
smaller land mass by comparison.

Many atmospheric conditions need to converge at the right time for tornadoes to form. They need
hot, humid air near the ground with a cool air mass above them. They also need strong wind
velocity at higher altitudes, known as wind shear, to get them spinning.

What is the difference between tornadoes and hurricanes?

A tornado is a violently spiraling funnel cloud that extends from the bottom of a thunderstorm to
the ground. It is important not to confuse a tornado with a hurricane or tropical cyclone because
tornadoes and hurricanes are very different phenomena. The only similarity between them is that
they both contain strong rotating winds that can cause damage.

Location: Tornadoes usually occur over land, while hurricanes almost always form over the
ocean.
Size: The largest tornado every observed was 4 km wide, but most tornadoes are about 0.8 km
wide. Hurricanes are much larger, ranging from about 160 km to 1600 km wide.
Life cycles: A tornado’s lifetime is short, ranging from a few seconds to a few hours. A hurricane’s
life cycle can last from days to weeks.
Wind speeds: The strongest tornadoes can have wind speeds over 483 kph, but even the
strongest hurricanes rarely produce wind speeds over 322 kph.

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 VACCINE
Discovery
In 1796, the scientist Edward Jenner injected material from a cowpox virus into an eight-year-old
boy with a hunch that this would provide the protection needed to save people from deadly
outbreaks of the related smallpox virus. It was a success. The eight-year-old was inoculated
against the disease and this became the first ever vaccine.
Immune System of the body: To understand how vaccines function, we need to know how the
immune system defends us against contagious diseases in the first place. When foreign microbes
invade us, the immune system triggers a series of responses in an attempt to identify and remove
them from our bodies. The signs that this immune response is working are the coughing,
sneezing, inflammation and fever we experience, which work to trap, deter and rid the body of
threatening things, like bacteria. These innate immune responses also trigger our second line of
defense, called adaptive immunity. Special cells called B cells and T cells are recruited to fight
microbes, and also record information about them, creating a memory of what the invaders look
like, and how best to fight them. This know-how becomes handy if the same pathogen invades the
body again. But what if we could prepare the body's immune response, readying it before
someone even got ill? This is where vaccines come in.
How do Vaccine work: Using the same principles that the body uses to defend itself, scientists use
vaccines to trigger the body's adaptive immune system, without exposing humans to the full-
strength disease. This has resulted in many vaccines, which each work uniquely, separated into
many different types.
1. live attenuated vaccines: These are made of the pathogen itself but a much weaker and
tamer version.
2. inactive vaccines: made of pathogens in which the pathogens have been killed.
The weakening and inactivation in both types of vaccine ensures that pathogens don't develop into
the full-blown disease. But just like a disease, they trigger an immune response, teaching the body
to recognize an attack by making a profile of pathogens in preparation.
3. subunit vaccine: is only made from one part of the pathogen, called an antigen, the
ingredient that actually triggers the immune response. By even further isolating specific
components of antigens, like proteins or polysaccharides, these vaccines can prompt specific
responses.

Differences between Antibiotics and Vaccines

In modern times, the treatment and prevention of various life-threatening bacterial, viral and other
infections have become possible with the advent of vaccines and antibiotics. Both vaccines and
antibiotics are used to treat infections or kill germs, but they are different as they work in different
ways and are used for different purposes. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases that have already
occurred and vaccines are used to prevent diseases that may happen. Let us see how antibiotics
differ from vaccines
Antibiotics:
Antibiotics are small molecules or compounds that are used to treat or stop infections caused by
microorganisms like bacteria, fungi etc. They belong to the group of antimicrobial compounds
intended to kill harmful microorganism. They kill bacteria or stop them from growing or
reproducing. The meaning of word antibiotic is ?against life?, so any drug that is prepared to kill
bacteria in the body is technically an antibiotic.
Antibiotics kill only bacteria, they don?t work against viruses. So, they are used for bacterial
infections not for the viral infections. Some common bacterial infections that can be treated with
antibiotics are as follows:
o Strep throat
o Dental infections

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 o Ear and sinus infections
o Bladder and kidney infections
o Bacterial pneumonia
o Whooping cough
o Meningitis
Vaccines:
Vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to produce or improve immunity to a specific
disease. They are generally given by injection (needle) however some are given orally and nasally
(sprayed into the nose). The act of giving a vaccine to produce immunity to a specific disease is
known as vaccination.
It is an inactive form of a germ (bacteria or virus). It is generally prepared from small amounts of
weakened or dead micro organisms which can cause diseases like viruses and bacteria. In some
cases, the inactivated toxins produced by germs or their body parts like surface proteins are used
to prepare a vaccine. Vaccines protect us from various diseases like diphtheria, tetanus, polio,
chicken pox, small pox, flu, common cold, stomach flu etc.
How vaccine works:
Vaccine contains a small amount of a dead or weakened disease-causing germ (antigen). When
this antigen enters the body through vaccination, it causes the body to build immunity or produce
antibodies against the antigen or specific infection without causing the actual disease. Some of
these antibodies remain in the body. Whenever a real disease-causing germ enters into our body,
our immune system quickly recognizes it and produces more antibodies to destroy the actual germ
or neutralize toxins effectively. Thus, through vaccination, the information to fight against specific
germ gets stored in the immune system or the immune system is already prepared with antibodies
to fight that germ.
Based on above information, some of the key differences between antibiotics and vaccines are as
follows:
Antibiotics Vaccines

Antibiotics are antimicrobial molecules or compounds which are Vaccine is an inactive form of a germ (a small amount of a dead or inactivate germ) used
used to treat infections caused by bacteria, fungi, protozoa etc. immunity to a specific disease.

Antibiotics kill bacteria, mainly used to treat bacterial infections. Vaccines kill viruses, mainly used to prevent viral infections.

Classified into three classes: cyclic lipopeptides, oxazolidinones The types of vaccines include live and attenuated, inactivated, subunit, Toxoid etc.
and glycylcyclines.

Available in different forms like tablets, capsules, syrup, drops, Vaccines are given through injection, in some cases given orally or nasally.
ointments.

Antibodies are given after getting infected. Vaccine is a preventive measure which is given in advance before the manifestation of an

Its side effects include diarrhea, nausea and allergy. Its side effects include swelling, mild fever etc.

Antibiotic can be used against multiple bacterial infections. A vaccine provides immunity against a particular infection.

It destroys the biochemistry of the bacteria. It improves the natural immunity against germs.

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Why Are Antibiotics Overprescribed?
Doctors prescribe antibiotics for different reasons. Sometimes they prescribe them when they're
not sure if an illness is caused by bacteria or a virus or are waiting for test results. So, some
patients might expect a prescription for an antibitoic and even ask their doctor for it.

For example, strep throat is a bacterial infection, but most sore throats are due to viruses,
allergies, or other things that antibiotics cannot treat. But many people with a sore throat will go to
a health care provider expecting — and getting — a prescription for antibiotics that they do not
need.

What Happens When Antibiotics Are Overused?

Taking antibiotics for colds and other viral illnesses doesn't work — and it can create bacteria that
are harder to kill.

Taking antibiotics too often or for the wrong reasons can change bacteria so much that antibiotics
don't work against them. This is called bacterial resistance or antibiotic resistance. Some bacteria
are now resistant to even the most powerful antibiotics available.

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
calls it "one of the world's most pressing public health problems." It's especially a concern in low-
income and developing countries. That's because:

Health care providers there often lack quick, helpful diagnostic tools that can identify which
illnesses are caused by bacteria and which are not.
Many of the areas only recently got widespread access to antibiotics.
Lack of clean water, poor sanitation, and limited vaccine programs contribute to the infections and
illnesses that antibiotics are prescribed for.

It's also important to make sure that your kids:

are up to date on their immunizations

stay home from school when they're sick
wash their hands well and often.

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Fog vs Smog
Difference 1

Fog is a completely natural phenomenon that depends solely on atmospheric conditions e.g. level
of humidity, air temperature, air currents, direction of winds, temperature inversion in layers of air
etc. Thus, in a given area, level of fog can vary from mild to moderate to thick, varying from one
morning to another morning.

“ Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny liquid water droplets that are
suspended in the air. ... This occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air
temperature.” (WiKi)

Smog is caused by pollutants - smoke/soot emitted by industries, dust, chemicals and gases. In
general, the word “Smog” is applied to such abnormal conditions created by industrial gaseous
discharges.

“The atmospheric pollutants or gases that form smog are released in the air when fuels are burnt.
When sunlight and its heat react with these gases and fine particles in the atmosphere, smog is
formed. It is purely caused by air pollution.”

Difference 2

Fog typically clears as the day advances, due to heat from sun. Smog persists for longer time and
may not even clear at all.

Difference 3

Though fog affects visibility, it doesn’t affect health unless one is susceptible to chill. Smog being
due to pollutants, it can seriously affect lung function. A person breaths in those pollutants and
suspended particulate matter (SPM).

Difference 4

We can do little to influence fog. Smog is completely preventable.

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