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 This is strictly for
EDUCATIONAL and CLASS
USE only.
OBJECTIVES

The learners demonstrate an

understanding of…
1. the formation of the universe and the
solar system
2. the subsystems (geosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere) that make up the Earth
Prentice Hall

Tarbuck Lutgens
 Universe

The Universe is at least 13.8 billion of years old

Our View of the Cosmos - the story of scientific
models
Astronomy has seen 3 scientific revolutions in cosmology

2nd Century: Claudius Ptolemy (Physics of Aristotle)

Model: Earth-centered Cosmology
Big Idea: Different laws for Earth and the cosmos

16th Century: Nicolaus Copernicus (Physics of Newton)

Model: Sun-centered Cosmology
Big Idea: Universal physics; same laws everywhere

20th Century: Edwin Hubble (Physics of Einstein)

Model: Big Bang Cosmology
Big Idea: Universe is changing, evolving
Earth-centered Cosmology: Claudius Ptolemy, 100-
170 AD

…“the natural motion of the Earth ….is towards the center of

the universe; that is the reason it is now lying at the center.”
Aristotle, On the Heavens
Testing the Earth-centered model

Prediction: Future planetary positions

Observation: retrograde motion of planets

Refine: epicycles

Success! For 1500 years

Testing the Earth-centered model

Prediction: Phases of Venus

Observation: Full set of phases Crisis!

Sun-centered Cosmology: Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543

“At rest, however, in the middle of everything is the Sun.”

Nicholaus Copernicus, de Revolutionibus
Testing the Sun-centered model

Prediction: Future planetary positions

Observation: No better than Ptolemy
Refine: elliptical orbits (Johannes Kepler 1571-1630)
Testing the Sun-centered model

Prediction: Observed shift in position of stars (parallax) as

the earth moves around the Sun.
Observation: No shift.
Crisis? No, but we had to wait until 1838 (Friedrich Bessel)
Testing the Sun-centered model

Prediction: Sun at center of Cosmos

Observation: Sun is not at center of universe (1918)

Observation: The galaxy is not the entire universe (1923)

Crisis!
Big Bang Cosmology: Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

“A human being is part of a whole, called by us

‘universe’, a part limited in time and space.”
Testing the Big Bang model

Prediction: The universe is expanding

Observation: Galaxies are moving apart from each other (1929)
Evidence for an expanding universe

The spectrum of hydrogen gas is the unique

fingerprint of that element

Hydrogen lamp
Evidence for an expanding universe

When we see a repeat of the pattern we saw

in the lab, we know hydrogen is present

Orion Nebula
Evidence for an expanding universe

We see the same repeating pattern of lines in

a galaxy, but displaced to the red

Galaxy UGC 12915

Evidence for an expanding universe

The further the galaxy,

the more the shift to the red

Galaxy UGC 12508

Evidence for an expanding universe

The greater the red shift,

the faster the galaxy is receding

Galaxy KUG 1750

Evidence for an expanding universe

The red shift is caused

by the expansion of space.

Galaxy KUG 1217

Evidence for an expanding universe

The red shift is evidence

for an expanding universe

Galaxy IRAS F09159

Testing the Big Bang model

Prediction: If the universe was denser, hotter, in past, we

should see evidence of left-over heat from early universe
Observation: Left-over heat from the early universe.(Penzias and
Wilson, 1965)
Testing the Big Bang model
Prediction: A hot, dense expanding universe, should be
predominantly hydrogen, helium.
Observation: Universe is ~75% hydrogen, ~25% helium by mass

The Sun: 74.5% H, 24% He by mass Cecilia Payne

Testing the Big Bang model

Prediction: An expanding universe is evolving over time. If we look

at the early universe, it should appear different.
Observation: Distant galaxies less evolved, physically and
chemically.
Testing the Big Bang model
Observation: 90% of matter is an unknown form: Dark Matter.
Refine: A new and unknown form of matter exists. But its gravity
works the same way, and its presence is needed to explain how
the universe looks.

Vera Rubin
Testing the Big Bang model

Observation: Expansion is accelerating.

Refine: Extra energy content.

A recent discovery and of unknown

origin,the concept of Dark Energy is
actually an integral part of Einstein’s
theory of gravity.
Conclusions

• Big Bang model describes our current

understanding of the universe.
• New discoveries, such as dark matter and
accelerating expansion (Dark Energy), lead us to
refine our model,but there is no crisis in our
understanding (yet).
• Science is an ongoing process - forcing us to
test our model through prediction and observation.
The more tests it passes, the greater is our
confidence in it.
 Solar System

The Earth/Solar System at least 4.5-4.6 billions of

years old
Large Scale Features of the Solar System

1. Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated

at the center (Sun) while angular momentum is held by
the outer planets.
2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same
plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
4. The periods of revolution of the planets increase with
increasing distance from the Sun; the
innermost planet moves fastest, the outermost, the
slowest;
5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the
Sun.
Small Scale Features of the Solar System

1. Most planets rotate prograde

2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with
high melting points such as silicates, iron , and nickel.
They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher
densities, and lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases.
3. The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the
dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate
faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid
interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water,
ammonia, methane).
Formation of the Solar System

 Nebular Hypothesis
• The nebula was composed mostly of
hydrogen and helium.
• About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began
to contract.
• It assumed a flat, disk shape with the
protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.
Formation of the Solar System

 Nebular Hypothesis
• Inner planets begin to form from metallic and
rocky clumps.
• Larger outer planets began forming from
fragments with a high percentage of ices.
The Nebular Hypothesis

E
Formation of Solar System

 Encounter Hypothesis
• Buffon’s (1749) Sun-comet encounter that
sent matter to form planet;
• James Jeans’ (1917) sun-star encounter that
would have drawn from the sun matter that
would condense to planets,
• C. T.C. Chamberlain and F. R. Moulton’s
(1904) planetesimal hypothesis involving a
star much bigger than the Sun passing by the
Sun and draws gaseous filaments from both
out which planetisimals were formed
Formation of Solar System

 Encounter Hypothesis
• Ray Lyttleton’s(1940) sun’s companion star colliding
with another to form a proto-planet that breaks up to
form Jupiter and Saturn.
• Otto Schmidt’s accretion theory proposed that the Sun
passed through a dense interstellar cloud and
emerged with a dusty, gaseous envelope that
eventually became the planets. However, it cannot
explain how the planets and satellites were formed.
The time required to form the planets exceeds the age
of the solar system.
Formation of Solar System

 Encounter Hypothesis
• F. M.M. Woolfson’s capture theory is a variation of
James Jeans’ near-collision hypothesis. In this
scenario, the Sun drags from a near proto-star a
filament of material which becomes the planets.
• Collisions between proto-planets close to the Sun
produced the terrestrial planets; condensations in the
filament produced the giant planets and their satellites.
Different ages for the Sun and planets is predicted by
this theory
Formation of Solar System

 Sun-Star Interaction
• Nobel Prize winner Harold Urey’s
compositional studies on meteorites in the
1950s and other scientists’ work on these
objects led to the conclusion that meteorite
constituents have changed very little since
the solar system’s early history and can give
clues about their formation.
• The currently accepted theory on the origin of
the solar system relies much on information
from meteorites.
Formation of Solar System

 Protoplanet Hypothesis
• About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm
of the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas
and dust cloud dominated by hydrogen and
helium starts to contract due to gravity
• As most of the mass move to the center to
eventually become a proto-Sun, the
remaining materials form a disc that will
eventually become the planets and
momentum is transferred outwards.
Formation of Solar System

 Protoplanet Hypothesis
• Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter
begin sticking to each other to form larger and larger
bodies from meter to kilometer in size. These proto-
planets are accretions of frozen water, ammonia,
methane, silicon, aluminum, iron, and other metals in
rock and mineral grains enveloped in hydrogen and
helium.
• High-speed collisions with large objects destroys much
of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in retrograde
rotation.
Formation of Solar System

 Protoplanet Hypothesis
• Collision of the Earth with large object
produces the moon. This is supported by the
composition of the moon very similar to the
Earth's Mantle
• When the proto-Sun is established as a star,
its solar wind blasts hydrogen, helium, and
volatiles from the inner planets to beyond
Mars to form the gas giants leaving behind a
system we know today.
Supplementary Materials

Origins of the Universe 101 | National Geographic

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdPzOWlLrbE

Birth of the Solar System | Naked Science: Birth of the Solar

System
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1AXbpYndGc
Sources

Commission on Higher Education, 2016. Earth and Life

Science.
Tarbuck & Lutgens. (n.d.). Earth science [PowerPoint
slides]. Prentice Hall.
Universe Education Forum. (n.d.). Inside Einstein's universe
[PowerPoint slides].