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El Benitez PDF
S i :
Ba i : 100 e f he i e
S i
c) The a a c ce ai .
S i
d) The a de i .
S i
1.2a. Concen a ion of a li id ol ion fed o a di illa ion col mn.
A ol ion of ca bon e achlo ide (1) and ca bon di lfide (2) con aining 50% b eigh each i o
be con in o l di illed a he a e of 4,000 kg/h De e mine:
a) The concen a ion of he mi e in e m of mole f ac ion .
Sol ion
Ba i : 100 kg mi e
Sol ion
Sol ion
1.3a. Concen a ion of li ified na al ga .
A a e f i ified a a ga , LNG, f A a a ha he f i g a c ii : 93.5%
CH4, 4.6% C2H6, 1.2% C3H8, a d 0.7% CO2. Ca c a e:
a) A e age ec a eigh f he LNG i e.
S i
b) Weigh f ac i f CH4 i he i e.
S i
Ba i : 100 e f LNG
S i
1.4b. Concen a ion of a fl e ga .
A fl e ga con i of ca bon dio ide, o gen, a e apo , and ni ogen. The mola f ac ion of CO2
and O2 in a ample of he ga a e 12% and 6%, e pec i el . The eigh f ac ion of H2O in he ga
i 6.17%. E ima e he den i of hi ga a 500 K and 110 kPa.
Sol ion
Ba i : 100 kmole of ga mi e
S i :
Ba i : 1 ec d
A=a ia B = ai
b) Ca c a e he e ga a e ci (defi ed a a f ae e i e be
c - ec i a a ea).
S i :
Solution
Solution:
1.7b. P ope ie of ai a a ed i h a e apo .
Ai , ed i a 30- 3 c ai e a 340 K a d 101.3 Pa i a a ed i h a e a . De e i e he
f i g e ie f he ga i e:
a) M e f ac i f ae a .
b) A e age ec a eigh f he i e.
c) T a a c ai ed i he a .
d) Ma f ae a i he a .
S i
a) A i ee ai f ae a :
F a a a ed i e
b)
c)
d)
S i
C ide he ai ea i g he e a a ed a 38 C.
A i ee ai f ae a :
E= ae b ea ai i he ai
S i
W= i dage e = 500 c = 2000
M= a e ae aeB=b d ae
I i ia e i a e
Wa e ba a ce
S id ba a ce:
1.9b. Water balance around a soap dr er.
It is desired to dr 10 kg/min of soap continuousl from 17% moisture b weight to 4% moisture in
a countercourrent stream of hot air. The air enters the dr er at the rate of 30.0 m3/min at 350 K,
101.3 kPa, and initial water-vapor partial pressure of 1.6 kPa. The dr er operates at constant
temperature and pressure.
a) Calculate the moisture content of the entering air, in kg of water/kg of dr air.
Solution
Solution
c) Calculate the water-vapor partial pressure and relative humidit in the air leaving the dr er.
Solution
Calc la e a e a e e a 350 K
A i ee ai f ae a :
1.10b. Acti ated carbon adsorption; material balances.
A a e ga c ai 0.3% e e i ai , a d cc ie a e f 2,500 3 a 298 K a d 101.3
Pa. I a eff ed ce he e ec e f hi ga , i i e ed 100 g f ac i a ed
ca b , i i ia f ee f e e. The e i a ed each e i ib i a c a e ea e
a d e e. A i g ha he ai d e ad b he ca b , ca c a e he e i ib i
c ce a i f e e i he ga e ha e, a d he a f e e ad bed b he ca b .
The ad i e i ib i f hi e i gi e b he F e d ich i he (EAB C C
Ma a , 3 d. ed., U. S. E. P. A., Re ea ch T ia g e Pa , NC, 1987.):
he e W i he ca b e i ib i ad ii ,i g f e e/ g f ca b , a d * i he
e i ib i e e a ia e e, i Pa, a d be be ee 0.7 a d 345 Pa.
S i
M= a f ca b
= e f e e ad bed
I i ia e i a e
1.11b. Acti ated carbon adsorption; material balances.
It is desired to adsorb 99.5% of the toluene originall present in the waste gas of Problem 1.10.
Estimate how much activated carbon should be used if the s stem is allowed to reach equilibrium
at constant temperature and pressure.
Solution
1.12a, d. Estimation of gas diffusivit b the Wilke-Lee equation.
E. M. La (MS he i , O eg S a e U i e i , 1964) ea ed he diff i i f ch f
i ai a 298 K a d 1 a a d e ed i 2
a e a 0.093 c / . E i a e he diff i
c efficie b he Wi e-Lee e a i a d c a e i i h he e e i e a a e.
S i
F
A e di
B
Sol ion
E pe imen al al e
Sol ion
E pe imen al al e
Sol ion
E pe imen al al e
1.14d. Diffusivit of polar gases
If one or both components of a binary gas mixture are polar, a modified Lennard-Jones relation is
often used. Brokaw (Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Design De elop., 8:240, 1969) has suggested an
alternative method for this case. Equation (1-49) is still used, but the collision integral is now given by
a) Modify the Mathcad routine of Figure 1.3 to implement Brokaw's method. Use the function
name
DABp(T, P, MA , MB, mA , mB, VA , VB, TbA , TbB)
Solution
b) E i a e he diff i c efficie f a i e f e h ch ide a d f di ide a 1 ba a d
323 K, a d c aei 2
he e e i e a a e f 0.078 c / . The da a e i ed eB a '
ea i a e h be (Reid, e a ., 1987):
Pa a e e Me h ch ide S f di ide
Tb , K 249.1 263.2
Vb , c 3/ 50.6 43.8
, deb e 1.9 1.6
M 50.5 64.06
S i
Pa a e e H d ge ch ide Wa e
Tb , K 188.1 373.2
Vb , c 3/ 30.6 18.9
, deb e 1.1 1.8
M 36.5 18
S i
Pa a e e H d ge fide S f di ide
Tb , K 189.6 263.2
Vb , c 3/ 35.03 43.8
, deb e 0.9 1.6
M 34.08 64.06
S i
1.17a,d. Effective diffusivit in a multicomponent stagnant gas mi ture.
Calculate the effective diffusivit of nitrogen through a stagnant gas mi ture at 373 K and 1.5 bar.
The mi ture composition is:
O2 15 mole %
CO 30%
CO2 35%
N2 20%
Sol;ution
Calculate mole fractions on a nitrogen (1)-free basis:
o gen (2); carbon mono ide (3); carbon dio ide (4)
Solution
S i
S i
Solution
1.22a, d. Liquid diffusivit : Ha duk and Minhas correlation.
Estimate the diffusivity of carbon tetrachloride in a dilute solution in n-hexane at 298 K using the
Hayduk and Minhas correlation for nonaqueous solutions. Compare the estimate to the reported
value of 3.7 10 5 cm2/s. The following data are available (Reid, et al., 1987):
Solution
1.23b. E ima ing mola ol me f om li id diff ion da a.
The diffusivity of allyl alcohol (C3H6O) in dilute aqueous solution at 288 K is 0.9 10 5 cm2/s
(Reid, et al., 1987). Based on this result, and the Hayduk and Minhas correlation for aqueous
solutions, estimate the molar volume of allyl alcohol at its normal boiling point. Compare it to the
result obtained using the data on Table 1.2. The viscosity of water at 288 K is 1.15 cP.
Solution
Iniitial estimates
S i
E i a e he i fi i e di i diff ii f e ha i a e a 298 K
f Ha d -Mi ha f a e i
F A e di A, he i fi i e di i diff ii f a e i e ha
a 298 K i
S i
E i a e he he d a ic fac
F A e di A
Molecular diffusion of gaseous reactant and products takes place through a gas film adjacent
to the carbon surface; the thickness of this film is 1.0 mm. On the outside of the film, the gas
concentration is 40% CO, 20% O2, and 40% CO2. The reaction at the surface ma be
assumed to be instantaneous, therefore, ne t to the carbon surface, there is virtuall no
o gen.The temperature of the gas film is 600 K, and the pressure is 1 bar. Estimate the rate
of combustion of the carbon, in kg/m2-min.
Solution
The densit of the gas phase follows from the ideal gas law
(No o gen)
1.26b. Stead -state, one-dimensional, liquid-phase flu calculation.
A G ' (N 2SO4 10H2O) 288 K.
E N 2SO4
.A
0.085 .A (
) N 2SO4,
.T G ' 288 K 36 /100
1,240 / 3 (P C ,
1973). T N 2SO4 288 K
P 1-20. T 288 K 999.8 / 3;
1.153 P.
S
A = N 2SO4 B = H2O
C A1 (
)B : 100 H2O (36 )
(P )
Calculate diffusivity
he e i he ace ic fac .
S i
A = e ha B= ae
Ca c a e e ha hea f a i ai
Ca c a e a e hea f a i ai
E i a e diff ii f Wi e-Lee
1.29a, d. Analog among molecular heat and mass transfer.
It has been observed that for the s stem air-water vapor at near ambient conditions, Le = 1.0
(Tre bal, 1980). This observation, called the Lewis relation, has profound implications in
humidification operations, as will be seen later. Based on the Lewis relation, estimate the diffusivit
of water vapor in air at 300 K and 1 atm. Compare our result with the value predicted b the Wilke-
Lee equation. For air at 300 K and 1 atm:Cp = 1.01 kJ/kg-K, k = 0.0262 W/m-K, m = 1.846 10-5
kg/m-s, and r = 1.18 kg/m3.
Solution
S i
F A e di A
Solution
S i
b) Ca c a e he a - a fe c efficie i he ga ha e a ha i i he e i e ,
e e i g he d i i g f ce i e f a c ce a i , / 3.
S i
c) A he a e ace i he e i e , he be e e e f ac i i he b f he i id ha e
i 0.125, hi e he c e di g i e facia be e e i id- ha e c ce a i i 0.158.
Ca c a e he a - a fe c efficie i he i id ha e, e e i g he d i i g f ce i e f
e f ac i .
S i
S i
b) Ca c a e he a - a fe c efficie , f he d i i g f ce i e f a c ce ai .
S i
S i
2.4b. Mass-transfer coefficients from etted- all e perimental data.
A e ed- a e e i e a e - c i fa ga i e, 50 i dia e e a d 1.0 g.
Wa e a 308 K f d he i e a . D ai e e he b f he i e a he a e f 1.04
3/ i , ea ed a 308 K a d 1 a . I ea e he e ed ec i a 308 K a d i h a e a i e
h idi f 34%. Wi h he he f e a i (2-52), e i a e he a e age a - a fe c efficie ,
i h he d i i g f ce i e f a f ac i .
S i
2.7c. Ma an fe in an ann la pace.
a) I d i g a e f diff i f a h ha e e i ai , a i e iga e aced a 30.5-c ec i f
he i e i e fa a i h a a h ha e e d. The a a c ed f a 51- -OD
ba i e i e ded b a 76- -ID b a i e. Whi e e a i g a a a e ci i hi he
a 2
f 12.2 g f ai / - a 273 K a d 1 a , he i e iga de e i ed ha he a ia
e e f a h ha e e i he e i i g ga ea a 0.041 Pa. U de he c di i f he
i e iga i , he Sch id be f he ga a 2.57, he i c i a 175 P, a d he a
e e f a h ha e e a 1.03 Pa. E i a e he a - a fe c efficie f he i e a f
hi e f c di i .A e ha e a i (2-52) a ie .
S i
Wied he a a g e e i f a a fe a d e i e i a e he a - a fe
c efficie f he c di i f a a). C aeb h e .
S i
2.8c. The Chilton-Colburn analog : flow across tube banks.
W C (I d. E g. Che ., 40, 1087, 1948) 310 K 1
.T ,
.T 10
38- -OD ( = 38 ) 57- , 76 .T -
.T
:
G' , / 2- , G / 2-
-P .
)R (2-68) C D- .T
310 K 1 0.074 2/ .
P 310 K 1 :
D :
b) E i a e he a - a fe c efficie be e ec ed f e a a i f - ac h i
ca b di ide f he a e ge e ica a a ge e he he ca b di ide f a a a i
e ci f 10 / a 300 K a d 1 a . The a e e f - a c h a 300 K i 2.7 Pa.
S i
P e ie f di e i e f ac h i ca b di ide a 300 K a d 1 a :
U e he a - a fe e e i a a g e ai (2-69) e i a e he a - a fe
c efficie f a b). C a e he e .
S i
2.9b. Ma an fe f om a fla pla e.
A 1-m square thin plate of solid naphthalene is oriented parallel to a stream of air flowing at 20
m/s. The air is at 310 K and 101.3 kPa. The naphthalene remains at 290 K; at this temperature
the vapor pressure of naphthalene is 26 Pa. Estimate the moles of naphthalene lost from the plate
per hour, if the end effects can be ignored.
Solution
Solution
Laminar flo
S i
A e age fi e ie :
E i a e he i c i f he i ef L ca Me h d
E i a e he diff ii f he Wi e-Lee e ai
2.12b. E aporation of a drop of ater falling in air.
Repeat E ample 2.9 for a drop of ater hich is originall 2 mm in diameter.
Solution
2.13b. Dissolution of a solid sphere into a flo ing liquid stream.
Estimate the mass-transfer coefficient for the dissolution of sodium chloride from a cast sphere, 1.5
cm in diameter, if placed in a flowing water stream. The velocity of the 291 K water stream is 1.0
m/s.
Assume that the kinematic viscosity at the average liquid film conditions is 1.02 10 6 m2/s, and
the mass diffusivity is 1.25 10 9 m2/s. The solubility of NaCl in water at 291 K is 0.35 g/cm3, and
the density of the saturated solution is 1.22 g/cm3 (Perry and Chilton, 1973) .
Solution
Solution
Solution
b) Estimate the rate at which the cr stal dissolves and compare it to the answer obtained in Problem
1.26.
Solution
From Prob.1.26
From Prob.1.26:
2.16c. Mass transfer inside a circular pipe.
Water flows through a thin tube, the walls of which are lightly coated with benzoic acid (C7H6O2).
The water flows slowly, at 298 K and 0.1 cm/s. The pipe is 1-cm in diameter. Under these
conditions, equation (2-63) applies.
a) Show that a material balance on a length of pipe L leads to
where v is the average fluid velocity, and c A * is the equilibrium solubility concentration.
b) What is the average concentration of benzoic acid in the water after 2 m of pipe. The solubility of
benzoic acid in water at 298 K is 0.003 g/cm3, and the mass diffusivity is 1.0 10 5 cm2/s
(Cussler, 1997).
Solution
S i
F a e a 294 K
In hi i a ion, he e ill be a mola fl f om he inne all, NA1, i h pecific in e facial a ea, a1,
and a fl f om he o e all, NA2, i h a ea a2. A ma e ial balance on a diffe en ial ol me
elemen ield :
Define:
Then:
Fo he in e io all:
For the outer all:
2.19c. Ben ene evaporation on the outside surface of a single c linder.
Be e e i e a a i g a he a e f 20 g/h e he face f a 10-c -dia e e c i de .
D ai a 325 K a d 1 a f a igh a g e he a i f he c i de a a e ci f 2 / . The
i id i a a e e a e f 315 K he e i e e a a e e f 26.7 Pa. E i a e he e g h
f he c i de . F be e e, Tc = 562.2 K, Pc = 48.9 ba , M = 78, Vc = 259 c 3/ , Zc = 0.271
(Reid, e a ., 1987).
S i
Ca c a e he a e age e ie f he fi
F he Wi e-Lee e ai
F he L ca Me h d
F E . 2-45:
2.20b. Ma an fe in a packed bed.
Wilke and Hougan (T an . AIChE, 41, 445, 1945) reported the mass transfer in beds of granular
solids. Air was blown through a bed of porous celite pellets wetted with water, and by evaporating
this water under adiabatic conditions, they reported gas-film coefficients for packed beds. In one run,
the following data were reported:
effective particle diameter 5.71 mm
gas stream mass velocity 0.816 kg/m2-s
temperature at the surface 311 K
pressure 97.7 kPa
k G 4.415 10 3 kmol/m2-s-atm
With the assumption that the properties of the gas mixture are the same as those of air, calculate
the gas-film mass-transfer coefficient using equation (2-55) and compare the result with the value
reported by Wilke and Hougan.
Solution
Solution
Sol ion
2.22b. Volumetric mass-transfer coefficients in industrial to ers.
The interfacial surface area per unit volume, a, in many types of packing materials used in
industrial towers is virtually impossible to measure. Both a and the mass-transfer coefficient
depend on the physical geometry of the equipment and on the flow rates of the two contacting,
inmiscible streams. Accordingly, they are normally correlated together as the volumetric mass-
transfer coefficient, k c a.
Empirical equations for the volumetric coefficients must be obtained experimentally for each type of
mass-transfer operation. Sherwood and Holloway (Trans. AIChE, 36, 21, 39, 1940) obtained the
following correlation for the liquid-film mass-transfer coefficient in packed absorption towers
The values of a and n to be used in equation (2-71) for various industrial packings are listed in the
following table, when SI units are used exclusively.
a) Consider the absorption of SO2 with water at 294 K in a tower packed with 25-mm Raschig
rings. If the liquid mass velocity is L' = 2.04 kg/m2-s, estimate the liquid-film mass-transfer
coefficient. The diffusivity of SO2 in water at 294 K is 1.7 10 9 m2/s.
Solution
b) Whitney and Vivian (Chem. Eng. Progr., 45, 323, 1949) measured rates of absorption of SO2 in
water and found the following expression for 25-mm Raschig rings at 294 K
where k a is in kmole/m2-s. For the conditions described in part a), estimate the liquid-film
mass-transfer coefficient using equation (2-72). Compare the results.
Solution
2.23b. Mass transfer in fluidi ed beds.
Cavatorta, et al. (AIC E J., 45, 938, 1999) studied the electrochemical reduction of ferrycianide
ions, {Fe(CN)6} 3, to ferrocyanide, {Fe(CN)6} 4, in aqueous alkaline solutions. They studied
different arrangements of packed columns, including fluidized beds. The fluidized bed experiments
were performed in a 5-cm-ID circular column, 75-cm high. The bed was packed with 0.534-mm
spherical glass beads, with a particle density of 2.612 g/cm3. The properties of the aqueous
solutions were: density = 1,083 kg/m3, viscosity = 1.30 cP, diffusivity = 5.90 10 10 m2/s. They
found that the porosity of the fluidized bed, e, could be correlated with the superficial liquid velocity
based on the empty tube, vs , through
where vs is in cm/s.
a) Using equation (2-56), estimate the mass-transfer coefficient, k L, if the porosity of the bed is
60%.
Solution
b) Ca a o a e al. p opo ed he follo ing co ela ion o e ima e he ma - an fe coefficien fo
hei fl idi ed bed e pe imen al n :
Sol ion
Sol ion
2.25b. Mass transfer in a hollo -fiber boiler feed ater deaerator.
a) Con ide he hollo -fibe BFW deae a o de c ibed in E ample 2-13. A ming ha onl o gen
diff e ac o he memb ane, calc la e he ga ol me flo a e and compo i ion a he l men
o le . The a e en e he hell ide a 298 K a a ed i h a mo phe ic o gen, hich mean a
di ol ed o gen concen a ion of 8.38 mg/L.
Sol ion
b) Ca c a e he a - a fe c efficie a he a e age c di i i ide he e . Neg ec he
hic e f he fibe a he e i a i g he ga e ci i ide he e .
S i
Ca c a e he a e age ge a f ac i i he ga
F L ca eh df e N2
F he Wi e-Lee e ai
(From E ample 2.13)
3.1a. Application of Raoult's law to a binar s stem.
Re ea E a e 3.1, b f a i id c ce a i f 0.6 e f ac i f be e ea da
e e a e f 320 K.
S i
S i
I i ia e i a e
b) De e i e he c ii f he a i e i ib i i h a i id c ai i g 60 e e ce
be e e-40 e e ce e e if he e e i i a e e de 1 a e e. P edic
he e i ib i e e a e.
S i
S i
b) Wha d be he c ii f he a i e i ib i i h he i ha i de c ibed i
(a)?
S i
S i
A e i ib i :
Ba i : 1 L a e (1 g a e )
E i ib i c ce ai , c e = 11.42 g ge /L
I i ia c di i :
The i gai ge .
S i
I i ia g e e
A : P = 1.755
) .
A : A = 0.145; A =
0.162
) - , G;
S
b) the liquid-film coefficient, k L;
Solution
Solution
Solution
he e A,i i he e i ib i a ia e e i a a d A,i i he e i ib i i id c ce a i
i a f ac i . A e i i he a a a , he i id ea c ai 4.5 e % a d he ga
ea c ai 9.0 e% A. The a e e i 1 a . The i di id a ga -fi c efficie a
hi i i G = 3.0 e/ 2- -a . Fif e ce f he e a e i a ce a a fe i
be e c e ed i he i id ha e. E a a e
a) he ea a - a fe c efficie , K ;
S i
b) he a f f A;
S i
( Ae =
A *)
c) The i id i e facia c ce ai f A.
S i
Ini ial g e e
Sol ion
Ini ial g e e
3.10b. Ma - an fe e i ance d ing ab o p ion of ammonia.
I he ab i fa ia i ae f a ai -a ia i e a 300 K a d 1 a , he
i di id a fi c efficie e e e i a ed be L = 6.3 c /h a d G = 1.17 / 2-h -a . The
e i ib i ea i hi f e di e i fa ia i a e a 300 K a d 1 a i
De e i e he f i g a - a fe c efficie :
a)
S i
b)
S i
c) Ky
Solution
d) Fraction of the total resistance to mass transfer that resides in the gas phase.
Solution
where k L, k M, and k c are the individual mass-transfer coefficients in the liquid, across the
membrane, and in the gas, respectively; and H is Henry's law constant, the gas equilibrium
concentration divided by that in the liquid. The mass-transfer coefficient across a hydrophobic
membrane is from (Prasad and Sirkar, AIC E J., 34, 177, Feb. 1988)
where DAB = molecular diffusion coefficient in the gas filling the pores,
eM = membrane porosity,
tM = membrane tortuosity,
d = membrane thickness.
For the membrane modules of Example 2.13, eM = 0.4,tM = 2.2, and d = 25 10 6 m (Prasad
and Sirkar, 1988).
Solution
S i
F E a e 2.13:
F P b. 2.25:
Vi a a f he e i a ce e ide i he i id ha e.
S i
I he ga ha e:
I he i id ha e:
F He ' La :
The :
Rea a gi g:
b) I a ce ai a a a ed f he ab i f SO2 f ai b ea f ae,a e i i
he e i e he ga c ai ed 30% SO2 b e a d a i c ac i h a i id c ai i g
0.2% SO2 b e. The e e a e a 303 K a d he a e e 1 a . E i a e he
i e facia c ce a i a d he ca SO2 a f . The a - a fe c efficie ee
ca c a ed a FG = 0.002 / 2- , = 0.160 / 2- . The e i ib i SO2 bi i da a a
303 K a e (Pe a d Chi , 1973):
g SO2/100 g a e Pa ia e e f SO2, Hg ( )
0.0 0
0.5 42
1.0 85
1.5 129
2.0 176
2.5 224
S i
Defi e: = g SO2/100 g a e
= Pa ia e e f SO2, Hg ( )
Ini ial g e :
3.13d. Distillation of a mi ture of methanol and ater in a packed to er: use of F-t pe
mass-transfer coefficients.
At a different point in the packed distillation column of Example 3.6, the methanol content of the
bulk of the gas phase is 76.2 mole %; that of the bulk of the liquid phase is 60 mole %. The
temperature at that point in the tower is around 343 K. The packing characteristics and flow rates
at that point are such that FG = 1.542 10 3 kmol/m2-s, and FL = 8.650 10 3 kmol/m2-s.
Calculate the interfacial compositions and the local methanol flux. To calculate the latent heats of
vaporization at the new temperature, modify the values given in Example 3.6 using Watson's
method (Smith, et al., 1996):
Solution
Be e e a ad bed Pa ia e e be e e, Hg
c 3 (STP)/g ca b
15 0.55
25 0.95
40 1.63
50 2.18
65 3.26
80 4.88
90 6.22
100 7.83
a) P he e i ib i da a a X' = g be e e/ g d ca b , Y' = g be e e/ g i ge f a
a e e f1a .
S i
b) Ca c a e he i i f a e e i ed f he e e i g ac i a ed ca b ( e e be ha he
e e i g ca b c ai e ad bed be e e).
S i
O he XY diag a , ca e he i (X2,Y2). Si ce he e a i g i e i ab e he e i ib i
c e a d he e i ib i c e i c ca e a d , he i i e a i g i e i b ai ed b
ca i g, a he i e ec i f Y = Y1 i h he e i ib i c e, X1 a .
c) If the carbon flow rate is 20% above the minimum, what will be the concentration of ben ene
adsorbed on the carbon leaving?
Solution
d) F he c di i f a (c), ca c a e he be f idea age e i ed.
S i
See e i ec ci he XY g a h
3.15b. Material balances: desorption of ben ene vapor from activated carbon.
The ac i a ed ca b ea i g he ad be f P b e 3.14 i ege e a ed b c e c e c ac
i h ea a 380 K a d 1 a . The ege e a ed ca b i e ed he ad be , hi e he
i e f ea a d de bed be e e a i c de ed. The c de a e e a a e i a
ga ic a d a a e ha e a d he ha e a e e a a ed b deca a i . D e he
bi i f be e e i ae, f he be e e i be c ce a ed i he ga ic ha e, hi e
he a e ha e i c ai ace f be e e. The e i ib i ad i da a a 380 K
aea f :
Be e e a ad bed Pa ia e e be e e, Pa
g be e e/100 g ca b
2.9 1.0
5.5 2.0
12.0 5.0
17.1 8.0
20.0 10.0
25.7 15.0
30.0 20.0
a) Ca c a e he i i ea f ae e i ed.
S i E i ib i c e
From Problem 3.14
b) For a steam flow rate of twice the minimum, calculate the ben ene concentration in the gas
mixture leaving the desorber, and the number of ideal stages required.
Solution
3.16b. Material balances: adsorption of ben ene vapor on activated carbon; cocurrent
operation.
If the adsorption process described in Problem 3.14 took place cocurrentl , calculate the
minimum flow rate of activated carbon required.
Solution
W % i ei a Pa ia e e f a e , Pa
2.40 1.29
3.76 2.56
4.76 3.79
6.10 4.96
7.83 6.19
9.90 7.33
12.63 8.42
15.40 9.58
19.02 10.60
S i
Ge e a e he XY diag a
From the XY diagram, at the e it of the fifth equilibrium stage, X = 0.06 and
1.01 0.81
2.46 1.96
5.02 4.56
7.51 6.86
9.98 9.13
20.4 18.70
Solution
S e P be 3.18 i ge ai (3-60), a d c a e he e b ai ed b he eh d .
S i
I i ia e i a e
S i
U e 8 idea age
Solution
at SC
Solution
Solution
3.22b. Absorption ith chemical reaction: H2S scrubbing ith MEA.
A h i P b e 3-21, c bbi g f h d ge fide f a a ga i g ae i
ac ica i ce i e i e a ge a f ae d e he bi i f H2S i a e . If a 2N
i f e ha a i e (MEA) i ae i ed a he ab be , h e e , he e i ed
i id f a e i ed ced d a a ica beca e he MEA eac i h he ab bed H2S i he
i id ha e, effec i e i c ea i g i bi i .
F hi i e g h a d a e e a e f 298 K, he bi i f H2S ca be a i a ed
b (de Ne e , N., Air Poll ion Con rol Engineering, 2 d ed., McG a -Hi , B , MA, 2000):
Re ea he ca c a i fP be 3.21, b i g a 2N e ha a i e i a
ab be .
S i
3.23b. Kremser equations: absorption of sulfur dio ide.
A flue gas flows at the rate of 10 kmol/s at 298 K and 1 atm with a SO2 content of 0.15 mole %.
Ninety percent of the sulfur dioxide is to be removed by absorption with pure water at 298 K. The
design water flow rate will be 50% higher than the minimum. Under these conditions, the
equilibrium line is (Ben tez, J., P oce Enginee ing and De ign fo Ai Poll ion Con ol,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1993):
Solution
b) Calculate the number of ideal stages required for the specified flow rates and percentage
SO2 removal.
Solution
3.24b. Kremser equations: absorption of sulfur dio ide.
An ab o be i a ailable o ea he fl e ga of P oblem 3.23 hich i e i alen o 8.5
e ilib i m age .
a) Calc la e he a e flo a e o be ed in hi ab o be if 90% of he SO2 i o be emo ed.
Calc la e al o he SO2 concen a ion in he a e lea ing he ab o be .
Sol ion
S i
I i ia e i a e
S i
Le he a e ha e be he V- ha e; he e ha e i he L- ha e.
Initial estimate:
Solution
b) If he a e i i e a a g he a e be f age , b i ac -f ca cade,
ha i he e 1-b a c ce a i ( ee P b e 3.19)?
S i
S i
b) If 5 equilibrium stages are added to the cascade of part a), calculate the resin flo required to
maintain the same degree of glucose sorption.
Solution
4.1a. Void fraction near the alls of packed beds.
C ide a c i d ica e e i h a dia e e f 305 ac ed i h id he e i h a dia e e
f 50 .
a) F e a i (4-1), ca c a e he a ic i f he bed.
S i
A e
b) E i a e he id f ac i a a di a ce f 100 f he a .
A e
S i
The ca i ea he a e a he a ic i he J0( d) = 0. F
E a e 4.1,
I i ia e i a e f he ca be b ai ed f Fig. 4.4
I i ia e i a e
I i ia e i a e
I i ia e i a e
I i ia e i a e
I i ia e i a e
S i
S i
Ini ial e ima e of he oo can be ob ained f om Fig. 4.4
Ini ial e ima e
Sol ion
F om he e l of pa (b), hi m happen a * be een 3.39 and 3.85
(d) What fraction of the cross-sectional area of the packed bed is characterized by porosity
fluctuations which are within 10% of the asymptotic bed porosity?
Solution
From part (c)
(f) For the packed bed of Example 4.1, estimate the average void fraction by numerical integration of
equation (4-65) and estimate the ratio a / b .
Solution
Consider an APB with outside diameter of 140 mm, inside diameter of 40 mm, packed with identical
10-mm diameter spheres.
(a) Estimate the void fraction at a distance from the outer wall of 25 mm.
Solution
(b) Plot the void fraction, as predicted by Eq. (4-66), for r* from 0 to R*.
(c) Sho ha he a e age po o i fo an APB i gi en b
Sol ion
Sol ion
F om S eam Table
Sol ion
Solution
4.8b. S ecific i id h d a d id f ac i i c ed ac i g.
Repeat Example 4.2, but using Montz metal B1-200 structured packing (very similar to the one
shown in Figure 4.3). For this packing, a = 200 m 1, = 0.979, Ch = 0.547 (Seader and Henley,
1998).
Solution
S i
F Tab e 4.1:
4.10b. Pressure drop in beds packed ith first-generation random packings.
Repeat E ample 4.3, but using 15-mm ceramic Raschig rings as packing material. Assume that, for
this packing, C = 1.783.
Solution
Col mn diame e , in me e
Solution
Col mn diame e , in me e
S i
(a) De ig f c di i a he b f he e he e he a i f f ga a d i id cc
Be e e e e i g i h he ga :
A i g ha a f he be e e i ab bed:
F he L ca eh df i e f ga e :
U i g he Pac ed C De ig P g a :
D = 0.913 f = 0.825
(b) Ca c a e he e ed h gh he d ac i g
From the Lucas method for mixtures of gases:
(c) Estimate the volumetric mass-transfer coefficients for the gas and liquid phases. Assume that DL
= 5.0 10 10 m2/s.
Solution
Solution
At these low concentrations the equilibrium and operating lines are straight, and
y 2 (max) = y 2* = mx 2
Using the Packed Column Design Program:
D = 1.145 m f = 0.766 k Lah = 0.032 s 1; k y ah = 0.335 kmol/m3-s
4.15b. Stripping chloroform from water b sparging with air.
Repeat E ample 4.5, but using an air flo rate that is t ice the minimum required.
Solution
W T(Z) = 5.0 kW
(b) Ca c a e e e i ed
he e c A * i he ge a a i c ce a i . I eg a i g be ee he i e i i e a d
a d he c e di g di ed ge c ce a i i i c A,0 a d c A, ; a i g ha c A *
e ai e e ia c a , a d ha a he e i a ce a a fe e ide i he i id
ha e:
I ae a i a , he e ai i e ea ed a a i c ea ed i id de h, he bi i f ge i
i f e ced b h b he i c ea i g e e f he ai e e i g he ae a i a a d b he
dec ea i g ge a ia e e i he ai b bb e a ge i ab bed. F he e ca e , he
e f a ea a a i a ec e di g he ae a i a idde h i gge ed
(Ec e fe de , W. W. J ., Ind ial Wa e Poll ion Con ol, 3 d ed., McG a -Hi , B , Ma,
2000):
he e
c = a a i di ed ge c ce a i i f e h a e e ed
a he ic ai a 101.3 Pa c ai i g 20.9% ge ,
P = ab e e e a he de h f ai e ea e,
P =a he ic e e,
O = a ge e ce i he ai ea i g he ae a i a .
The a ge e ce i he ai ea i g he ae a i a i e a ed he ge a fe
efficie c , Oeff , h gh
he e
S i
Ini ial e ima e of ga hold p
Initial estimate of transfer efficienc
he e he e e ha a a e ea 0.7 f e . F he ae a i d fP be
4.18, ca c a e La a a e f Z = 3 , 4 , 6 , a d 7 . E i a e he c e di g a e f
f eg e i a a i f he e . Hi : Re e be ha he a e f he d
e ai c a , he ef e he c - ec i a a ea f he d cha ge a he a e de h
cha ge .
S i
U i g he ga de e ed i P b 4.18, he f i g ec f e i ge e a ed
S i
LMV = i id a e ci GMV = ga a e ci
In od ce a ni con e ion fac o in Fp
Sol ion
The equilibrium data at this concentration indicates that = 0.0636 (Treybal, 1980).
(a) Design a suitable cross-flow sieve-tray for such a tower. Take do = 5.5 mm on an equilateral-
triangular pitch 12 mm between hole centers, punched in stainless steel sheet metal 2 mm
thick. Use a weir height of 40 mm. Design for a 75% approach to the flood velocity. Report
details respecting tower diameter, tray spacing, weir length, gas-pressure drop, and entrainment
in the gas. Check for excessive weeping.
Solution
For aniline, the molecular weight = 93. The average molecular weight of the gas = 20.7.
The composition of the liquid is calculated as 1.4 mole % aniline, the average molecular weight
= 19.1.
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for f = 0.75
(b) Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for the design reported in part (a).
Solution
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for f = 0.45
D = 2.49 m t = 0.6 m DP = 399 Pa/tray
(b) Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for the design reported in part (a).
Solution
(a) Design a suitable cross-flow sieve-tray for such a tower. Take do = 6.0 mm on an equilateral-
triangular pitch 12 mm between hole centers, punched in stainless steel sheet metal 2 mm thick.
Use a weir height of 50 mm. Design for 80% approach to the flood velocity. Report details
respecting tower diameter, tray spacing, weir length, gas-pressure drop, and entrainment in the
gas. Check for excessive weeping.
Solution
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for f = 0.80
(b) Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for the design reported in part (a).
Solution
EOG = 0.5987 EMG = 0.707 EMGE = 0.700
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for = 0.80
(b) Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for the design reported in part (a).
Solution
(a) Design a suitable cross-flow sieve-tray for such a tower. According to Bennett and Kovak (2000),
the optimal value of the ratio Ah/Aa is that which yields an orifice Froude number, Fro = 0.5. Design
for the optimal value of do on an equilateral-triangular pitch 12 mm between hole centers, punched in
stainless steel sheet metal 2 mm thick. Use a weir height of 50 mm. Design for a 75% approach to
the flood velocity. Report details respecting tower diameter, tray spacing, weir length, gas-pressure
drop, and entrainment in the gas.
Solution
The slope of the equilibrium curve is approximately 1.0. The average molecular weight of the gas is
20.2. By trial-and-error, using the Sieve-Plate Design Program, it was found that the orifice
diameter that results in a Froude number = 0.5 is do = 3.43 mm.
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for = 0.75
From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for = 0.80
(b) Estimate the tray efficiency corrected for entrainment for the design reported in part (a).
Sol ion
a) From the Sieve-Plate Design Program, the following results are obtained for = 0.60
S i
b) If he ab be e i e 5.34 e i ib i age , ca c a e he be f ea a .
S i
U e8 a
S i
Initial estimate
Solution
Use 9 tra s
S i
I i ia e i a e
S i
5.7b. Absorption of ammonia in a laborator -scale tra tower.
An absorption column for laboratory use has been carefully constructed so that it has exactly 4
equilibrium stages, and is being used to measure equilibrium data. Water is used as the solvent
to absorb ammonia from air. The system operates isothermally at 300 K and 1 atm. The inlet
water is pure distilled water. The ratio of L/V = 1.2, inlet gas concentration is 0.01 mole fraction
ammonia; the measured outlet gas concentration is 0.0027 mole fraction ammonia. Assuming
that Henry s law applies, calculate the slope of the equilibrium line.
Solution
Initial estimate
5.8c,d. Absorption of ammonia in a seive-tra tower.
A process for making small amounts of hydrogen by cracking ammonia is being considered
and residual, uncracked ammonia is to be removed from the resulting gas. The gas will consist
of H2 and N2 in the molar ratio 3:1, containing 3% NH3 by volume, at a pressure of 2 bars and
a temperature of 303 K.
There is available a sieve-tray tower, 0.75 m diameter, containing 6 cross-flow trays at 0.5 m
tray spacing. The perforations are 4.75 mm in diameter, arranged in triangular pitch on 12.5
mm centers, punched in sheet metal 2 mm thick. The weir height is 40 mm. Assume
isothermal scrubbing with pure water at 303 K. The water flow rate to be used should not
exceed 50% of the maximum recommended for cross-flow sieve trays which is 0.015 m3/s-m
of tower diameter (Treybal, 1980). The gas flow rate should not exceed 80% of the flooding
value.
a) Estimate the gas flow rate that can be processed in the column under the circumstances
described above.
b) Calculate the concentration of the gas leaving the absorber in part a).
Data:
Liquid density = 996 kg/m3 Surface tension = 0.068 N/m
Foaming factor = 1.0 Liquid diffusivity = 2.42 10 9 m2/s
Gas viscosity = 1.122 10 5 kg/m-s Gas diffusivity = 0.23 cm2/s
Slope of the equilibrium line, = 0.85
Solution
a)
b)
he e A,i i he e f ac i f CO2 i he i id i .
a) Ca c a e he i g a f i e e i g he e e c bic ee f e e i g ga .
S i
F he i i i id f a e, 1 a i be i e i ib i i h N1
I i ia e i a e
Calculate molecular weight of MEA solution
Basis: 100 gm of 30% MEA in water
Solution
Generate XY diagram
c) The monoethanolamine solution has a viscosit of 6.0 cP and a densit of 1,012 kg/m3.
Estimate the overall tra efficienc for the absorber, and the number of real tra s required.
Seader and Henle (1998) proposed the following empirical correlation to estimate the overall
efficienc of absorbers and strippers using bubble-cap tra s (it has also been used to obtain
rough estimates for sieve-tra towers):
3
L = liquid densit , in kg/m
Hint: In this problem, the equilibrium-distribution curve is not a straight line, therefore m is not
constant. Estimate thhe average value of m at liquid concentrations along the operating line
and use theaverage in the correlation given.
Solution
5.11c,d. Absorption of carbon disulfide in a sieve-tra tower.
Carbon disulfide, CS2, used as a solvent in a chemical plant, is evaporated from the product in a
dryer into an inert gas (essentially N2) in order to avoid an explosion hazard. The CS2-N2 mixture
is to be scrubbed with an absorbent hydrocarbon oil. The gas will flow at the rate of 0.4 m3/s at
297 K and 1 atm. The partial pressure of CS2 in the original gas is 50 mm Hg, and the CS2
concentration in the outlet gas is not to exceed 0.5%. The oil enters the absorber essentially pure
at a rate 1.5 times the minimum, and solutions of oil and CS2 follow Raoult s law. Design a
sieve-tray tower for this process. Design for a gas velocity which is 70% of the flooding velocity.
Assuming isothermal operation, determine:
a) Liquid flow rate, kg/s
Solution
Ini ial e ima e
b) To er diameter and plate spacing
Solution
Solution
Solution
5.12c. Adiabatic absorption of carbon disulfide in a sieve-tra tower.
Determine the number of equilibrium tra s for the absorber of Problem 5.11, assuming adiabatic
operation. The specific heats are:
Substance J/mole-K
Oil 362.2
CS2, liquid 76.2
N2 29.1
CS2, gas 46.9
the latent heat of vapori ation of CS2 at 297 K is 27.91 kJ/mole. The vapor pressure of CS2 as a
function of temperature is given b
Solution
Assume T1 = 298.0 K
Appro imatel 12 ideal stages
Solution
a)
b)
Ke e e ai
c)
(G a hica c ci ahead)
Kremser equation
Solution
From Prob. 5.11, the conditions at the bottom of the absorber are:
From Tables 4.1 and 4.2
From Prob. 5.11, the conditions at the top of the absorber are:
Solution
For the driving force to be constant, the operating line is parallel to the equilibrium line, and
the absorption factor A = 1.0
It was found by trial and error with the Packed Column program that, for a pressure drop of
200 Pa/m and D = 0.7 m:
5.17c. Ben ene vapor recover s stem.
Benzene vapor in the gaseous effluent of an industrial process is scrubbed with a wash oil in a
countercurrent packed absorber. The resulting benzene-wash-oil solution is then heated to 398
K and stripped in a tray tower, using steam as the stripping medium. The stripped wash oil is
then cooled and recycled to the absorber. Some data relative to the operation follow:
Absorption:
Benzene in entering gas = 1.0 mole %
Operating pressure of absorber = 800 mm Hg
Oil circulation rate = 2 m3/1,000 m3 of gas at STP
Oil specific gravity = 0.88 Molecular weight = 260
Henry s law constant = 0.095 at 293 K;
= 0.130 at 300 K
NtOG = 5 transfer units
Stripping:
Pressure = 1 atm Steam at 1 atm, 398 K
Henry s law constant = 3.08 at 398 K
Number of equilibrium stages = 5
a) In the winter, it is possible to cool the recycled oil to 293 K, at which temperature the
absorber then operates. Under these conditions 72.0 kg of steam is used in the stripper per
1,000 m3 of gas at STP entering the absorber. Calculate the percent benzene recovery in the
winter.
Solution
I i ia e i a e :
b) I he e i i i ib e c he ec c ed a h i e ha 300 K i h he
a ai ab e c i g a e . A i g ha he ab be he e a e a 300 K, i h he a e i
a d ea a e , a d ha N OG a d e i ib i age e ai he a e, ha e
ec e f be e e ca be e ec ed?
S i
c) If he oil a e canno be inc ea ed, b he eam a e in he mme i inc ea ed b 50%
o e he in e al e, ha mme eco e of ben ene can be e pec ed?
5.19c. Ab o p ion of ge mani m e achlo ide ed fo op ical fibe .
Germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) and silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) are used in the production of
optical fibers. Both chlorides are oxidized at high temperature and converted to glasslike particles.
However, the GeCl4 oxidation is quite incomplete and it is necessary to scrub the unreacted GeCl4
from its air carrier in a packed column operating at 298 K and 1 atm with a dilute caustic solution.
At these conditions, the dissolved GeCl4 has no vapor pressure and mass transfer is controlled by
the gas phase. Thus, the equilibrium curve is a straight line of zero slope. The entering gas flows at
the rate of 23,850 kg/day of air containing 288 kg/day of GeCl4. The air also contains 540 kg/day of
Cl2, which, when dissolved, also will have no vapor pressure.
It is desired to absorb, at least, 99% of both GeCl4 and Cl2 in an existing 0.75-m-diameter column
that is packed to a height of 3.0 m with 13-mm ceramic Raschig rings. The liquid rate should be
set so that the column operates at 75% of flooding. Because the solutions are very dilute, it can be
assumed that both gases are absorbed independenttly.
Gas-phase mass-transfer coefficients for GeCl4 and Cl2 can be estimated from the following
empirical equations developed from experimental studies with 13-mm Raschig rings for liquid mass
velocities between 0.68 2.0 kg/m2-s (Shulman, H. L., et al., AIC E J., 17, 631, 1971):
where:
ds = equivalent packing diameter (0.01774 m for
13-mm ceramic Raschig rings)
= gas density, kg/m3
Gx ,Gy mass velocities, kg/m2-s
For the two diffusing species, take DGeCl4 = 0.06 cm2/s; DCl2 = 013 cm2/s. For the packing,
Fp = 580 ft 1, e = 0.63.
Determine:
a) Liquid flow rate, in kg/s.
Solution
Ini ial e ima e
Solution
From Prob. 5.11, the conditions at the top of the absorber are:
Solution
Try
From Appendi D
Tr
From Appendi D
Tr
From Appendi D
Tr
From Appendi D
C bic i ei e ai
a) De i e he f i g eai g i ee ai f he ab be :
S i
b) If the absorber is to process 1.0 m3/s (at 2 atm and 303 K) of the entering gas, calculate
the water flow rate, the tower diameter, and the gas-pressure drop per unit of packing height
at the bottom of the absorber.
Solution
c)
At the top of the column:
Calc la e N G
Solution
Solution
Solution
S i
6.5d. Flash vapori ation of a ternar mi ture.
Consider the ternar mi ture of E ample 6.2 and Problem 6.3. It is desired to recover in the vapor 75%
of the ben ene in the feed, and to recover in the liquid 70% of the o- lene in the feed. Calculate the
temperature, pressure, fraction of the feed vapori ed, and the concentration of the
liquid and gas phases
Solution
6.6b.Batch distillation of a heptane-octane mi ture.
Repeat the calculations of E ample 6.3, but for 80 mole % of the liquid distilled.
Solution
S i
I i ia e i a e:
Solution
Initial estimates:
What is the bubble point of a mi ture that is 15 mole % isopentane, 30 mole % n-pentane, and 55
mole % n-he ane? The pressure is 1.0 atm.
Solution
Initial estimate
Solution
Initial estimate
Solution
Initial estimate
c) The solution is flash-vapori ed to vapori e 40 mol % of the feed. Calculate the composition of the
products.
Solution
Initial estimates
Check!
I i ia e i a e :
S i
I i ia e i a e
S i
(6-105)
U e e a i (6-105) e i a e R i f di i a i f he be e e- e e i e fE a e 6.4.
A e ha , f hi e a 1 a , he e a i e aii i c a a = 2.5.
S i
I i ia e i a e
S i
6.24c. A distillation-membrane h brid for ethanol deh dration.
Ma i d ia i a i id e a e diffic i ib e e aaeb i ec i
di i a i beca e he ha e beha i c ai a a e e, a a ge i ch, a ea ea i e
aii . O e i i c bi e di i a i ih e ec e e a e aai ech gie
f a h b id. A e a e f ch a c bi a i i he deh d a i f e ha i g a di i a i -
e b a e h b id.
I a gi e a ica i , 100 e / f a a a ed i id c ai i g 37 e % e ha a d 63 e% ae
be e a a ed ie d a d c hich i 99 e % e ha , a d a e id e c ai i g 99 e%
a e . The i i be fed a di i a i c eai ga a he ic e e, i h a a ia
eb i e a d a a c de e . The ef ai i be 1.5 he i i . The di i a e i e e a e b a e
i h a a e e a = 70 a d = 0.6. The e b a e b he c ce a i ha he e ea e
ea i he e ha - ich d c ( P = 0.99). The e e a e ea i e ed a a a a ed i id he
c he a a he ea e i id c ce a i .
a) Ca c a e he a f a e f he d c a d f he e id e.
S i
I i ia e i a e :
b) Ca c a e he a f aea dc ii f he di i a e c i g f he c .
S i
Initial estimates
Kilomoles in distillate:
Kilomoles in bottoms:
Initial estimate
De e mine n mbe of ideal age a R = 1.2 Rmin: Gilliland co ela ion
Ki kb ide e a ion:
C e M e f ac i Re a i e a i i
A 0.4 5
B 0.2 3
C 0.4 1
a) F a di i a e a e f 60 e /h, fi e he e ica age , a d a ef , ca c a e he di i a e
a db c i i b he Fe ee ai .
S i
I i ia e i a e :
b) Using the separation in part a) for components A and C, determine the minimum reflu ratio b the
Under ood equation.
Solution
Initial estimate:
Initial estimate:
Initial estimate:
c) For a reflu ratio of 1.2 times the minimum, determine the number of theoretical stages
required, and the optimum feed location.
Solution
I i ia e i a e
Ki b ide e ai :
I i ia e i a e:
Feed a age 5
Solution
Initial estimate:
7.2 Single e traction.
Rea a gi g e ai (3-60)
S le fl ae e age
T al le fl ae
Ini ial g e e :
Composited e tract
Acetone
Chloroform
Water