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POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Scientific Method
Overview
• Scientific method is an organized method of
aquiring knowledge.
Objectives
After successful completion of this module, you should be
able to:
1. Understand that science is mostly reliable because
information is gathered in a manner that requires impartial
evaluation and continuous revision.
2. Understand that knowing probability reduces uncertainty
3. Acknowledge that science is a cumulative process
4. Explain and apply the scientific method
The Scientific Method
and Critical Thinking
Assumptions:
a) The universe functions in accordance with fixed
natural laws.
b) All events arise from some cause and, in turn,
cause other events.
c) We can use our senses and reasoning abilities to
detect and describe natural laws.
• Deductive Reasoning - applies general
principles to specific results
• Inductive Reasoning - uses specific
observations to construct general
scientific principles
• Scientists use a systematic approach to gain
understanding of the natural world:
• Observation
• Hypothesis formation
• Prediction
• Experimentation
• Conclusion
Observation vs Inference
a) Observations, the basis of science, may be made through
any of the five senses or by instruments that measure
beyond what we can sense.
• We might observe that a substance is a white, crystalline material
with a sweet taste.
b) Inferences are generalizations that arise from a set of
observations. When everyone or almost everyone agrees
with what is observed about a particular thing, the
inference is often called a fact.
• We might infer from these observations alone that the substance is
sugar.
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an

observation.

• A hypothesis:
• must be tested to determine its validity
• is often tested in many different ways
• allows for predictions to be made

11
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• The experiment:
• tests the hypothesis
• must be carefully designed to test only one variable
at a time
• consists of a test experiment and a control
experiment

12
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• If the hypothesis is valid, the scientist can predict

the result of the experiment

• Conducting the experiment to determine if it yields

the predicted result is one way to test the validity
of the experiment

13
Think Like a Scientist
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• Scientists may use:

• reductionism - to break a complex
process down to its simpler parts
• models – to simulate phenomena that
are difficult to study directly

15
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
• Measurements - are approximations that may be
more or less exact, depending on the measuring
instruments and the people who use them. It is
meaningful when accompanied by an estimate of the
degree of uncertainty, or error.
• Accuracy in measurement is the extent to which
the measurement agrees with an accepted value.
• Precision is the degree of exactness with which a
measurement is made. A precise measurement
may not be accurate. The estimate of uncertainty
provides information on the precision of a
measurement.

16
 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

• A scientific theory:
• is a body of interconnected concepts
• is supported by much experimental
evidence and scientific reasoning
• expresses ideas of which we are most
certain

17
How Science Is Done - Scientific Method

1.Observe and formulate a problem.

2.Make a hypothesis based on your problem.
3.Perform an experiment to test your
hypothesis.
How Science Is Done - Scientific Method

• Hypothesis testing
• variables - factors involved in an
experimental set-up
• control variable - something that is
constant or unchanged in an
experiment
• manipulated variable - variable that is
being tested in an experiment
How Science Is Done - Scientific Method
• Hypothesis testing
• variables - factors involved in an experimental set-up
• independent variable - variable that
stands alone and isn't changed by the
other variables you are trying to
measure
• dependent variable - something that
depends on other factors
How Science Is Done - Scientific Method

4.Make a generalization based on the result of

your experiment.
5.Apply the principles learned.
Experiments performed in science have specific
elements

• The experimental design is the well-conceived plan

for a specific experiment.
• Experiments typically have two groups.
– Experimental group: the group manipulated during the
experiment
– Control group: the reference group, left unmanipulated
• Experiments collect data.
 An example of a controlled study
• Hypothesis: Pea plants grown in soil before winter
and turned into the soil would provide a natural
fertilizer for winter wheat.
• Control group: winter wheat planted with no
treatment
• Experimental groups:
• Wheat plants in soil with fertilizer (45 kg ha-1)
• Wheat plants in soil with double fertilizer (90 kg ha-1)
• Wheat plants in soil containing pea plants that were turned
into the soil
An example of a controlled study
(cont.)
 An example of a controlled study
(cont.)
• Conditions: all groups watered and exposed to same
conditions
• Data collected: weight of wheat plants in the spring
• Conclusion: hypothesis not supported.
An example of a controlled study
(cont.)
The scientific process does not stop with the
scientific method.
• Peer review. Research results are submitted to a
journal for publication. Other scientists who
specialize in the subject area are asked to provide
comments and critiques and judge whether the
work merits publication. This process is known as
peer review.
• Conference presentations. Scientists frequently
present their work at professional conferences and
receive informal comments on their work prior to
publication.
The scientific process does not stop with the
scientific method.
• Grants and funding. Most scientists spend
considerable time writing grant applications to
private foundations or government agencies for
support of their research. These applications are
also usually subjected to peer review.
• Repeatability. The careful scientist may test a
hypothesis repeatedly in various ways before
submitting it for publication. After publication,
other scientists will attempt to reproduce the
results in their own analyses.
The scientific process does not stop with the
scientific method.
• Theories. If a hypothesis survives repeated testing by
numerous research teams, it may be incorporated into a
theory. A theory is a widely accepted, well-tested
explanation of one or more cause and effect relationships
that has been extensively validated by a large amount of
research. In science, a theory is not speculation or
hypothesis.
• Applications. Knowledge gained from scientific research may
be applied to help fulfill society’s needs and address
society’s problems.
Science and society
• The application of science for a practical purpose is
called technology.
• Science is impartial and does not make ethical or
moral judgments.
• The role of society is to use scientific information to
make informed decisions about the use of
technology.
Points to Ponder
1. How does knowing the possible outcome
(probability) reduce uncertainty?
2. Critical thinking has been widely promoted in
different disciplines; do you think there is any
need for critical thinking when we have scientists
to do the thinking for us? Why?
Supplementary Course Materials
Watch:

• Nature of Science
• Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nAETHZTObk
• The Scientific Methods: Crash Course History of Science
#14
• Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdQreBq6MOY
Source
McGraw-Hill Education. (2016). Biology: The essentials.