LMR31 – Strategic Management of Railway Operation 4.

Characteristics of Tram, Train, Tram-train and Guided

Bus
1. High Reliability Organization (HRO)
Train - Advantages Train -
i. Characteristics Disadvantages
• Well / segregated routes
• Management of complex technology reduce the safety risk • Low adhesion
• Success and survival require high performance, • Comfort due to smooth rail- • Low braking effort
safety and reliability wheel interface • Overhead line
• Error source are dynamic • Low noise make affect the
• Need high complex integrated organization • Low emission at point of use visual environment
• Operating environment is constant threat • Efficient • Heavily regulated
• Consequences of unreliable operation are • Massive transport for large mode of transport
catastrophic number of passengers or • High operating cost
ii. Example – Aviation, Nuclear Power, Railway, Space amount of goods with • High infrastructure
exploration relatively low environmental cost
iii. Five key characteristics of human behaviour impact • Low flexibility on
• Preoccupation with Failure • No congestion problem changing route
• Reluctance to Simplify Interpretations • Higher crashworthiness
• Sensitivity to Operations compared with bus
• Commitment to Resilience 5. Complex and Complicated
• Under-Specification of Structure i. Complex
2. Customer Demand • Getting children to succeed in school
i. Reveal Preference ii. Complicated
• Access the changes to railway services using the data • Sending a rocket to the moon
from previous experiencewith similar background 6. Freight train operation and characteristics
• Dis: Not always possible to obtain data since some i. Customer-Focused Model
proposed changes are outside the experience of • Variable train length
current passengers • Deliver based on customer need
ii. Stated Preference • Higher operating cost but better customer service
• Use individual respondents’ statements about their ii. Operation-Based Model
preferences in a set of transport options to estimate • Scheduled trains
utility functions • Fixed train length
iii. Gravity Model • Delivery according to timetable
• Based on the characteristics of major and • Yield management of available capacity on a given
intermediate traffic originators and destinations and train
population concentrations • Relatively low operation cost
• strongly reliant on the existence of good data 7. PTL and NTL Structure of Freight Train
𝑘𝑘𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 𝑃𝑃𝑗𝑗
• 𝑇𝑇𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = � � i. Pull Time Location (PTL) – where all yard activity has
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 2 been completed
Where ii. Network Time Location (NTL) – generally time at the
Tij is the no. of trips signal onto network. Booked departure time is always
k is constant NTL.
Pi is the population of city I
Pj is the no. of jobs in city j
Dij is the Distance between cities I and j
3. Generalized Cost
i. GC = Fare/VOT + A1Tj + A2Ta + A3Tw + A4Td + A5n,
where
Fare = ticket fares £
VoT = Value of Time or money per time [£min] iii. Offset Time – time to transverse between PTL and
A1= weighting factor, normally = 1 NTL. Vary from nil to 10 minutes or more.
A2, A3 = weighting factors, normally = 1.5 - 2 8. Yield Management
A4 = weighting factor, normally = 3 i. A variable pricing strategy based on understanding
A5 = inconvenience allowance [min] and influencing consumer behaviour in order to
Tj = journey time [min] maximize the revenue
Ta = access time [min] ii. Strategic control of inventory to sell it to the right
Tw = waiting time [min] customer at the right time for the right price.
Td = delay time [min] 9. Five determinants – Variability, Dispersion, Diversity,
n = no. of changes Interdependence
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 i. Variability (Complexity)–Affects extent to which 10. Fare System
tasks must depart from simple recurring patterns i. Complex Fare System in UK, due to:
• Physical: Weather and adhesion, Wear, Ground • Privatization of TOC in 1993
Stability • Fare price is unsustainable for operation
• Organizational:Staff • Government Subsidy is required
Performance,Stakeholder,Client Demand • Commuters has no other choice, not fair competition
ii. Dispersion (Complexity and Complication) – extent
• Advance booking
to which assets, resources and people contributing to
• Peak hour ticket or season tickets
the correct operation of system are distributed over a
• Any train types and operator
large area
• No. of changes
• Physical: Staff locations, asset locations, customer
• Dedicated train at specific time only.
locations
• Organizational: Information,skills, route knowledge 11. Elasticity = %change in demand/ % change in sth
iii. Diversity (Complication) – Relates to number of i. Egc = % change in demand / % change in GC
distinct and different sub-activities that must be ii. Ef = % change in demand / % change in fares
performed within an integrated system of tasks 12. Fixed and Variable Cost of Road vs Rail
• Physical: different assets, materials, systems
• Organizational: skills, needs, passenger
iv. Coupling(Complex and Complicated)
• Physical: Track & Trains, Platform & Trains, OHLE &
Trains
• Organizational:Time Table/Roster/Schedule
Tight Coupling Loose Coupling
- Time-dependent - Processing delays
behaviour, delay is not possible
possible - Sequence & order can be
- Invariant sequencing changed
- Only one method to - Alternative methods
achieve goal available
- Little slack available - Slack in resources
- Buffer and redundancies possible
must be designed in as - Buffers and redundancies
part of the system are fortuitously always
available
v. Interactions
• Physical: Wheel-Rail operations and maintenance
• Organizational: Regulations & Standards
Linear Interactions Complex Interactions
- Segregated subsystem - Parts and units not in a
- Easy substitutions production sequence are 13. No. of Trains or Train Capacity
- Few feedback loops close together i. N = 2(Tj + Tt) / H, where
- Single purpose, - unfamiliar or unintended Tj = average journey time
separate controls feedback loops Tt = average turnaround time
- Direct information - indirect or inferential H = headway
- Extensive information sources
Example Soln
understanding - Limited understanding of
Station A 00 15 30 45 Tj = 30 mins, H = 15 mins,
some processes
Station B 30 45 00 15 Tt = (20+25)/2 = 22.5 min
No. of Train required =
Station B 05 20 35 50 2(30+22.5)/15 = 7 units.
Station A 35 50 05 20
14. Terminal and Through Station layout

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 i. Type A: Double reversing tracks around terminal
platform
• Adv: High flexible for operation, allows use of both
platforms, in either direction, space for full speed ATP
overrun, space to stable trains
• Dis: Expensive trackwork, high maintenance, requires
additional space, could be expensive in land take or
tunnelling, requires complex information system for
passenger management
ii. Type B: Double reversing tracks beyond terminal
platform
• Adv: All trains arrive at one platform, reversing trains
clear of station, space for full ATP overrun, simple
passenger interface, arrangement can accommodate
one defective train
• Dis: Inflexible platform use, no spare space to hold
multiple trains, medium recovery opportunity after
disruptions, moderately expensive in construction
terms, additional train required for short headway
service
iii. Type C: Single reversing tracks around terminal
platform
• Adv: Simple trackwork, separate platform faces for
arrival and departure, opportunity for low
construction costs, simple passenger interface
• Dis: inflexible in operations, no spare space for trains,
poor recovery opportunity after disruptions,
additional train required for short headway service
iv. Type D: Single direction (tramway) turning loop
• Adv:Simple trackwork without turnouts, low
maintenance, separate platform faces for arrival and
departure, opportunity for low construction costs
• Dis:Inflexible operations, no spare space for trains,
poor recovery opportunity after disruptions, loop
could require large space, extra train required for
short headway service.
Side Platform Island Platform
Evaluated Station with Side Platform
15. Health Safety Environment Model
i. HSE Time Model
ii. Culture Ladder
iii. Swiss Cheese Model
16. Platform Edge / Screen Door
i. Safety
ii. Climate Control
iii. Reduction of cost for station heating and cooling
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iv. Reduction of rubbish on track
v. Reduce the train noise
vi. Improve visual impact of platform area
17. Distance-time Diagram
18. Research Method
i. Stated reference and Reveal reference
ii. Aggregate and Disaggregate Method
19. Accident Investigation
i. Railway Accident Investigation Branch (RAIB)
ii. Her Majesty’s Railway Inspectorate
iii. Operator / Infrastructure Manager
iv. Health and Safety Executive
v. British Transport Police
20. Tram-train ***
i. Characteristics
• More frequent services than mainline railway
• Able to run on unmodified main line and tram
infrastructures
• Relatively light-weight rolling stock
• Generally use of conventional tram technology
• Body shells about 2.4m wide
• Possibly higher proportion of seats compared to
ordinary tram because of the longer journeys
• High level of traction power per unit of mass
• Often hybrid dc and ac for street and mainline
running
• Some systems diesel only and some dc and diesel
ii. Particular Technical Requirement
• Fitted with magnetic track brakes to ensure rapid
deceleration for line of sight operation
• fitted with mainline ATP or train stop system to
ensure similar level of safety
• able to cope with tram and mainline rail profiles
• EMC compatibility with mainline rolling stock and
mainline infrastructure
• Significant level of crashworthiness or a railway
control system offering a very high safety level
through train separation
iii. Reasons for adoption
• Existing heavy rail expensive to run due to high first
cost for track, stations, rolling stock
• High infrastructure maintenance cost due to heavy
trains
• Mainline railway stations in Britain often some way
from commercial centre, leading to long access
/egress time and the needfor bus links
• main line trains are not compatible with street
running
• tram-trains can run on conventional tramway tracks
• train-trains can use different types of power supply
• tram trains can be built to be much quieter than
mainline trains
• buses are not comfortable for long distance journey
• private cars require large areas for parking
iv. Benefits and Drawbacks
Benefits Drawbacks
• Light weight construction • Special measures • Goods are protected throughout the transit from
reduce energy use necessary to reduce environmental influences and from pilfering.
• Higher speed than buses risk of collision with iii. What prompted the European Commission to issue
thanks to own right of way mainline passenger Directives 91/440 EC, 2001/12 EC and 2004/51 EC, in
• Not affected by congestion and freight trains the context of freight operations
• Can cope with frequent • Potential less • High cost and subsidy needs of nationally owned
stops thanks to good optimal use of
European railway undertakings
acceleration mainline capacity
• Excessive transit times
• Excellent braking capability • Different
maintenance • Long delays at borders
allows line of sight operation
at relatively high speed and facilities required • Lack of transparency of infrastructure and operations
reduces risk when sharing • Lower capacity than costs
road with other road users mainline train • Cross-subsidising of dumping prices between
• Suited to wide range of • Relatively high first passenger and freight operations
passenger numbers per cost • High barriers to the entry of new operators into the
hour European railway freight market
21. Health Safety Environment (HSE) • Unfairness in capacity allocation
• Differences in requirements for licensing between
countries
• Safety and rolling stock certification
• Setting of safety standards and rules
• Fairness in setting access charges and charges for
electric power
iv. Nature of metronomic freight services
• Effectively, bulk operations in sectors such as coal,
aggregate and other minerals, where a customer has
contracted very regular deliveries using standardised
22. Swiss Cheese Model
trains
• Container operations may be metronomic where they
are strictly timetabled
• There will be specialist terminal equipment to ensure
rapid loading and unloading and good rolling stock
utilisation
• Regular flows allow robust planning and ensure a
regular income for the operator, although unit prices
may well be low.
23. Freight Trains Operations ***
• Customers can tie the railway operation into its
i. Problem of conventional freight trains in UK and
supply chain processes
Europe
• Risks arise if the railway is not able to run the
• Expensive to operate because of the need to load
operation reliably, if the cost of the operation is
the wagons by hand or basic equipment
greater than the income or if a long term market
• Space required for loading is large
suddenly disappears
• Requirement for marshalling and re-marshalling
v. Why do rail freight operators find it difficult to
trains,
compete with road haulage in Europe but the freight
• relatively low utilisation of wagons railroads in USA are profitable?
• requirement to maintain industrial sidings for • Production/points of importation and markets are
limited flows. often separated by 2000 km or more
• There is still strong demand for this type of service • Railways generally operated over much longer
in USA, Russia and China because of the long trunk distances and Class I railways generally leave the
hauls where staff and equipment can be used costly trip working/local collection and delivery to
economically local operators
ii. Advantages of container and swap body operation vi. What are the main difference btw passenger rail
in freight trains service and modern freight services involving major
• Containers and swap bodies can be loaded onto and bulk and container flows
unload from the trains quickly and using • Freight trains have few stops and usually travel
standardised equipment. terminal to terminal
• The loads can then be conveyed easily to the
customerby means of road transfer.
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 • Speeds tend to be relatively low while container and
other intermodal flows achieve high average end-to-
end speeds.
vii. Describe some of the technical and people interface
issues involved in running freight trains between
London and Seville in Spain
• Axle load differences, wheel –profile difference, track
gauge difference at the Spanish border requiring
wheelset-swaps, several different signalling systems
and at least two structure gauge
• People: languages are difference (English, French and 25. Guided Bus **
Spanish), the many different rule system, diverse i. Characteristics
training requirement for train staff • Double doors would be installed to speed up the
viii. Why are freight customers keen on the tracking alighting and boarding time
of their shipments and what method of train and
• Guide-wheels system installed on the bus wheel to
cargo tracking are being used worldwide
run along concrete guided tracks
• Check whether the raw-materials and components
• Low floors
will arrive on time
• Diesel hybrid car, maximum speed = 129km/h
• Cargo values are increasing avoid being at risk of
• Double deck is possible
pilfering
• Passenger capacity = 90
• Barcode, QR Code or RFID tag
• Crashworthiness of bus is incompatible with trains
• GPS or DGPS for location and GSM-R for position
and tram
• Track circuits and train describers to identify train
• Braking capacity and adhesion is very good
position
• Car trap could be installed in the junction points of
• Database with location of every cargo
Busway and regular roads to prevent other vehicles
• Clients can check via the internet or mobile apps
using the guided bus track
ix. Obstacles that are faced by new freight service
ii. Advantage and Disadvantage
operators want to enter British market
Advantages Disadvantages
• Availability of train paths • Flexible to access to the • Per passenger emission
• Ability to get the company’s safety management ordinary road system is higher than train and
system approved • Vibration, noise and tram solution
• Ability to recruit trained staff and to source reliable dust during construction • Less comfort
locomotives of sufficient power and tractive effort is less • Not possible to install
and to find wagons at reasonable cost • Lower infrastructure catering and toilet
• Availability of fuelling and servicing facilities construction cost facilities
x. Rail is more attractive for the trunk haulage • Lower infrastructure • Lower carriage capacity
• Comparatively high average speed allows short maintenance cost • Lower speed
journey times and good swap body/container • Low rolling stock • Higher pollution at point
utilisation development cost of use
• Delivery schedules are not affected by road • Low rolling stock • Less luggage space
congestion and drivers can be allocated to do maintenance cost • Low crashworthiness
relatively short delivery journey
• Good adhesion
• Railway freight operators have to improve their
punctuality because delivery slots in logistics chains
tend to be very tight
• Tracking quality must be improved so that the
location of any goods is monitored in real time.
24. Relationship between different stakeholders of
railway in UK

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LMR32 – Rolling Stock Systems Design

2. Cant
i. Cant is raising of outer rail in a curveto reduce the
lateral forces experienced by passengers and the
lateral track forces on the track
ii. Passenger like to feel some lateral acceleration 8. Secondary Suspension
(Centrifugal force) when going around the curve. i. Characteristics
iii. Cant Deficiency is the additional amount that the • Remove LOW frequency vibration
track would need to be canted to achieve balancing • Yaw dampers reduce bodyshell and bogie rotations
speed. and raise critical speed
𝑣𝑣 2 • Air suspension most popular
iv. 𝑎𝑎 = cos(𝛼𝛼) − 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(𝛼𝛼)
𝑟𝑟 ii. Air suspension
• Automatic height level adjustment
• Good damping
• Requires backup system in case of failure (rubber
element)
3. Bogie Vehicles • Small in size and light weighted compared with spring
i. Frame holds wheel parallel coil
ii. Carries braking and possibly traction equipment 9. Body Shell
iii. Contains suspension components i. Steel and aluminium for heavy rail
4. 3 piece bogie ii. Carbon steel vs stainless steel
i. Cheap iii. Aluminium for light rail and high speed trains
ii. Easy to maintain iv. Composites, while strong and light lack the stiffness
iii. High unsprung mass as no primary suspension to be used as bodyshells
iv. Flies to pieces in derailment 10. Air System
5. Shared bogie (Jacobs Bogie) i. Compressed air is used for:
Advantages Disadvantage • Brake system
• Lower unsprung mass • Reduced flexibility • Door
• Lower rolling resistance • Complicated connections • Hooters and wipers
• Reduce end throw • Heavier axle load • Air suspension
6. Suspension Systems • Pantograph
i. Primary Suspension • Freight unloading equipment
• Located between axle and bogie ii. Air must be dried to remove moistness
• Remove HIGH frequency vibration iii. Air is piped along the train through pipes and flexible
• Reduce unsprung mass hoses at couplings
7. Characteristics of different suspension systems iv. Each Vehicle has reservoir or two
i. Leaf springs v. Single pipe systems must not have too high auxiliary
• Use of friction between surface of leafs air requirement as the brake may come on
• Intensive maintenance vi. Increasing use of electric kit reduces air requirements
• Heavy 11. Couplers
• Load sensitive i. Characteristics
• Good inherent damping • Connect vehicles together to form a train
ii. Rubber Element • Transfer traction load
• Light weighted • Need to connect air and electrical systems
• Compact • Provide longitudinal suspension
• Shear forces predominate • Manual and automatic
• Poor lateral stability • Permanent and semi-permanent connections
iii. Coil spring& Damper ii. Manual couplers
• Light weight • like the hook and shackle
• Compact • Buffer are required to absorb compressive loads
• Spring has low damping • A person must get btw vehicles and manually lift
• Viscous dampers are used to dissipate energy shackle into position & connect air hoses
(velocity dependent) iii. Automatic couplers
• Suspensions are tuned to give optimum ride quality • Connect vehicle electrically and pneumatically
iv. Friction Damping (3 piece bogie) • Caused compatibility problem
• Scharfenberg is popular type
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 • But two vehicles may have couplers at different • When load applied, stress causes the wheel and
height rail material deform into an area of contact, i.e.
• Buckeye (knuckle) coupler is a compromise btw contact patch
manual and automatic • Typically the size of region 100 – 150mm2
12. Power Collection • Elliptical shape contact surface in theory
i. Overhead line and pantograph • Shape and size of real contact area depends on
• Pantograph contact force local geometry of the two bodies at the point of
• High speed train pantograph can have wings to contact
control contact force • The stress distribution in contact patch under
• Tilting trains need to keep the pantograph upright Hertzian Contact is ideally parabolic
• Contact strip made from carbon • Contact Stress depends on: dynamic wheel load,
• Loss of pressure lowers the pantograph to prevent diameter of wheel, shape of wheel and rail,
demage to the OLE by worn or damaged contact wheelset lateral position
surface iv. Dynamic Loading and Forces
ii. 3rd and 4th rails • Dynamic forces increase with speed
• Pick up shoes are used • Crossings, rail joints and wheel flats produce high
• Increases unsprung mass and pick up shoes are impact forces
subject to vibration • Out of round wheels and track twist increase
13. Wheel-Rail Interface dynamic force
i. Curve behaviour

v. Vertical Impact Force

• r0 = rolling radius,λ = effective conicity, y =
lateral offset, I0 = ½ of track gauge
(1435mm/2), R = radius of curve
• for no slip, the ratios of rolling radii of the left
and right wheels must equal the radii of the
curvature of the left and right rails
𝒓𝒓𝟎𝟎 −𝝀𝝀𝝀𝝀 𝑹𝑹−𝒍𝒍𝟎𝟎
= ;
𝒓𝒓𝟎𝟎 +𝝀𝝀𝝀𝝀 𝑹𝑹+𝒍𝒍𝟎𝟎
All variable r0, y, R, l0 should be inmeter or
mm.
ii. Kinematic Oscillation and Hunting
• At low speed, kinematic oscillation die away.
• At high speed, the oscillations can increase to the
point where flange contact occurs
• Eventually, the lateral force become so large and
the vehicle derail (flange climb)
• Hunting – wheelset display kinematic oscillation
and become unstable above a critical speed.
iii. Contact Patch
• When a wheel & rail are contact under no load, a
point of contact results
• Bad weld or dipped rail joints
• Even small vertical deviation in geometry cause
big dynamic forces
• P0 force - static
• P1 force – high frequency and amplitude
• P2 force – relatively lower frequency and produce
most damage to the track.
• P2 = 0.7𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼�𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢 , 𝛼𝛼 = irregularity angle (mrad),
V = speed (m/s), kt = track stiffness (N/m), Mu =
unsprung mass of vehicle (kg)
vi. Rolling Contact
• Microcreepage(small amount of slippage)causes
adhesion to vary over the area of the contact
patch
vii. Creepage and Creep force
• Creepage - Action where a wheel turns at a
speedthat isdifferent from the train speed with
respect to the track.
• (𝒗𝒗 − 𝝎𝝎𝝎𝝎)/𝒗𝒗; where v = speed of train, ω =
rotational speed of wheel, R = radius of wheel
• Occur in three directions: lateral, longitudinal, spin
about the axis perpendicular to the rail
• Creep force– forces transmitted between wheel
and rail

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 • Creep Force F = μN; where μ = coefficient of sliding
friction, N = the normal force btw wheel and rail
Creep Force – longitudinal direction to carry
traction and braking forces and lateral to carry
guidance forces
viii. Conicity
• Determine running stability of vehicles
• All vehicle have a Vcritical above which they will
suffer from hunting
• Vcritical depends on conicity and primary
suspension stiffness
• Higher the conicity, lower the Vcritical
14. Adhesion Management
i. F = μR
ii. Traction or braking demand is greater than the
available adhesion, wheel slip occur
• Wheel slide in braking – damage wheels
• Wheel spin in traction – damage rails
iii. Measuring Adhesion of rail
• Special train to measure the coefficient of
friction – Tribometer Train
• Brake pressure on the instrument wheel was
increased until it began to slip
• By measuring the brake force (F) and vertical load
on the axle (R), the coefficient of friction is found.
iv. Effect of Speed
• As speed increases, wheelset tends to move
around on the railhead due to vehicle dynamics.
This movement used up some of the available
friction, so less is available for traction and
braking.
v. Wheel Slide Protection
• Measurement device on the train measure the
rotational speed of each axle
• Signal sent to WSP and calculate whether the
wheels are slipping excessively or not
• If yes, brake pressure released on wheelset
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Increase Adhesion Decrease Adhesion
• Sanding • Flange Lubricants applies to
• Autumn timetable the wheel flange to reduce
• Driver training – the wear at sharp curve
braking technique • metro high adhesion result in
• Vegetation high rail wear rates
management • Friction Modifier – maintain
reasonable frictionto
prevent excessive rail wear
and wheel slip, spin or slide.
15. Derailment
i. Plain Line
• Track Buckle–lateral shift of track position, Failure
of ballast to hold the track in position. Popular in
hot weather, tends to happen when train is passing
• Flange Climb–flange of wheel rides up the gauge
side of the rail and climb over the rail head.
Common at lower speed
- Nadal Formula: Y/Q = (tan(δ) – μ)/(1+μtan(δ))
• Gauge spread– wheels falls into the four foot. Fixing
of rail is not secure, more common in wood
sleepers.
• Collision – with trains, infrastructure or items on
the line
• Component Failure – Nuts & bolts can fail causing
component detach
• Dynamic reaction of Track Geometry
- Cyclic top: sink of track
- track twist: sudden change of height in one track
ii. S&C
• Farringdon Edge – type of flange climb.Wear of
switch blade side create a sharp edge which cut into
the flange
• Split Switch– Wheel passes between closed switch
blade and stock rail
– thin flange, damaged point end lead to both
wheel move into their respective stock rails. As the
stock rail diverge, the train derails.
• Switch reversal –Points change from through route
to diverging route, or vice versa, when the train
passing over them.
• Crossing derailment–Damagedcrossing nosescause
a wheel take a wrong path. Improperly adjust check
rails can cause a wheel take a wrong path.
 iii. Other Reasons 17. Crashworthiness
• Shifted Load i. High level safety system – rules and procedures,
• Wind conflict free timetable
16. Incident Investigation ii. Low level safety system– interlockings and block
i. Roles and responsibility of Railway Accident system, good and thorough maintenance
Investigation Branch (RAIB) iii. Backup safety system – ATP, tripcocks,
• Improve railway safety and prevent further emergency communications systems, emergency
occurrence braking system.
• Does not blame or liability, nor enforce laws or
iv. Why crashworthiness is needed?
carry out prosecutions (ORR role)
• To reduce passenger injuries caused by
• Invest all serious rail accidents involving a
derailment which result in or could result in >= 1
collision with seatings
death, >= 5 serious injury, extensive damage to • Items in the overhead luggage rack falling
rolling stock, infra, or environment, or any other • Dimensionally enhanced person opposite may
accident which could have same consequence fall on you
ii. Evidence v. Over-riding
• Perishable – brake temperature, rail marks, control • Anti-climbers lock together in a crash and
positions prevent over-riding
• Non-perishable – vehicle positions, broken vi. Crashworthiness Strategies
components, records and documents
• Traditional approach- Very strong vehicles,
iii. Access to site – emergency services, police and RAIB
iv. On site details
collision energy is expended in few vehicles
Point of derail Track Vehicle
• Plain line or • Twist • Wheel profile
S&C • Cyclic top • Brake status • Collision energy management approach –
• Climb Marks • Rail Profile • Suspensionstatus Crumple zones are designed into ends of
• Rail breaks • Gauge • Controls vehicles, Collision energy is spread out along
• Over the rail • Switch • On Train Monitoring the train.
or into the 4 damage Recorder(OTMR) data
foot
• Signs of track vii.Driver Protection
distress or
• Crumple zone provide survival space
vehicle
distress • Modern cabs have fewer knobs and softer
v. Off site details surfaces
Operational Track Maint Vehicle records 18. Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF)
records Record • Maintenance i. Wear and RCF are caused by high levels of force in
• Signal box • Patrols and history the Wheel/rail contact patch
registers and Inspections • Modification ii. Contact Patch Energy (T-Gamma) – Energy
tapes • Maintenance history dissipation on contact patch
• Assessment of Records • Wheel turning iii. TGamma = creep force x creepagein contact patch
crossings • Track recording • Fault log book
data
vi. Other evidence
• Detached components
• CCTV Tapes
• Data logger records
• Mobile phone call details
• Staff histories – performance , medical, disciplinary,
iv. Whole life rail model (WLRM) damage function
drugs and alcohol testing
vii. Process
• Gather all physical evidence
• Take witness statements
• Carry out causal analysis
• Consult industry and individuals involved
• Publish report
• ORR follows through implementation

Page 9
 • Min radius = 25m • Min radius = 185m
• Groove rail • Flat bottom rail
• Steel grade R200 no • Steel grade R260 alloyed
alloyed and no heat and heat treated rails to
treated rails can be reduce RCF and wear
repair welded
ii. Other difference from mainline
• Curves are sharper, • Floor heights
more frequent, have • High performance
poor transitions and vehicles
poor superelevation • Need to have
• Gradients are steeper deceleration similar to
v. RCF damage condition • Poorer railhead road vehicle
• High contact stress – smaller contact patch due to conditions • Few (if any) track
greater curvature of rail and wheel • More frequent stops circuits
• High shear forces–only in traction direction • High frequency services • Simplified signalling
• Wear – consequence of very high shear forces • Shorter trains • Line-of-sight operation
andcounteracts RCF crack growth • Short system lengths
vi. RCF Mechanism iii. 100% Low floor vehicles
• Steady State Curving Advantages Disadvantages
- leading wheelset of bogie • Larger Windows • High wheel load
- shear forces in traction direction on high rail • Larger space in vehicle • Small wheel diameter
- moderate radius curves (wear dominates in tight • Easily accessible by • No natural sine run of the
radius curves) people with reduced wheelset high flange wear
mobility, such as poor ride quality
vii. Difference between rail and wheel
wheelchair users, • Doubtful seat comfort,
Rail Wheel
elderly, etc. restricted passenger flow
•Surface is driven in •Surface is driven in
• Good visibility of • Higher maint cost of
traction braking
person standing in vehicle due to no axle
•Water get into cracks •Centrifugal force clears front of the vehicle bogie
easily water
• Smooth front design • Higher maint cost of track
viii. RCF Risk factors that hits a pedestrian • Absence of bogies means
Rail Wheel below the centre of vehicle is slow over curves
•Traction forces •Braking forces gravity and turnouts
•Curving forces on leading •Curving forces on leading • No interior steps – • Wheel intrusion into
wheelset on high rail wheelset on the low rail safe saloon and large number
•Track irregularities •Track irregularities • More politically of articulations limits
ix. TGamma and RCF increase with curvature, primary acceptable choice of interior layout
yaw stiffness, cant surplus, vehicle weight 21. Freight Train Design and Performance
x. RCF Mitigation i. Advantage of Freight Rail
• Rail Grinding • Can carry more loads for long distance with
• Track lateral alignment improvement minimum staff
• Lower conicity wheel profile • Ability to control the system performance within
- Any change inrail or wheel profilewhich reduces reason (avoid congestion)
RCF will give increased flange wear. • Efficient wheel/rail interface with low rolling
• Reduce primary yaw stiffness resistance & better aerodynamics
• Hydrodynamic bush • Low pollution at point of use for electrified
• Cross-bracing vehicles
• Steering Bogie – reduce curving forces ii. Requirements and
19. Mode of vibration • Different types of goods
i. Yaw • Max speed is 120 kph, no need to go faster since
ii. Pitch waste energy.
iii. Bounce iii. Restriction or Difficulties
iv. Upper sway • Loading Gauge – UK loading gauge runs from W6
v. Lower sway (smallest) to W12 (largest) and W6 available over
20. Tramway majority of UK.
i. Tramway vs Mainline • Route Availability – depends on axle load, each
Tramway Mainline route and rolling stock are given an RA number.
• Gradient = 5% • Gradient = 3-4%
Page 10
 The RA number of vehicle should be less than vii. Loading / Unloading
route’s RA number. • Need to ensure even distribution of load
• Value for Money – Designs have to be cheap to • Covers & discharge door manual of pneumatic
build. viii. Protection of Goods
• Track Quality – Track standards for freight lines • Vertical shock due to crude suspension & poor
not as high as for passenger. Vehicle need to cope track quality
with significant track twist • Impacts during shunting movements
22. Wagon Design • Poorly performing brakes and brake application
i. Two axle Design delays cause frequent shocks during transit
• Cheap and simple • Heat and cold during transits – perishables and
• track twist derailment is easy livestock badly affected
ii. Bogied ix. Protection of Environment
• Bogies copes better with poor track geometry • Many dangerous goods carried by rail
• Typically 4 axle • Generally safer than road transport
• Need to maintain acceptable yaw stiffness 23. Freight Locomotives Design
• Better payload to tare ratio i. Freight is commonly hauled by locomotives
iii. Brakes • Lower operating cost then powering individual
• Tread & disc brakes common payload carrying vehicles
• Air brakes with reservoir on each vehicle • Highly variable train length and loads
• Brake pressure depends on load • Keeps wagon simple
• Air supplied by compressor on loco, connected by • Maximises utilization of expensive asset
hoses 24. Heavy Haul Freight
• Manual parking brake i. What is Heavy Haul Freight?
iv. Suspension • Operates with maximum allowable vehicle weight
• Leaf springs (Axle load) andmaximum length allowed on a
-basic but effective railway
- provide stiffness & damping (friction btw each ii. Advantages and Drawbacks
leaf) Advantages/Reasons Drawback
- stiffness & damping increase with load, but • Natural resources and • Higher infrastructure
difficult to control crop growing conditions cost
• Coil springs are not uniformly - more ballast
distributed - more sleeper
- basic but effective
• Large demand centres - larger rail & harder rail
- use nested coils for laden / tare loading
tend to be in one - stronger bridges
conditions location (Power plant) - bigger tunnels
- intermediate loads cause problems • Import – export • More track maintenance
• Rubber / elastomeric • Increase capacity needed
- provide stiffness plus a degree of damping • Fewer staff • More vehicle
-can also provide shear as shown on TF25 • Less rolling stock maintenance
• Friction required • More locomotives
- common on freight • More revenue and profit required
- rubbing surfaces used to provide damping iii. Intermodal transport
v. Derailment risk • Trailers on Flat Car (TOFC)
• Derailment risk and track damage are key – not • Container on Flat Car (COFC)
ride comfort • Unit Train – single commodity from one origin to
• Freight derailments far more common than one destination (Minerals, petroleum, etc.)
passenger due to poor track geometry, poorly iv. Increase Axle Load – problem and mitigation
maintained vehicle, poorly loaded vehicles Problem Mitigation
(uneven loading) • Increase damage on • Increase the ballast depth
• Bogie Rotation and Torsion Testto ensure track • Swing nose crossings
acceptable derailment risk of freight vehicle • Increase wear and RCF • Strengthen the bridge
vi. Couplers • Reduce the braking • Ballast gluing and sleeper
• Buffers and chain – cheap and simple rate spades
• Limits train length • Structure gauge • Ballast tamping
• Bridge strength • Preventive and corrective
• Staff need to be btw wagon to connect and
• Sub-grade strength rail grinding
disconnect
• Suspension • Increase the brake effort
• Can suffer buffer locking on reverse curves
Page 11
 characteristics • Tunnel enlargement - steering provided passively
v. Long Trains Challenges - much faster speed of response required
• Distributed power • Combined steering and stability control
• Electronically controlled pneumatic brakes (no
electrical power on freight)
• Couplers are the weakest link by design
vi. Mountain Railways
• Heavy weight
• Acceleration, tractive effort increase to overcome
gravity
• Brake force increase during down hill
vi. Advantages
• Geometry
• Lower the tare mass due to removal of axle
• Drawbars strength critical to prevent decoupling
• Improved performance
• Freight train may have to be divided into a
• Reduce vehicle maintenance at wheel and rail
number of small group carriages
• Much reduce impact on the infrastructure
• Employ in-train and end-of-train pusher instead of
• Towards independently rotating wheels
using one loco in the head end
26. Tilting Trains
25. Active Suspension
i. Basic Concept
i. Active primary suspension and secondary
suspension
ii. General Schematic

ii. Design Issue

• Lateral Track force – careful bogie design
iii. Design Issue necessary to meet track standards
• Response to random input (track roughness) • Overturning – Increase the chance in high cross
• Response to deterministic inputs (curves, gradient, winds
etc.) • Gauging – profiled body essential, particularly
• Use of improved performance (better ride quality, restrictive in
higher speed, worse track) • Tilt Mechanism
iv. Secondary active suspension - Skyhook damper iii. Passive Scheme
• Maintain the vehicle at stable posture if it is • Pendular
travelling suspended by an imaginary straight line Advantage
in the sky - No actuators, transducers and
• Heavily damp the vertical acceleration and vertical electronics
vibration at natural frequency, such as pitch and Disadvantages
- Mechanically cumbersome
bounce mode.
(bulky)
• Large suspension deflections on gradients
- Transition response may be slow
• Actuators: servo-hydraulic, pneumatic, electro-
mechanical, electro-magnetic iv. Active tilt
• Sensors: inertial – accelerometers and gyroscopes, • Active tilt, below 2nd Suspension
displacement – potentiometers, other – force, Advantage
- lateral secondary suspension
pressure
does not have to react the
v. Primary active suspension – Active Wheelset
increased curving force
• Active Steering control Disadvantages
-stability provided passively, active control - bogie weight/complexity
provided steering on curves increase
- relatively slow speed of response required - increased actuator force
• Active stability control • Active tilt, above 2nd Suspension
- stabilise a wheelset with soft yaw suspension
through active control

Page 12
 Advantage
- possibly simpler bogie
Disadvantages
- lateral secondary suspension
must cope with increased
curving force

• Active tilt, across 2nd Suspension

Advantage
- simpler bogie no tilt pivot
Disadvantages
- lateral secondary suspension
must cope with increased
curving force
- possibly restricted tilt angle
v. Transition Performance
• Lateral acceleration
• Body roll velocity
• Lateral jerk
vi. Straight track performance
• Tilt may interact with lateral secondary
suspension
• Tilt action will normally make ride quality worse
27. ExternalAerodynamics
i. Aerodynamic resistance
vii. Tilt control strategies
• Partial Nulling tilt controller– measure the lateral
acceleration by body mounted accelerometerand
used as a feedback for tilt compensation
• Command tilt controller– measure the bogie
acceleration by accelerometer, passing thru’ Low
Pass filterto compare with tilt strategies and
control the tilt angle required.
ii. Train Passing Pressure
• Precedence tilt controller–the acceleration of
leading bogie of the leading vehicle pass thru’ a
LPF and compare with the tilting strategies.
- Overcome transition delay that the filter would
cause.
- tilting effect on first vehicle is low
• Track database tilt controller
viii. Tilt Authorization and Speed Supervision (TASS)
• Assumes tilt system may fail
• Safety assured by high-integrity system to enable
tilt where safe to do so
• Tilt disabled where a tilt system failure might
cause structure gauge infringement
• Full benefits of tilting operation not realised
• Cost of TASS
• Arises from work by the train on the air, including
pressure drag on nose and tail, pantographs,
intercar gaps, underframe equipment, bogies, etc
• Skin friction drag from shear forces along surfaces
paraleel to the air flow
• From Davis Equation, Train Resistance = A + Bv +
Cv2,
where
A represents mechanical rolling resistance,
B is bearing friction and
C is Aerodynamic drag which consist of skin friction
and the pressure drag.
1
• 𝐶𝐶 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 ; where ρ is the air density, A is the
2
cross sectional area in m2 and CMX is the mean
pressure drag coefficient
• Power = Train Resistance x Speed
• Lateral air displacements, [articularly around train
nose are accompanied by rapid changes in static
pressure which propagate laterally
• Major effect at train nose, smaller at tail
• Thump effect on passed train, rapid deformations
of the train bodyside
• Load on passed structure
• Peak to Peak Pressure change depends on:
- design of train nose and tail

Page 13
 - train speed squared
- Distance from train
• Mitigation: by rounding train nose corner
radii,lengthening the nose.
iii. Slipstream effects
• Train produce strong, mainly longitudinal airflows
due to viscous shearing of the train through the air.
• Gust components and turbulence caused by
discontinuities, e.g. intercar gaps, bogies
• Strong 3-D flow at nose and tail
• Freight trains generally worse than streamlined
passenger trains
• May cause hazardous conditions for trackside
workers and passengers on platforms
iv. Cross-wind effects
• Pantograph and vehicle design needs to consider
cross winds. Pantograph shroud help ensure the
current-collection quality
• Overturning–Protection: wind fences and wind
detection and warning system
28. Tunnel Aerodynamics
i. Pressure waves in tunnels
• Rapid pressure changes induced by entry and exit of
nose and tail of trains
• Pressures above and below atmospheric generated,
moving at sonic speed
• Train travels through the complex superposition of
waves
• Rapid changes over 4 seconds can cause discomfort
• Some pressure variations for the whole transit time
could be a safety issue
• Critical parameters: train speed, blockage ratio,
tunnel length, train length & type, train roughness,
tunnel roughness, presence of another train, entry
time of second train
• Mitigations: improve aerodynamic design of train,
reduce speeds, pressure seal trains, increase tunnel
area, include airshafts, modify entrances (flares and
porous), active pressure control
ii. Tunnel Sonic Boom
• Entry pressure wave steepens in certain tunnels
• Emitted energy in audible spectrum
• Environmentally unacceptable
• Solution: tunnel entrance hood or design the nose
of train to reduce the gradient of the nose entry
wave
iii. Induced airflows
• Safety problem for personnel in tunnel
• Niches and handholds increased resistance
• Airshafts, high velocities, acoustics
iv. Aerodynamic resistance in tunnel
• Increased significantly compared with opened air
• Maybe 2 – 20 times greater than open air
coefficient, with increased energy consumption
• Depends upon train speed and design, tunnel length,
blockage
Page 14
• Leads to increased power requirement, greater heat
deposition in the tunnel
• Cross-passages between twin bore tunnel can
reduce the resistance but increase the heat
problem
• Cooling system, ventilation
29. Aerodynamics Theoretical and Testing Techniques
• Full scale testing – measure the airflow on tracks in
open air or tunnels
• Wind Tunnel Testing –mount the model train in the
middle of the tubular passage. Air is made to move
past the object by a powerful fan system to
measure the aerodynamic forces, pressure
distribution and other related characteristics of the
train.
• Moving model testing (MM Rig)–measure the
transient aerodynamics of train using 1:25 scale
model train.Tunnel aerodynamics, open air
pressures and slipstreams.
• Theoretical methods– by Computation Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) and other method to solve the
fundamental flow equations.
30. Rolling Stock Maintenance
i. Reason for Maintenance
• Maintenance preserve the state or condition of
asset
• Ensure safe, reliability and efficient operation of the
rolling stock
• Ensure that faults are identified before train cause a
risk to both public and staff.
ii. Rail Vehicle Maintenance in UK
• RGS GM/RT 2000 – Engineering Acceptance of Rail
Vehicles must be complied with. To gain
engineering acceptance, a maintenance plan is
required.
• RGS GM/RT 2004 – Rail Vehcile Maintenance
mandates general requirements and some specific
requirements
• Certificate of engineering acceptance is issued by a
Conformance Certification Body (CCB) or Vehicle
Acceptance Body (VAB)
• An operator must have a safety management
system according to ROGS of ORR
• Entity in Charge of Maintenance (ECM) in place for
each vehicle
• An ECM is not necessarily the operator of the train
• The ECM should demonstrate that the maintenance
policy and management system satisfies the
requirement of Railway Groups Standards (RGS) for
that type of rail vehicle, Legislative requirements,
TSI compliance, competence management system.
iii. Maintenance Procedure
• Vehicle Maintenance Instructions (VMI) -
Inspection method and procedures of all trains
 • VMI also contains specification for repairs and • Includes both mileage and time exams
maintenance and the periodicity at which the x. Undertaking maintenance
maintenance should be carried out. • People must be trained and competent
• VMI system must have a user interface to keep it • To be competent, staff must be assess on regular
up to date and controlled. basis
• Document controller was responsible for the VMI • Not all tasks require competency, those that do are
update  Risky! safety critical
• Nowadays, electronic control of documents and • Safety critical works include brakes, doors, wheels,
centralized the document update process so that bogies.
one person can update documents for many depots xi. Performance
and fleets at once. • In UK, performance is measured by Public
iv. Maintenance Plan Performance Measure (PPM)
• Most vehicles own by ROSCOs • Train performance is measured in mile per
• ROSCOs are interested in maintain their assets technical incident (MTIN) = Mileage run / number
• Any change in maintenance plan, ROCOs will have of incidents
comment which is considered an engineering xii. Facilities
change. • Depot Near the railway • Train lifting equipment
• Change to maintenance could be: mileage • Fuel point • Pits or raised track
extensions, task changes or removal based on • Hazardous material • Wheel lathes and Wheel
condition assessments, modification to vehicles, storage drops
economics reasons • Place to store parts • Cranes
• Modifications due to: • Information and notice • Chemical storage
- Health & Safety requirements boards for staff • Traction electricity
- obsolescence • Welfare facilities for • Shore supply
staff • Bogie drop
- component or system unreliability
• Train Cleaning • Paint shop
- design deficiencies
v. Who will undertake the maintenance? • Scaffold or roof access
platform
• TOC, ROSCOs, Manufacturer, Independent
xiii. Maintenance Planning
Maintenance Company
• Trains are maintained to the planned periodicity
vi. Preventive
that is specified in VMI
• Exams & overhauls
• When a train is planned for maintenance repairs,
• Time or mileage based
modifications, cleaning and all other activities need
• Interval are determined statistically or from past
to be undertaken
experience
• Only limited time could be used for each train so
• Components replaced before failure so
management system is always useful
uneconomical
• Depot managers must manage planned
vii. Corrective
maintenance
• Component replace after failure
• Staff must be competence
• Low value non safety critical components (light
• Trains that require repair between planned
bulbs)
maintenance cause problems
• Only acceptable if safety is not compromised or
• Parts must be available
failure does not leave a train stranded
• Tools must be calibrated
viii. Condition Base Monitoring
xiv. Maintenance Output
• Sensor measure important parameters
• The train will be reliable if maintenance is right
• Automation determines current condition of
• Available trains earning revenue and not in the
components and orders replacement when
depot
components has deteriorated to critical point
• Depots maintain to a plan not reactively correct
• Maximise use of components
problems they didn’t plan for
• Complexity due to nature of systems
• Customer get what they expect for.
ix. Reliability Centre Maintenance
31. Acceptance of Rolling Stock **
• Statistical based maintenance programme
i. Acronyms
• Uses probability to assess likelihood of failure
AsBo Assessment Body
• Analysis the reliability of different components and
NoBo Notified Body
sub-system via statistical approach to determine DeBo Designated Body
the maintenance programme. (such as MTTF, MTTR, CP Competent Person
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), etc) NRAP Network Rail Assessment Panel
Page 15
 LONO Letter of No Objection
ROGS Railways and Other Guided Transport
Systems Regulations
CSM-RA Common Safety Method for Risk
Evaluation and Assessment
NSA National Safety Authority
Approve the SMS, in UK, that is ORR
RIR Railway Interoperability Regulation
SMS Safety Management System
LONO Letter of No Objection
ii. Four Approval Cert Required 34. VAMPIRE software
i. Vehicle Dynamic Modelling Package In a Railway
• Safety Verification Certificate – Design, Testing,
Environment
Service
ii. Eigenvalue Analysis – linear calculation of the natural
- Assessed by AsBo according to ROGSand CSM
frequencies and vibration modes of the vehicle
Regulation 352/2009
dynamics, such as yaw, pitch, bounce, upper sway,
- AsBo: checks the explicit risk analysis if required
lower sway.
by TSI or if applicant decided to apply it within the
iii. Static Analysis –recreate vehicle tests carried out on
CSM-RA
static vehicle in a workshop.
• Certificate of Verification – Intermediate, Final
iv. Transient Analysis – apply the movement of track to
- Accessed byNoBo, DeBoand CP
output vehicle response or wheel /rail forces
- NoBo: A third party who assess the
v. Curving Analysis – calculate steady state position and
interoperability and other technical requirement of
forces of vehicle passing a curves of specified radius
rolling stock against the TSI
and cant deficiency
- DeBo: Checks against Notified National Technical
35. Technical Requirement for Bogie**
Rules (NNTR) relating to open points and specific
i. Low Price – to keep vehicle price down
cases
ii. Fast – to allow trains to operate at maximum speed
- CP:works with a railway undertaking under ROGS
iii. Safe: to reduce damage to infrastructure
to verify the safety of a new system. CP must be
iv. Long life: To reduce the need for replacement
certified as an expert in their field and must not be
v. Flexible in Use: to allow bogie to be used with various
involved in the project
vehicle and service types
• NRAP Certificate – Compatibility (EMC, gauging,
vi. Comfortable: to give good ride quality
dynamics)
vii. Quiet: To reduce environmental impact
- Accessed by NRAP
viii. Easy to maintain – to reduce maintenance costs
- Technical and Safety acceptance relating mainly to
ix. Reliable: to improve fleet availability
Compatibility
x. Robust/Strong: to withstand forces imparted to bogie
• Product Acceptance Certificate – Fit for Purpose,
without causing damage
Proof of Safety
iii. Approval of Rolling Stock
• If new project does not introduce any new
technology or processes, it can be verified under
railway company’s own SMS
• If change does introduce new technology or
processes, an Independent Competent Person is
appointed to work with the railway company to
ensure that no additional risk is introduced
32. Mass Control of Rolling Stock
i. Factors that reduce the mass
• Use of electrification with no diesel tank
• Use of aluminium hollow body design for body
shell of train
• Use of disc brake instead of tread brake
• Hollow axles for wheelsets
ii. Factors that increase the mass
• Air-conditioning unit on the train
• Crashworthiness of the driving cab
• Complex suspension system?
33. Bathtub curve for components life
Page 16
LMR33 – Railway Traction System Design
1. Basic Electrical Principles
3. 3 phase inductionAC Motor
i. Capacitor: current leads voltage by 90o,
Xc = 1/2πfC;
ii. Inductor: current lags voltage by 90o,
XL = 2πfL;
X = |Z|sinθ, where |Z| = (R2 + X2)1/2θ = tan-1(X/R)
iii. Power Factor–ratio of real power to apparent
power. Caused by phase shift of current and
voltage or the harmonics
iv. Power Electronics
• Thyristor – continuous on until gate is
deenergized. highest current carrying
capacity, hot when operating, heat sink
required
• Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)– high current
carrying capacity, require large –ve current to
the gate to turn off
• Insulated-gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) –
can switch at very high frequency
v. 3 Phase Power Supplies
2. DC Motor
4.
i. Advantages and Disadvantages
• Lowest power to weight ratio
• Excellent low speed characteristics
• Dis: Heat management is important
• Dis: Brushes wear out and maintenance required
Page 17
• Dis: Carbon dust from brushes can short out the
commutator
i. Operating Principle
• 3 phase electrical supplies
• Nature of windings setup a rotating magnetic
field
• Constant magnetic field created if the phases
are balanced
• Magnet field induce voltage in the rotor bars
which are connected through shorting rings
(Faraday’s Law and Len’z Law)
• Current induced in the rotor create a rotor
field (Ampere’s Law)
• Interaction between stator and rotor field
produce a torque in the machine (Lorentz
Force)
ii. Asynchronous Motor
• Heat Management is not an issue
• Generally maintenance free
• Have slip between stator field speed and
armature speed
iii. Synchronous Motor
• Have coils in the armature power by DC
• Armature turns at same speed as field
• Better power factor than asynchoronous
motor
• Best power to weight ratio
• More complicated and more maintenance
iv. Permanent Magnet Motor
• Very efficient
• Very high power to weight ratio
• Can be DC, Asynchronous, Synchronous
• Expensive due to rare earth magnets
• Need to be kept cool
Traction Motor Control
i. Resistance Control – DC Motor
• Resistor are big and heavy
• Waste Energy – hot resistors
• Fine speed control is impossible without the
addition of more notches
• Need a lots of maintenance
 v. Curve Drag
• Curve drag = mK/R;
where m = mass of train in the curve
R = curve radius
K is an experimentally determined constant
(roughly 23000 m2s-2)
vi. Effective Mass:
ii. Chopper Control – DC Motor
• Total Mass = Tare Mass + payload
• Changing the length of pulses changes the amount
• Effective Mass: Me = Mt * (1 + λ) + payload;
of current flowing through the motor
where Mt = Tare Mass, λ = rotatory allowance
• AC ripple can cause EMI (5% - 15%)
• FT = μMgp; where p = proportion of motored axles

iii. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) – AC Motor

Example:25t axle load, 6 Axle Loco, 50 wagons@100t,
• IGBT best suit to PWM inverters due to high
Initial acceleration 0.6 ms-2, Adhesion=30% for loco, how
switching frequency
many locos required for pulling the wagons? Assume tare
• 3 PWM can create 3 phase supply
mass = 30t, payload = 70t, RA = 10%.
• PWM can easily create different frequencies of AC
For Wagon:
which is required for AC motor control
Effective mass = Mt(1 + RA) + payload = 30(1.1)+70 = 103t.
5. Basic Traction Equation
Total Eff. Mass of wagons = 103t x 50 = 5150t
i. Tractive Effort = urMDg;ur = adhesion coefficient;
Total TE required = F = ma = 5150k x 0.6 = 3090kN
MD = mass on powered wheels (kg); g = gravity
For Loco:
force (10N/kg)
Eff. Mass = Mt(1+RA) + payload = (6x25t)(1.1) + 0 = 165t
ii. Tractive Effort Curves
Total Eff. Mass of Locos = 165t x NL
Total TE delivered by Locos = uMg = (0.3)(150)(10) x NL=
450kN
Total TE generated by Locos should be larger than Total
TE required by mass of Locos and Wagons, therefore, by
F=ma, (165t)NLx (0.6) + 3090k ≤450kNL
NL ≥ 8.84. i.e. 9 locos are required.
Overall, the equation of T.E.:
[m(1+RA)+payload]*a = FT – FR – Mgsinα;

Balancing speed: acceleration = 0 ms-2 6. AC/DC Machine Types

iii. Davis Equation – Train Resistance i. Requirement of railway traction
• Train Resistance FR = A + Bv + Cv2, where • Good Torque Performance
A = Rolling resistance • Robust and reliable
B = Bearing Friction • Efficient
C = Aerodynamic Drag • Compatibility with other equipment
• Used for braking
• Low maintenance
• Low cost
• Able to control speed
• Quiet
ii. Torque

iv. Gradient Effect

• Linear force = Mgsinα= Mg/X, where X is the
gradient as 1 in X.

Page 18
iii. Squirrel Cage Rotor
iv. Methods of Excitation – Series, Shunt and Separate
• Torque = 𝒌𝒌𝑰𝑰𝒂𝒂 𝑰𝑰𝒇𝒇 , where in series, 𝑰𝑰𝒂𝒂 = 𝑰𝑰𝒇𝒇 , Torque =
𝑘𝑘𝑰𝑰𝒂𝒂 𝟐𝟐 , E = 𝒌𝒌′𝝎𝝎𝒓𝒓 𝑰𝑰𝒇𝒇 = 𝒌𝒌𝝎𝝎𝒓𝒓 ∅, whereE is back EMF,𝝎𝝎𝒓𝒓 is
machine speed,Ia is armature current and If is field
current
9. Electric Traction with Infrastructure Base Supply
i. Advantages
• No pollution at point of
use
• Separate source of armature is not recommended • “Unlimited” power
since when Vf fail, back EMF = 0V and the current Ia supply
become very large and burns the armature. • High overload capability • Environmental
• High Instantaneous
power
• Controllability
• Lower Tare load (no
fuel)
• Low Cost Energy
• Lower accident critically
• Lower rolling stock
maintenance cost
• Longer rolling stock life
Third Rail
• Advantages
- Low Cost solution
- Reduce Infrastructure
Cost for tunnel
• Drawbacks
- Limit power capability
- Safety of passengers
v. Definition of slip and maintenance staff
- difficult evacuation of
• 𝑠𝑠 = (𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 − 𝜔𝜔𝑟𝑟 )/𝜔𝜔𝑠𝑠 ;
passengers
where ws = w/p - Ice problem
ws = synchronous speed
wr = rotor speed OHLE
w = supply angular frequency • Advantages
p = number of pole pairs - Higher Voltage, lower
7. Inverter (DC to 3 phase AC) loss
- potential for more
powerful vehicles
10. Autonomous Traction System
i. Advantages ii. Drawbacks
• Simplified and • Greater Complexity of system
cheaper • On board source of energy or
infrastructure
• Little emission
8. PWM Converter losses
• Flexibility and ease
Page 19
ii. Drawbacks
• Infrastructure setup cost
• Infrastructure
maintenance cost
• Infrastructure reliability
influences
• Dependence on single
power supplier
• Transmission losses
• Potential for
electromagnetic
interference
• Risk of Electrocution
Fourth Rail
• Advantages
- Minimised Stay
current
- Segregation between
track circuit and traction
supply
• Drawbacks
- Expensive in first and
maintenance cost
- Complex junction
arrangement
- Ice problem
• Drawbacks
- Bigger tunnels and
greater clearances are
required
power
- increase the tare load
- increase the risk factor
- limit the operating distance
 of interoperability due to refuelling
• Easier limitation of - more restricted timetable
electro-magnetic • Environmental hazard of
interference spillage
• Variety of fuel • Price dependence on fuel
sources supplier
• Possibility for • Reduced or non-existent
stored energy regeneration capability
11. Hybrid System
i. Use more than one power source to drive the
vehicle and usually include an energy storage device
(ESD)
x. Four Stroke CI cycle
ii. ESD provide short bursts of power for acceleration
and steep grades, etc.
iii. Able to recovering energy from regenerative
braking
iv. Fuel cell / diesel is the most common type.
v. Neither the fuel cell nor diesel generator can
provide sufficient power for train’s peak power
requirement.
vi. Diesel generate electricity to charge the fuel cell
vii. When the cell fully charged, the generator shut
down and the train run by fuel cell power.
xi. Comparison of Two and Four Stroke
Advantages Disadvantages
i. 2-Stroke ii. 4-Stroke
- reduced fuel - expensive technology
• Inlet controlled by • Inlet of air and outlet of
consumption - battery performance issue
piston movements, exhaust gases controlled
- quieter - battery life issue
outlet of exhaust gases by cam operated valves
operation - battery charge state is important
by valves • Suitable for low,
(too full when braking and too empty
• Cannot go to high speed medium and high speed
when full power required)
• Incomplete combustion engine
due to early start of • Complete combustion
exhaust achievable
• High temperature cycle • Some loss of power
• Every stroke is a working during non-working
stroke stroke
• Good power to weight • More parts, more
ratio maintenance
• Use less fuel would • More complicate design
achieve complete • Large in size and not
12. Diesel Traction System combustion but extra O2 easy to fit in the train
viii.Types of Ignition : Spark Ignition and Compression will combine with N2 and
Ignition rust the engine
Spark Ignition (SI) Compression Ignition (CI) xii. Forced Air Induction
• Otto Cycle and • Diesel cycle • Supercharger
stationary diesels • High compression ratio - mechanically connected to the engine
• Low compression ratio • Ignition due to injection - compressor driven by enginecrankshaft
• Ignition due to spark in of fuel into hot gas - use some energy
petrol/air mixture • Heat input at constant - no lag which increase in power demand
• Heat input at constant pressure during • Turbocharger
volume until mixture injection - compressor driven by exhaust gases
has burnt completely • Ignition control by - uses waste heat
• Ignition control by spark timing of fuel injection - time delay between engine increase in speed and
timing point turbo increase in boost pressure
ix. Method of Operation: Two Stroke CI cycle – xiii. Hydrostatic and Hydrodynamic Systems
Induction (Suck), Compression (Squeeze), • Hydrostatic – fluid pressure based, light weight and
Combustion(Bang), Exhaust(Blow) high power ratings, variable displacement pump,
• Suck and blow happen at the same time. fixed displacement motors

Page 20
 • Hydrodynamic – Fluid flow based transmission,
Torque converters allow engine to run at optimal
speed.
xiv. Exhaust Gas Recirculation
• Some of the exhaust is returned to the engine to be
reburned
• Reduce pollution but also engine power and
efficiency
• Exhaust gas temperature and pressure must be
lowered
• Increase particulates requiring exhaust filters
• Unburned carbon particulates can end up in the oil
and reduce engine life
xv. Bio-fuel
• Sustainability Concerns:Food competition,
biodiversity (forest clearance), Water and soil
resources, Greenhouse gas balance
• Fungus Concerns:some lifeforms still find bio-diesel
edible. This fungus consumes the bio-diesel, grows
and reproduces in fuel tanks and gets sucked into
the engine where it blocks the fuel filters.
13. AC Feeding Circuit
14. Booster Transformer
i. Use 1:1 ratio transformers to draw return current
into a special return conductor
ii. Reduce the ground leakage current at considerable
depth (several hundred meters)
15. Autotransformer System
16. Brake Requirements
i. Continuous–available throughout each and every
vehicle of the train
ii. Automatic – automatically apply in the event that
the continuous element of the brake system has
been interrupted
Page 21
iii. Inexhaustible– sufficient braking energy stored on
each and every vehicle of the train to ensure that
vehicle can be safely stopped
iv. Graduable– facilitate progressive variation of the
brake force during both brake application and
release
17. Brake Functions
i. Stop the train from all speeds
ii. Maintain the static train condition, parking and
holding brake
iii. Regulate the train speed with loads and in all
conditions
18. Braking Types
i. Tread Brake
• Brake block forced against wheel tread
• Complicated and heavy linkage
• Tread is cleaned thus improving adhesion
• Brake blocks traditionally cast iron and friction
reduce when it heats up
ii. Disc Brake
• Caliper forces brake pad against a disc
• Lighter, simpler installation
• Adhesion can suffer if wheel gets covered in
gunge
• Discs on wheel and Discs on axle
iii. Axle Mount Disc
• Discs must dissipate a lot of heat
• Needs good airflow around the bogies
• Conflicts with the works of aerodynamicists
• Vent discsgive better heat dissipation
• Sinteredbrake pads are made from secret
formulae
iv. Dynamic Brake
19. Braking Energy Types
i. Straight Air & Vacuum Brakes
• Air from the main reservoir is used directly to apply
brakes
• Mainly used as locomotive brakes
• Not fail safe
ii. Vacuum brake
• Brakes release when air is exhausted from cylinder
• Limited brake force
• Heavy due to large piston area
iii. Single and Two pipe automatic air brake
• Completely mechanical System
• Charging train pipe applies brakes and reducing
pressure in train pipe applies brakes
• Relies on an auxiliary reservoir and a ‘triple valve’
on each wagon
• Infinitely graduable application but requires skill to
get the right reduction on long freight trains
• Release can only be complete
• Mostly fail safe
• Two pipe automatic air brake system keep the
auxiliary reservoir charge to allow graduated
release and prevent runaways

iv. Flashing Rear End Device (FRED)
• Rear end devices monitor the brake pipe pressure
and transmit to head end
• Cannot initiate service brake but can initiate
emergency brake.
v. Electro-pneumatic (EP) brake
• EP electrically controlled valves to control the air in
the brake system
• Two types: infinitely graduable and stepped
• Infinitely graduable
- like two pipe system
- application valve is installed between the main
reservoir pipe and the brake cylinder
- holding valve is installed between the triple valve
and the exhaust
- opening and closing these valves in conjunction
with main brake pipe reduction controls the brakes
• Stepped system
- the driver’s brake handle has a number of discrete
steps, each one corresponding to a different brake
rate
- each brake demand step energizes or not a
number of wires
- The wires run the length of the train and control a
multistep relay valve
- each step of the relay valve varies the pressure in
the brake system
• EP brake demand is transmitted along the train
instantaneously
• graduated release is also possible
vi. Electro-hydraulic brake
• Little used in mainline since fail to safety issue on
mainline railways
Page 22
• Reasonably common for special applications
• Some metros use spring actuated brakes which are
released hydraulically
• Very light and compact installation
• Problems connecting vehicles: messy train line,
each vehicle has its own hydraulic pump
vii. Eddy-current brakes
• Electromagnet is held just above rail
• Energising magnet causes eddy current in rail,
resulting in retarding force
• Large power requirement and rail heating problems
viii. Track Brakes
• Used mainly on trams and metros
• Energised and brought into contact with rail
• Friction between brake and rail slows vehicle
• Increasing magnet strength increases brake rate;
• For parking and emergency braking
• Quite heavy
• Can be powered by energy from dynamic brakes or
batteries
ix. Electro-dynamic (ED and hydro-dynamic) (HD)
brakes
• Dynamic braking uses traction motor as a generator
• Only works when the axles are rotating, hence
called “dynamic”
• Regenerative braking: feed energy back to supply
system. (But waveform is bad and with many
harmonics. Only suitable for infrastructure based
supply)
• Rheostatic braking: dissipate energy using resistors.
• Suitable for all electric drive
• Regeneration only works if there are other trains on
the network using power or substation has
expensive equipment to send power back to the
mains.
• Traction motors do not generate same amount of
electricity at different speeds
• Friction brakes will need  keep total brake force
constant (Blending)
20. Managing Poor Adhesion
i. Drive Slower
ii. Railhead friction modifier
iii. Wheel Slip and Wheel Slide Protection (WSP)
iv. Sand
• Single Shot by driver in emergency
• Manual – driver has a button to apply sand
• Automatic – detectors notice wheel slide and apply
automatically.
• Sand can interfere with track circuit and S&C
21. Conventional DEMU Engine
22. Freight Train normally use autonomous traction:
i. Freight train may cross boarder which may have
interoperability issue of electric traction.
ii. Yard and unloading facilities are normally un-
electrified
iii. Freight operates over longer distances where stable
electrification may not be available.

Page 23
LMR34 – System Engineering
1. What is system engineering**
i. An interdisciplinary process to help ensure that a
project is successful in terms of performance
requirements, management,timescales, budget,
maintenance, etc.
ii. Why it is important for railway?
because railway is complex system which has many
stakeholders with different background and
requirement
iii. System Engineering Lifecycle Model
iv. The Cost Influence Curve (McNulty 2011)
2. RM tool - Systems Engineering Environments (SEE)
i. Store and maintain requirements and functional
and physical modelling.
ii. SEE can provide a requirement database and record
how they change during the project
iii. Useful for configuration management
iv. Support traceability
v. E.g. DOORS, CORE, etc.
3. System Integration**
i. The consideration of how a set of components
interact with one another during the entire life
cycle of a system.
ii. Why it is important for railway?
because there are many subsystems and critical
interface in railway system
4. Vee Process Model***
Page 24
5. Requirement***
i. Successful Project: a project that satisfy all
requirements, including technical requirement,
time and cost. (e.g. HS1)
ii. Failure project: a project that cannot meet all
requirements. (e.g. Jubilee Extension line)
iii. Traceability**
• Provides a linkage betweenrequirements,
functions and physical decomposition.
• Rich traceability also capture the reasoning for
the decisionbeing made and provide decision
history for future reference.
iv. Requirement Management: the process of
documenting, analysing, tracing, prioritizing and
agreeing on requirements and then controlling
changes and communicating to relevant
stakeholders.
v. Requirement Management Activities
vi. Writing Good Requirements – CCTT ***
• Clarity–(Requirements should be) clear and
understandable
• Consistency – should notcontradictthemselves or
other requirements of systems
• Traceability –meet the parent requirement or
higher level requirements or missions
• Testability–should be verifiable to facilitate the
specifications of test criteria
6. Project Management ***
i. Time and Scope management.
• Limit Programme and technology risk
ii. Cost Management
• Human, financial equipment resource
management
iii. Quality Management
iv. Safety Risk
• Management of technical and operational risk
 • Assurance and documentation of safety risk iii. Type of relationship
containment • Generalisation– Object A is a type of Object
v. Change Management B(CAR – 4 x 4)
• Provision and control of asset information • Composition– Object A is composed of Object B
• Configuration Management (Human – Emotion)
7. System Engineering *** • Aggregation– Object A is an aggregate of Object B
i. Requirement Management (Mug of Coffee – Milk)
• Requirement elicitation and requirement iv. Requirement Modelling
management • Use Case diagram – define functional and
• Definition of system and subsystem specification operational requirements in user’s language by
ii. Performance and Technical Risk defining the scenarios by which value is delivered
• Modelling of operational performance to the users
• Evaluation of robustness of technical options
iii. Cost and Capability
• Development of optimised system options
• Human, equipment and operations integration
iv. Quality System Design
• Creation of quality management system
v. Configuration Management
• Provision and control of asset information
• Development of configuration management
system
8. Configuration Management
i. To ensure that changes to a subsystem are
controlled such that the consideration is given to v. Functional Decomposition Modelling
the interfaces with other systems • Sequence Diagram
ii. It also ensures that changes to designs and
subsystems in the course of a major project are
checked for consistency and conformance
throughout the development process
9. Functional Decomposition***
i. Contains only functions and is used to decide
whatneeds to be achieved to satisfy the client/
stakeholders
ii. IDEF0, Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD), Data • Functional Flow Block Diagram (FFBD)
Flow Diagram (DFD), State-chart Diagram, Sequence • Interconnects blocks (which represent
10. Physical Decomposition *** functions) using arcs and logic (AND, OR,
i. Carried out after functional decomposition. Iterate)
ii. Shows how the system is to be achieved
iii. Mapping between functional and physical domains
is needed.
iv. Physical hierarchy
11. Swiss Cheese Model

12. What is Modelling ***

i. Definition – a simplified description, especially a
mathematical one, of a system or process, to assist
calculations and predications.
ii. Descriptive text, diagrams and technical drawings
are all models.
• Integrated Definition Language 0 (IDEF0) – an
input is transformed into an output by the
activity using mechanism under the control

Page 25
 13. System Safety Activities
i. Understand system of interest
ii. Identify&evaluate safety risks
iii. Develop means of controlling safety risks
iv. Verify effectiveness of controls
v. Provide evidenceof acceptable safety
vi. Repeat activities& maintain safety throughout
system life
vii. Hazard risk = severity x likelihood
viii.Failure is an event, Fault is a state
ix. Systematic failure – failures due to flaws in design,
manufacture, installation, maintenance
x. Random failure – failures due to physical causes
14. What is System of System (SoS)? ***
• Data Flow Diagram(DFD) – combine elements of i. System – A collection of different elements that
enhanced FFBDs and IDEF0 together produce results not obtainable by the
elements alone.
ii. System of System – is the viewing of multiple,
dispersed, independent systems in context as part
of a large, more complex system
iii. Characteristics of SOS
• Managerial, development and operational
independence
• Rapid requirement development
• Multiple stakeholder with conflicting needs and
little incentive to work together
• Emergence resulting from the inter-system
interactions
• Often the system are geographically dispersed
and are connected through a network.
15. Risk Control Process - IACMMR

• Statechart Diagrams show the transition of one

even to the next in a process

16. Reliability, Availability and Maintainability (RAM)

i. Reliability - the probability that a system perform
its defined functionover a given time period.(MTBF
= 1/failure rate) (system failure rate = sum of
component failure rates)
ii. Availability –the percentage of timea system is
available for use.(Uptime / (Uptime + Downtime) or
MTBF / (MTBF + MTTR))
vi. Physical Decomposition Modelling iii. Maintainability – probability that a system can be
• Hierarchy restored to its required function in a specific time
(MTTR)
iv. Dependability – a combination of Reliability,
Availability and Safety

Page 26
 iv. Antisocial hour work
v. Dangerous work place
vi. High levels of responsibility, little authority
vii. Need for high reliability organisations
viii.Regulator y influences must be managed
21. Level of Automation
i. Parasuraman and Sheridan stage model for task
E.g. Availability = (t1+t3+t5)/T; MTBF =(t1+t3+t5)/2;MTTR that could be automated
=(t2 + t4)/2
v. Reliability Block Diagram (RBD)

System Availability = Am x Ap,where Ap = [1 – (1-An)(1-

Az)]
17. Event Tree Analysis *** ii. Automation and System Performance (Onnasch et
al)
• Routine Performance improves; failure
performance declines; Workload reduce
progressively;Loss of SA grows steadily.

18. Fault Tree Analysis ***

iii. Advantages of Fully Automation Operation (FAO)

• Provide more regular and predictable run times,
more uniform ride quality and reduce wear-and-
AND = A*B, P(A)*P(B); OR = A+B; P(A) + P(B) – P(A)*P(B) tear of train propulsion and braking
19. Seven Dimensions of Railway Complexity – Variability, • Driverless reduce the variations in line operations
Diversity, Dispersion, Coupling, Interaction, Asset Life, • Reduce operating staff cost
Regulation & Standard • Optimize the energy consumption by controlling
the train acceleration, coasting and braking
• Elimination of human error
iv. Grade of Automation (GOA)
• GoA0 – no automatic protection or control
• GoA1 – manual driving with ATP
• GoA2 – ATP + driver initiated ATO (Driver control
the door close and open)
• GoA3 –ATP + ATO initiated by non-driving on
board staff
• GoA4 – Full ATO without staff on board
v. Perrow’s view of organization**

20. Ergonomics in Railway are challenging

i. Large numbers of very distributed staff
ii. Complex and legally binding hierarchies
iii. Many repetitive job

Page 27
LMR35 – Infrastructure System Design
1. Rail Infrastructure
2. Route Selection
i. Geographic Features – hills, valley, rivers, urban
environment
ii. Gradients- Cuttings, Embankments, Bridges,
Tunnels, Viaducts
iii. Underlying Geology - rock, sand, clay, gravel, etc.
• Affect the stability of cuttings and embankments
• Affect the tunnelling by depth, direction and
method
• Affect the surface track by service performance,
stability, durability
• Ground investigations are essential before design.
iv. Environment
• Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA)
• Airborne Noise and Ground borne noise (vibration)
• People and animals living nearby
v. Non-infrastructure considerations–
• Passenger considerations – limit acceleration
from stop / to stop, limit lateral accelerations,
limit vertical accelerations, limit jerk rate
• Politicalconsiderations – NIMBYs, politicians may
want to build route through the middle of their
home town.
• Environmental – archaeology and rare species
• Vehicle Characteristics –minimum radius
requirements, high speed operations require large
radii, heavy haul operation require minimum
gradient (< 1%), traction and braking
characteristics
• Utilities and Underground services – pipes, gas
mains, water supplies, electricity cables,
communication cables. Electric railways cause
corrosion of metal pipe.
3. Drainage
i. Proper drainage in Track bed for long term stability,
less maintenance and cheaper infrastructure.
Page 28
ii. Source: Rain, runs off nearby hills, rises from
beneath (water table can rise and fall over the time),
water from tunnel wall, nearby watercourses can
burst their banks, water drip from trains.
4. Jerk Rates – rate of change of acceleration
5. Sleepers
i. Wood Sleeper
• Lightweight
• Flexible and better load spreading
• Less ballast attrition
• Shorter lifespan
• Rails/chairs can be spiked, bolted or screwed
ii. Concrete Sleeper
• Heavy – 300kg
• Very stiff, poor load spreading, susceptible to
poorly regulated ballast
• No damping but high mass increases track overall
damping
• Hard on the ballast
• Pre-cast-in fixings reduce the track gauge options
• Cheaper than steel and wood sleepers
iii. Steel Sleeper
• Lighter than concrete
• Easy to transport
• Spade ends resist later movement
• Rust
• Expensive than concrete but cheaper than wood
• Low trackform height
• Difficult to tamp ballast underneath them
• Rail pads are required to insulate rails
• Not practical for 3rd and 4th rail electrification
iv. Twin / Double Block Sleeper
• Used for light rail, trams and on high speed lines
• Excellent lateral stability due to additional faces
• Still requires a proportion of normal sleepers to
resist traction and braking forces
• Tamping needs to be done with care due to low
stiffness
• Could be used in slab track
6. Jointed Track
i. Track is laid with short rails (60ft)
ii. Rail ends bolted together with fishplates
iii. Rail can crack from boltholes
iv. Over time, the joint dips give rise to P1 and P2
forces
v. Require bonding for signalling or traction currents
7. Continuously Welded Rail (CWR)
i. Rail surface is under compression due to rolling. The
interior is under tension due to reaction force of
surface tension.
ii. Rail comes in quarter mile lengths
iii. Laid and welded together
iv. Rail is tensioned to allow for thermal changes in
length
v. Need insulated joints for track circuit
 vi. Stress free temperature is 27oC (Thermal Stress vibration problem • Upgrade or renewal is
present whenever T <> 27oC) • Difficult to get to buried difficult compare with
8. Ballasted Track services ballasted track
i. Function of Ballast • Cheap alternative is • High capital costs
• Drains water from base of sleepers (bearers in ballast gluing • Not reusable and
S&C) • Low whole life cycle cost renewable materials
• Spreads load of passing trains • Tunnel construction cost
for slab track is lower
• Provides resilient support
than ballast track
• Holds track in position
iv. Floating Slab Track
• Allow easy repositioning of track
• Track slab laid on resilient bearings, such as bearing
• Equi-axedangular shape and hard material pad or spring for vibration absorption, and the
(granite) foundation slab
• Good bearing capability and high frictional • Provides advantages of slab track with increased
resistance. resilience. Greatly reduce the noise and vibration
• Good abrasion resistance, non-conducting and generated to the structures.
relatively constant electrical resistance • But it is complex to construct, difficult to maintain the
ii. Tamping bearings, difficult to seal between slabs
• adjust the vertical profile and lateral alignment
geometry of the rails.
• Tamping machine – raise the track to the desired
level and create a void. Inserts tines into ballast
and squeeze the ballast to move to the void.
• The frequency of intervention may change when
tamping causes damage to ballast.
v. Direct Fixation

iii. Cleaning
iv. Ballast Memory • The track slab of direct fixation with baseplates

• The resultant track profile after tamping rapidly bolted to the concrete slab directly
• Difficult to construct since required a deep, heavily
assumes its original pre-tamp condition.
v. Regulating reinforced slab.
• Reinforcing needs to be accurately positioned to
vi. Renewal
vii. Stoneblowing – lift up the rail and sleeper. Use allow space to drill holes to affix baseplates to slab.
small ballast injected to ballast. Reduce the ballast vi. Embedded Sleeper
memory • Widely adopted in metro tunnels
viii. Ballast Glue – stick the ballast on the surface of • Like standard track form which replaces the ballast
the ballasted profile to prevent the aerodynamics layer with concrete.
effect of high speed rail. • Rail-sleeper is well understood  accurately
9. Slab Track or Ballastless track – Ballast layer is modelled
replaced by a “bound layer”*** • pre-casted in factory and embedded into concrete
i. Why slab track is considered? slab in the tunnels or viaducts
• Track Access • sleepers are manufactured in factory to accurate
• Metro systems or LRTs tolerance
• Tunnels, Bridges and Viaducts where access for • The site concrete can be low specification provided
maintenance is restricted. that the foundation is suitable.
• Ground condition are unable to support ballast • Dis: The reinforcement is difficult to fix
track. • Dis: Cold joints between the sleeper and slab
ii. Advantages iii. Disadvantage • Dis: void underneath sleepers can form if concrete is
• Low Maintenance • Less flexible not properly poured.
• Very Rigid Track Bed adjustments ballasted • Embedded Sleeper - Low Vibration Track (LVT)
may cause noise and track • Construction quick and simple

Page 29
 • High accuracy track tolerances
• Dis: Maintenance of rubber boot is difficult
• Dis: water ingress into the rubber boot area can
be a problem
vii. Embedded Rail
• Rails embedded directly into concrete slab or other
material (Edilon).
• Insulated from surroundings  prevent stray current
issues
• can also been used for vehicle crossing areas
• Rail is continuously supported and has been used for
Tramway and Light Rapid Transit (LRT) many years
• System only suitable for low speed
• Dis: no resilience
• Dis: no adjustment
• Dis: difficult to align rail accurately during
construction
• Dis: destroy the expensive embedment material
when maintenance is required
10. Frequency of track inspection depends on:
i. Traffic
ii. Tonnage
iii. Normally every 2 weeks in UK
11. Switching and Crossing
i. Swing Nose Crossing
ii. Single Slip
iii. Double Slip
iv. Turnouts
v. Diamond Crossing
12. Embankment and Cuttings
13. Gauging and Kinematic Envelop (KE)
i. Purpose
• Assessing whether rail vehicle will infringe on the
infrastructure along the rail track
• Assessment of opportunity to maximise the
carrying capacity of the railway infrastructure
• Traditionally: check if the rolling stock fits
designed infrastructure corridor.
• Increasingly: a tool for route development,
allowing faster, wider, taller and longer vehicles
ii. Loading Gauge***
• Maximum permitted cross-sectional dimensions
of vehicles
iii. Structure Gauge
• A set of measurements referenced to the rails
which defines the minimum cross-section to be
left clear of any structure
iv. Kinematic Envelop
• Developed from vehicle’s cross section allowing
for maximum suspension travel
• Cross section of the vehicle chosen at the point
where maximum deflection(movement) occurs
v. Dynamic Envelop
• Space taken up by a rail vehicle as it travels along
a route with minimum radius curves and reverse
curves while using the full kinematic envelope
Page 30
• Effectively, the dynamic envelope is a virtual
‘tunnel’ along the alignment
• Key elements: Centre and end throws, Track
movement
14. Track Gauge Measurement
i. Simple method – pole and tape
• A group of workers go along the track armed with
a tape measure and a adjustable pole.
• Measure the location of structures relative to the
rails
• Accuracy is low (+/- 10mm)
• Speed is very low (15 min / measurement)
• Low Cost
• Do not provide continuous measurement
ii. Accurate Method (Laser Profilers, Scanner)
• Could be vehicle or trolley based systems
• Laser devices are pulled along a trolley at slow
speed
• Laser device measures the distance to nearby
structures
• Accuracy is very good (+/- 3mm)
• Speed is slow to medium (up to 30km/h)
• High cost
iii. Fast Method (measuring trains)
• Measuring trains can be equipped with scanning
devices
• Use light source and cameras to determine the
structure position
• Accuracy is poor (+/- 30mm)
• Speed is high (70 km/h)
• Cost is medium
• Structure gauging train is upgraded to use laser
scanners which will increase the speed to 110
km/h. Only work at night
15. Vehicle Gauging
i. When new trains are procured or old trains need
to run new routes
ii. Comparative Gauging (Shadow Gauging)
• Reference vehicles (which is larger than new
vehicle) used to provide a shadow in which new
train may run
• Not necessary to know clearances of reference
vehicle but no longer allowed.
iii. Absolute Gauging
• Compare the K.E. of a vehicle with the measured
size of the infrastructure
• Old days calculated by hand, now done on
computer
• Allows maximum use of the available space
• Reduces the cost of expanding the structure
gauge but increase the cost on analysis.
16. Interoperability
i. EU decreed that all high speed and most
conventional rail vehicles from one member
country should be able to operate on the rail
system of another country
 ii. Technical Specifications for Interoperability (TSI)
define platform, train control power and similar
interfaces. (High Speed Interoperability and
Conventional Interoperability)
iii. Not only the loading gauges different size, the
structure gauge also.
iv. European platofrms are much lower
v. Eurostars have a complicated mechanism to allow
them to operate at both UK and European
platforms
17. Train to platform interface
18. Culverts
i. A culvert is part of the embankment.
ii. Culverts are passages through the embankments for
drainage, canals, roads or footpaths.
iii. Could be made of stone, brick, steel, cast iron,
concrete or plastic
iv. Culvert for water courses must be designed to be
able to handle the peak flows through it without
backing up.
v. It must be able to withstand the load from passing
trains
vi. New culverts can be installed by jacking
19. Bridges
i. Underbridge (bridge under the rail) and overbridge
(bridge over the rail)
ii. Superstructure – spanning part of the bridge
iii. Abutment – support weight of bridge and loads
iv. Bridge Bearing – Support superstructure and
transfer load to abutment Allow thermal expansion
of bridge
v. Pier –Intermediate supports for superstructure
vi. Standard Bridge Materials
• Stone/masonry/brick – cheap and readily
accessible. Heavy, very durable, good in
compression, very poor in tension, labour
intensive construction, very long life if waterproof
is maintained.
Page 31
• Wood– light weight, cheap, flexible, readily
accessible, easy to replace individual pieces, good
for covering soft ground, not very durable, okay in
compression and tension
• Metal (Iron and Steel)–steel isgood in
compression and tension, used mostly in arches,
easy to mass produce pieces, noisy, subject to
corrosion
• Reinforced concrete– composite material made
up of steel strands/rods/cables in concrete matrix,
steel carries tensile load, good in compression,
reinforced good in tensionexcellent for piers and
abutments, subject to concrete decalcification,
cheap
• Pre-stressed concrete– same composition,
reinforcing is tensioned before concrete is poured,
once concrete is set, tensioning is released,
residual compressive stresses in concrete increase
strength
• Post stressed concrete– same composition, first
pour the concrete, tensioning is applied once
concrete is set, residual compressive stresses in
concrete increase strength
vii. Load and Forces Acting on the Bridges
• Tare weight of bridge
• Weight of railway infrastructure
• Wind, rain, ice and snow
• Forces due to temperature changes
• Bridge strikes (road, ship)
• During construction
• Static Weight of trains
• Dynamic force of trains (Vertical, Lateral
viii. Beam
• Load is carried by opposing forces in bridge
• Steel girder bridge
• Pre-stressed and post stressed concrete now
popular
ix. Arch
• Load is supported in compression
• Suited in masonry, brick, cast iron and steel
x. Truss
• Uses material in both tension and compression
• Many different design
• Light weight
xi. Cantilever
• A balanced structure
• Turning moment required at pier
xii. Cable Stay
• Load is carried by cables up to a tower
• Tower needs to resist bending
• Spans > 1000m
xiii. Suspension
• Load is carried by cable in tension
• Light weight
• Span now measured in km
• Not many railway only bridges due to high cost
 • Requires huge cable anchors on each shore
xiv. Ballasted Track on bridge
• Allows independent control of line and top
• Better distributes train forces
• Much added weight
• Make assessment difficult
• Can promote corrosion in steel bridges
xv. Direct fixation on bridge
• Light weight
• Good line and top geometry
• Direct fixation on bridge may transmit more
vibration to bridge
• Noise
xvi. Slab Track on bridge
• Very rigid trackbed and quite heavy
• Quick to install
• Economical in terms of whole life costs
xvii. Problem of Bridge
• Fatigue and corrosion– deflection is usually limiting
factor thusbridges are usually resistant to fatigue,
protection for corrosion is needed.
• Noise and vibration–Train produce wide spectrum
of forces, different types of bridges have different
frequency responses. Thus, bridge are noisy and
produce ground-borne vibration. Keep the natural
frequencies of different modes far enough apart so
that they don’t excite each other.
• Falling ice
• Derailment of trains – guard rails are put in to
lower the risk of bridge being struck by the train
and help stop the train from falling off
xviii. Bridge Construction Site Choice
• Close to proposed route
• Ground condition survey – how big the abutment
should be
• Where you put the bridge may constrain type
• A big work site for materials and fabrication
• As part of an overall route selection process that
includes tunnels, curves and gradients
xix. Bridge Erection and Pre-cast span Method
xx. Bridge Assessment
• Bridge deteriorate due to age, wear and tear
• Reduce load carrying capabilities
• Higher stresses are used than in design(+20%)
• RT/CE/P/016 “Assessment of bridge capacity”
states that bridge must be assessed every 18 years
• Visual inspection every year
Page 32
• Detailed inspection every 6 years
• Changed circumstances (traffic or speed) or
intermediate result can bring forward assessment
• RT/CE/P/019 “Prioritisation of bridge assessments”
concentrates resources on high risk bridges
xxi. Route Availability = means of ensuring trains do
not overload the bridge.
• Used to decide whether or not it is safe for a train
to travel over a particular route
• 2 part system expresses the max load a bridge can
support and the load a vehicle imposes on a bridge
• Haphazard development based on LNER
classification of all vehicles into 10 groups (RA1 to
RA10)
• Bridge can have more than one RA number, e.g.
RA6 at 100 mph and RA10 at 60 mph.
• Vehicle Route Availability – varies with bridge span
(short spans give a higher RA number)
• Train cannot run over a route unless vehicle RA is
less or equal to route RA. To run vehicle with
higher RA, further calculations need to be done to
determine speed restriction.
xxii. Maintenance and Repair
• 120 year design life specified in BS5400 is attempt
to quantify a realistic life for a structure, assuming
PM is in place.
• Live of bridge depends on original design and
detailed properly, workmanship was of required
standard during construction, environment
(corrosion), foundation scour, maintenance, actual
load compared with design assumptions, being
struck, material used (masonry is very long life) and
type of bridge.
• If structure is not fit to carry present traffic or want
to increase load or speed, the major maintenance,
strengthening or reconstruction should be carried
out.
20. Tunnelling
i. Cut and Cover
• Construct from surface  create trench tunnel is
constructed from concrete trench is backfilled
• Removing uncertainties associated with the ground
• Difficult in urban areas since very disruptive
• Often cheapest but extremely expensive for depths
> 30m
ii. Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM)
• Objective: Remove Material, Balance Water
Pressure, Manage face pressure (prevent
over/under pressure and blow out / collapse), Max
Advance rate, Max safety.
• Earth Pressure Balancing(EPB)TBM
• Slurry TBM
iii. Sprayed Concrete Construction
• Hard Rock
• Balance flexible support and ground movement
 • Early installation of support leads to high lining • Accuracy depends on number of satellites in view
loads and can be affected when in cuttings and in cities
• Evaluate deformation vs lining stiffness with tall buildings.
• Soft Ground • Completely useless in tunnels
• Requires support asap after exaction • within 3 meters accuracy
• In urban areas, settlement limitations can govern • costly
iv. New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) 22. Switching and Crossing
v. Spray Concrete Lining (SCL)
21. Track Geometry Measurement
i. Twist – ballast under one track sink more than
another track
ii. Cyclic top -
iii. Top deterioration and Line deterioration – tamping
needed
iv. 3 point smoothing–reference chord is drawn
between A & B.Point C is raised till it lies on
reference chord. If used on curve, the radius is
needed to calculate the required slew. Error is
introduced since A and B is not on plane.

i. Swing Nose Crossing

v. 4 point smoothing–reference chord is drawn ii. Actuation, Locking and Detection (ALD)
between A & B. Measuring point D allows greater iii. Key parameters GLD: guidance, load transfer,
accuracy. Point C is raised till it lies above reference derailment risk, size and speed
chord by amount determined by distance D. If used iv. Types of S&C
on curve, the calculation of required slew is no • In Street – Urban transportation system,Routes
longer needed. Error is introduced since reference share with cars, grooved rails embedded in
chord is not lie in plane of restored track. roadway, small radius turnouts and wide-angle
diamonds, Flange-running wheels
• Light Rail–localised railway system with light axle
loads, small radius turnouts and wide angle
diamonds, flange-running wheels
vi. Normal Distribution– the track geometry follow the
• Rapid Transit – urban high speed service,
normal distribution. The lower the standard
elevated , ground level and underground,
deviation, the better the track geometry and match
ballasted and non-ballasted
the alignment of the route map.
vii. New Measurement Train (NMT) • Mixed Traffic– country-wide network, carries
both passenger and freight traffic, wide variety of
• Track recording trainwith instrument
S&C applications
• Measures line, top, twist and gauge variations
• High Speed Mixed Traffic – Passenger & freight,
• Speed at 100 mph (160 km/h)
Heavy section rail, robust high-tolerance S&C,
• Data can downloaded into tamper / stoneblower
Swing Nose crossings, regular maintenance,
for track geometry restoring. But initial
reliable system
positioning should be synchronised.
• Passenger Dedicated High Speed – Optimised
viii. Design lining
geometry and fine tolerances, swing nose
• Track position is measured relative to off track
crossings
reference points.
• Heavy Haul – Freight trains only, heavy axle loads,
• Datum plates are placed on platform faces, OHLE
robust S&C, Heavy section rail, Remote locations,
masts, tunnel walls, etc.
Swing nose crossings
• Can remove very long wavelength faults.
• Novel Forms – rubber tyred vehicle systems,
• Can be used where unconstrained track
centre-guide switch for Taipei, Angular movement
movement is not possible.
joints for bridges
ix. Differential GPS Lining
23. Dynamic Vehicle/Track Forces
• Use DGPS to determine track position
i. P0 force - static
• Quicker than design lining method but not as
ii. P1 force – high frequency and amplitude
accurate
iii. P2 force – relatively lower frequency and produce
most damage to the track.
Page 33
 iv. P2 = 0.7𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼�𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢 , 𝛼𝛼 = irregularity angle (mrad), V
= speed (m/s), kt = track stiffness (N/m), Mu =
unsprung mass of vehicle (kg)
24. Point Machine
25. Bulk Forces
i. Surface in compression
ii. Interior under tension
26. Hertzian Contact
i. When there is no load, the area of point contact = 0
mm2
ii. When load is applied, the stress is infinite (=F/A)
and material deforms until stress = 1300MPa
iii. Create contact area in elliptical shape
iv. The area of contact patch is 100 – 150mm2
v. Stress distribution in this contact patch is ideally
parabolic
27. Wear Processes
i. Sliding wear – relative movement of two surfaces
ii. Abrasive wear – involves third material which is
harder than rail or wheel
iii. Lubrication reduces friction resulting in a lower
wear rate but improperly applied can reduce
adhesion.
28. Crack
i. Initiate by a process involving slip plane motion or
by impurities of metal.
ii. Can also initiate by thermal gradient
iii. Two types of cracks: totally internal and surface
breaking
iv. Crack propagation: opening, tearing, sliding
v. When crack rate > wear rate, crack growth faster
than wear and crack increase in length – adopt the
Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
29. Rail Defects
i. Sliding and Abrasive Wear
• Sidewear occur on gauge side of rail, particularly
in curves, due to high creepage between rail and
flange
• Lipping occurs on rail head due to migration of
metal across the rail head
ii. Split Rails
Page 34
iii. TacheOvale – internal circular crack in rail head
perpendicular to rail head
iv. Corrugations– constant wavelengths are produced
are produced even under varying traffic
v. Rolling Contact Fatigue (RCF)***
• Spalling
• Squats – Widened running band
• Head checks & gauge corner cracking
vi. Wheel Burns–easy to distinguish from squats
because occur in pairs.
30. Detection of Wear and Crack
i. Detect wear is relatively easy – by gauges or
computerised measuring equipment.
ii. Crack – ultrasonic detection is not effective in some
situations. E.g. where there are a multitude of crack
iii. Control measures: small defects can be cut out and
replaced with a wide gap weld (<80mm). Large
defects: re-railing which is costly and requires
possession time.
31. Climate Change
i. High temperature summer – affect track due to
thermal stress and track buckling.
ii. High rainfall on earthworks
iii. Extreme precipitation level on current drainage
systems – land slip
iv. Extreme winds on overhead system
v. Sea level rise
32. Maintenance
i. Key requirement: to avoid spontaneous failures and
derailments, minimize the cost and minimize the
risk of workers exposure to hazard for no good
reasons. Must not introduce new faults
ii. Create safe environment – Robel Mobile
Maintenance Train (MMT)
33. 24/7 Railway
i. Achieving a balance between possession access,
cost and revenue generated by greater availability
of the network for running trains.
34. Geotechnical Engineering
35. Environmental Impact Assessment
36. Station Design
i. 4 conditions (DEAN)
Normal operating conditions(1 hour/15 mins/5
mins in peak), Degraded conditions(system
component failure), Abnormal conditions(adverse
weather, power cut, special event), Emergency
conditions(evacuation due to fire, flood, terrorists,
etc)
ii. Forecourt
 • Directional signage  vehicular and pedestrian
access  pole identification Sign & double arrow
 approach road  forecourtstation entrance
• Forecourt –refuse collection bay, emergency
vehicle parking, rail replacement bus space, car
and taxi drop off/pick up spaces, cycle parking,
bus interchange
• Station Entrance – station clock, station name,
public telephone, local information (such as map)
• Approach Road - Electrical, water, & telecoms
connections, Foul Drainage connection, surface
water drainage connection, commercial tenancies,
CCTV capture, car park, staff car parking
iii. Ticket Hall /concourse
• Station entrance  Ticket hall/concourse 
Automatic Ticket Gates  Departure Lounge 
Platform entrance
• Ticket hall / concourse – timetable information,
customer information, station clock, ticket
purchase queen space, ticket machines, ticket
windows, ticket office, seating and waiting area,
local map information, public telephone,
directional signage, advertising, vending machines,
statutory notices
• Automatic Ticket Gate – pass gate, excess fare
windows
• Departure lounge – public toilet, seating and
waiting area, advertising, retail tenancy, vending
machines
• Platform entrance
iv. Platform
• Train process at platform: full stop  doors open
 alighting  boarding  train path assigned,
signal set  doors close  last door closed 
departure
• Activity Zone, Circulation Zone, Waiting Zone,
Danger Zone (Yellow Line Zone)
• Screen doors: not possible for mainline in UK
because different trains types
• Objects: seating, directional signs, clock, customer
information, retail shops, advertising, vending
machines, waiting accommodation,
• Staircases, escalators, ramps and lifts capacity
• Location of exit
v. Station Management Office
• Mess room & locker room, Meeting room, staff
toilets, store, customer care point, train catering
depot
• Station control room –CCTV monitoring point,
security control, alarm panels, customer
information controls, PA control / station
announcements, maintenance management
offices, refuse compactor, maintenance stores,
cleaners office, cleaners dry store and wet store.
• Station Reception
• NR Management offices
Page 35
• Train Crew management offices
• TOC station management offices
vi. Technical Specification for Interoperability (TSI) –
Persons with Reduce Mobility (PRM)
37. Possession Management
i. What is possession? The process that engineers
take occupancy of part of the existing railway
infrastructure for the purpose of undertaking
maintenance or renewal work.
ii. Why Possessions are need?
• Modification, renewal, upgrade of a portion of an
existing railway although it is in everyday use.
• Normally, it is not possible to stop running train
for a long period.
• Access to the railway for short time periods
subject to specific safety procedures and integrity
of railway operations.
iii. When to use possession?
• Component failure which affect the safety
operation of trains
• Track is to be made physically unsafe for train
operations
• When extended periods of track access are
required
• When one or more engineer’s trains will be
working on the same track in a worksite
• When uncertificated staff will be on the track with
no trains moving
• Traction current will switched off and on, other
than at the published or amended time or in an
emergency
iv. Responsibility
• Person In Charge of Possession (PICOP) –
responsible for the possession
• Engineering Supervisor (ES) – responsible for the
Site Work
• Controller of Site Safety (COSS) – responsible for
“Site of Work”
• Block Road Man–the person who apply the
protection under the instruction of PICOP
• Any other players depending on situation
v. Determine the duration of Works– some work
need to be completed in single phase but most can
be divided into no. of possessions. Determine the
length of any possession necessary to do the work.
vi. Determine What the Work is–activities that
prevent normal train operations, such as work on
track and signalling system.
vii. Determine the Scope of Works–What the work is,
where the work take place, how long it will take,
when it needs to be undertaken, heavy on track
plant and resources needed for the possession.
viii. Consider the impact on the track, both foreseen
and unforeseen
ix. Planning the possession
• PM and engineer plan the possession.
 • Designs need to be approved whether to delay hand back to allow completion
• Workflow needs to be determined of the works
• Method statements should be produced and xiv. Handing back
approved • Return the railway to operational status after
• Materials and need to be ordered and arranged completion of work
• Effect on train services must be determined • Through inspection is required to ensure that the
(Temporary Speed Restrictions TSR) and suitable railway is safe for operation
alternative routes or bus replacement should be • If things go wrong, possession will be handed back
planned. on time but incomplete or complete but late.
• Detailed plan of work must be specified and • Incomplete works:the safe to run trains but with
adhered to, to ensure that work is completed on an emergency speed restriction in force should be
time determined
• Risk Assessment • The controller need to be informed so that all
• Contingency plan should be prepared with drivers are aware of it.
defined intervention points. Other contingency • ATO/ATP/ETCS trains will need to be told
such as spare plant, workers, fitters, etc. should • The work will probably be finished in an
be prepared, if needed. emergency possession.
• Provide worker with amenities, such as toilets, • Complete work but late: the Infra Company needs
mess facilities and kettle, etc. to be informed of this and the controller given a
x. Preparing for the possession new hand back time. Any changes to the
• Appoint possession protection staff possession plan will need approval
• Hold meeting with key staff xv. Debriefing
• Site Survey 38. Acoustics
• Publish possession details
• Licenses and permits for things like storage of
materials, etc.
• Operational Assurance
• Staff Briefing
• Pre-possession site preparations
xi. Briefings and gaining authority
• Ensure the possession master and protection
support managers and SPICs have the correct
documentation and are going to close the correct
piece of railway
• Communicate with the controller to ensure that
you’re in the right place at the right time.
i. Source
• Get permission to take possession from the
• The surface of wheel and rails are not perfectly
controller
smooth
xii. Establishing the possession and worksites
• Dynamic forces as the unsprung mass of the
• Setup protection
wheel is excited vertically as it moves on the
• Test to ensure that traction is off
irregular profile of the track. (>4-6 Hz)
• Worksites can be established once these actions
• The quasi-static displacement caused by
have been confirmed
successive axle loads as they pass over a point in
xiii. Managing the possession
the track (the rise and fall of the axle over the rail
• Required good communications between the
support (< 4-6 Hz)
engineer in charge and all the other key staff
ii. Noise mitigation
• Particularly important during shift changes and
• at the track and train interface (track bed, train
things start to go wrong
design)
• Command and Control Concept
• Between train and property (noise barriers, bunds)
• Continuous monitoring of activities during each
• At property (acoustic glazing)
possession and measures progress against
• Maintaining high performance
expected performance
• Maintenance of wheel and rail profiles and
• Trained person can make decision ofwhen to
ensuring a smooth running surface since most
implement contingency plan, when to escalate
noise are from rail-wheel interface.
responsibility, how to achieve hand back on time,

Page 36
 • Aerodynamic design of trains – aerodynamic • Abatement notice that is served by the Local
pantograph, inter-car seals, aerodynamic nose, Authority that can specify measures to be taken
bogieshrouds, spoiler to control noise
• Green Tunnel • Restrict hours of work
iii. Vibration mitigation • Specify type of plant
• Damage to property during construction • Set maximum noise levels from site
• Main issues is ground-borne noise (GBN) or feel- • Often a result of noise nuisance complaint
able vibration instead of structural damage • Can cost a lot of time and money
• Alignment – rail or baseplate pads, sleeper pads, • Can result in legal proceedings
ballast mats, floating slab track ix. S61 Prior Consent
iv. Elevated Structure Noise • Contractor approaches local authority informally
• Direct air borne noise from train itself prior to work to discuss the intended works
• Reradiated noise due to the vibration from the • Submits a formal application detailing- Works and
train exciting the structure work methods, hours of operations, noise
• Mitigation: Low level barrier, baseplate pads, rail mitigation
pads • If the application is accepted the LA commits itself
v. Curve / Rail Squeal to accept noise limits prior to works
• What:Intense tonal noise that occur as train travel
over small radius curves or S&C.
• Why: when the train wheelset cannot go around a
curve purely using the forces generated by the
rolling radius difference, an “angle of attack” is
created on the wheelsetWheel flange usually
contact the outer rail and sometimes the inner rail
which excite vibration in the wheelWheel
resonates and radiates “squeal” noise
• Mitigation
• rail lubrication – reduce the flange excitation
• water sprays (reduce flange and rail head
excitation)
• Friction modifiers (rail head excitation)
• Wheel constrained layer dampers
• Wheel ring dampers
• Wheel tuned absorbers
• Barriers – noise level reduced but the ‘squeal’
character remains
vi. Vehicle Noise Sources

vii. Routes

viii. Section 60
Page 37
LMR36 – Signalling and Control System
1. What is Railway Control?TES***
x. Ensure the railway operations is timely, economic
and safe.
xi. Four Core Objectives for control system
• Should allocate resources to trains as late as
practicable.
• Should release resources as soon as possible.
• Must not allocate resources to more than one
train at a time.
• Must ensure trains cannot endanger themselves
or others
2. Automatic Warning System (AWS)
Use of a permanent magnet and electro-magnet
i. Clear Aspect (Green):
• sunflower display shows black face,
• bell sound in the cab and no actions for driver is
needed.
• Timer on the train start when passing through the
permanent magnet and timer stop when passing
though the electro-magnet connecting to line side
signal
ii. Restrictive Aspect(Yellow):
• Timer start when passing thru’ permanent magnet.
• Horn sound in the cab
• Sunflower display shows black and yellow face
• Driver need to press acknowledge button within
2s otherwise the train brakes are applied.
iii. Problems:
• No speed control
• Driver can ignore the signal after pressing the
acknowledge button
• Driver get used to acknowledging warnings.
• Won’t stop at high speed SPADs
3. Train Protection and Warning System (TPWS)
i. Using two pairs of inductive loops,
ii. one pair is placed 400m before the signal to
detect whether the train speed is too high.
iii. Another pair is place just before the line side
signal to detect whether the stop location of the
train is correct.
iv. Brakes applied when train is passing the speed
detection loop at over speed or when the train
passing the stop detection loop.
4. Automatic Train Protection (ATP)–safety system
protecting train movement.
5. Automatic Train Operation (ATO) – performs the
driving function which makes the train driverless.
6. Automatic Train Supervision (ATS)– normally run
from the line’s control centre to monitor operation in
relation to the timetable and alter train movements
accordingly.
7. ATO - Grades of Automation (GoA)
i. GoA0–on sight train operation (e.g. tram in Hong
Kong)
Page 38
ii. GoA1–manual train operation where train driver
controls start, stop, open and close of doors.
iii. GoA2 – Driver accompanied - Driver in leading cab
monitors system performance, observes the line
ahead and controls door opening/closure during
station stops (Hong Kong Metro)
iv. GoA3 – Train Captain operated – a staff member
is on-board, but not necessarily in a driving cab.
They are given other duties, such as checking
tickets. (HK Disney Line)
v. GoA4 – Unaccompanied where trains travel with
no staff member on-board (people mover in HK
airport)
8. Moving Block Signalling
9. Properties of Waves
i. Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Interference
ii. c = fλ, where c = 3 x 108
iii. Attenuation: PowerDensity = Power/4πd2
iv. Propagation loss = 20 log(4πd/λ), longer
wavelength, lower frequency can travel
longer distance. Travel distance doubled if
frequency reduced by ½.
v. Effect of Terrain cuttings diffraction and
reflection create interference.
vi. Signal Power – LossdB=10log(Pstart/Pend)
10. Analogue Modulation
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
ii. Frequency Modulation (FM)
iii. Phase Modulation (PM)
11. Digital Modulation
i. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
iv. Bandwidth efficiency = bitrate / bandwidth =
(bit/s)/Hz
12. Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA)
i. 380 – 400MHz, 410 – 430MHz
ii. TDMA (4 timeslots per 25 kHz)
13. Global System for Mobile Communication – Rail
(GSM-R)
i. 900MHz
ii. TDMA (8 timeslots per 200 kHz)
14. Communication Based Train Control (CBTC)
i. Used for metro and suburban rail applications
ii. Improves safety and allow increase in capacity
iii. Possibility to have driverless trains
15. European Train Control System (ETCS)
i. ETCS Level 0 – Train fitted with ETCS but running
on trackside signal and train protection by existing
system.
ii. ETCS Level National Train Control (NTC):train
equipped with ETCS operating on the track
equipped with national system, e.g. TPWS.
iii. ETCS Level 1– Movement authority is passed to
the train via balises. Communication occurs
intermittently when the train passes a balise
group.
 20. Occupation Time for Block Section***

iv. ETCS Level 2 –

• Movement authority is passed by radio from
Radio Block Centre (RBC) to the train.
• ETCS data is transmitted continuously via GSM-R.
• Train location and integrity supervision no longer
rely on trackside signal equipment.
• Fixed block section is maintained
v. ETCS Level 3 – builds on level 2, but enforce safe
train separation using safety critical data from the
train
• Train Integrity is proved onboard.
• Moving block system is employed
• GSM-R is still used.
16. European Railway Traffic Control System (ERTMS) =
ETCS + GSM-R
17. Long Term Evolution (LTE)
18. General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
19. Dynamic Signal
i. Two Aspect Signalling
• Absolute Minimum Headway Distance = 2 x
(sighting allowance +braking distance + overlap) +
train length
21. Visual Detection by hand signals or by telegraph
22. Track circuits***
i. Length can vary from <20m to >5000m
ii. Can transmit information from track to train.
iii. Detect small portion of broken rail
iv. Can fail to detect trains because of leaf mulch or rust
v. Can fail to detect trains due to false signal produced
by interference on electrified lines
vi. Easy to ‘safe’ failures through insulation or
connection failures of insulated rail joints, sleepers,
impedance bonds, cables, etc.
vii. May fail due to weather or wet ballast which change
the resistance and current of the TC.
viii.May fail if the light vehicles with poor shunt
characteristics is passing through.
ix. Expensive to install and maintain
x. DC Track Circuit
• Fail Safe system, if battery fails, rail broken and
something drop on the rail, the track circuit red
aspect on.
• Cannot be used on DC electrified railways
• Variable resistance of ballast could be a potential
problem.
• May have problem with traction return current on
the rail.
• Block Joints required in rails which create weak,
failure locations.

ii. Three Aspect Signalling

• Headway Distance = 2 x BD + SD + Overlap + Train
length

iii. Four Aspect Signalling

• Headway Distance = 1.5 x BD + SD + Overlap + train
length

Page 39
 xi. AC Track Circuit iii. Two Aspect Signalling with Stations
• Can be mains frequency (50 Hz)
• More commonly audio-frequency (1000 to 3000 Hz)
• Same operating principle and problems with DC
track circuit.
• Cannot be used on AC electrified railways.
xii. Jointless Track Circuit
• Operate at Audio Frequencies (1700 to 8500 Hz)
• Adjacent Track use different frequencies
• Can be used in AC or DC electrified railway
• Allow using in Continuous Welded Rail 28. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
23. Axle Counter
i. Not easy to reboot after power failure
ii. Adjustment accuracy problematic
iii. No rail break detection
iv. Immune to the effects of weather
v. Not affected by light vehicle with poor shunt
characteristics 29. Interlocking
i. Mechanical Interlocking– pull signal levers in signal
box, metal bars dropped into place to lock any
other levers that would conflicts.
ii. Electro-Mechanical Interlocking –using output of
track circuit to control electric lever locks
iii. Relay Interlocking –
iv. Hardware redundancy:***
• Individual random failures revealed by
24. Train Navigation and Train Detection comparison with other computations in separate
i. Detection - position and velocity are calculated hardware
outside the vehicle • Minimal safe hardware
ii. Navigation – position and velocity are measured and • Availability by additional replication and voting
calculated on board. (e.g. 2 out of 3)
25. Theoretical Headway– Minimum time or distance v. Diversity:***
between trains so that the following trains is not • Hardware dissimilarity
affected by the train ahead. • Software dissimilarity
26. Operational Headway –actual headway based on the • Different coding between channels
operational needs and timetable. • System-level checks on plausibility of operation
27. Metro System*** • Diversity may also protect against common-mode
i. Main functions of a signalling system failures (e.g. specification errors)
• Lock– set up a safe route for passage of each train • Redundancy offers protection against downtime
over the track that it is to traverse and preserve and human errors when operating according to
that route in front of the train whilst it is making its rule-book.
movement
• Block– maintain safe separation between trains
following each other over the same route
• Interlock– prevent conflicting moves at junctions,
when crossing a route that could be taken by
another train and at level crossing
• Issue (and withdraw) authority to proceed–
Indicate by some means to the train whether the
train is authorised to proceed
• Unlock – release the route/assets after the passage
of train
ii. Two Aspect Signalling for Metro System 30. Computer Based Interlocking - Safe Computing
31. 1 out of 1 (with checker)

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32. 2out of 2(2oo2)
33. Safe Computing 2oo3–If 1 channel disagrees, the
other 2 shut it down and carry on as 2oo2.
34. Safe Computing 2oo2 x 2
35. Signal Processing
i. Nyquist sampling rate – a continuous time signal that
is band-limited and up to some maximum frequency f
Hz may be completely represented by regularly
spaced samples taken at a rate of at least 2f Hz.
E.g. spectrum of speech can extend up to 10kHz, the
sampling frequency to avoid aliasing = 2ωmax =
2(2π)(10k) = 40πk rad/s = 20kHz (50us interval)
ii. Aliasing – distortion of sampled signal due to
sampling rate too low or coincides with high
frequencies in the signal. Use of low pass filter before
sampling to remove the higher frequencies can help.
36. Coding and Error Detection in Data Communication
i. Generic Digital Communication System
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ii. Error Detection
iii. Hamming Weighting – number of ones in a binary
word
iv. Parity
Even– make the whole code become even number
of 1s.
v. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Consider 4 bit message 1001, I(x) = x3 + 1, with 3 bit
CRC G(x) = x3 + x + 1
• Shift the I(x)xn-k, i.e. x6 + x3
• I(x) divided by G(x) and the remainder is x2 + x, 110.
• Transmit 1001110to receiver.
• At receiver, divided by G(x) again.
• If there is no error, the remainder = 0, if there is an
error, the remainder not equal 0.
37. Transmission Voie-Machine (TVM)
i. In cab signalling deployed in France on high-speed
railway lines
ii. TVM300 and TVM430
38. Reliability and Maintainability
i. Reliability = ‘the ability of an item to function at a
specified period under specific operating conditions.
ii. Availability = Uptime / (Uptime + Downtime)
iii. Intrinsic Availability = MTBF / (MTBF + MART)
iv. Operational Availability = MTBF / (MTBF + MART +
LDT)
v. Reliability Improvement checklist
• Elimination
• Reduction
• Detection
• Mitigation
LMR37 – Railway Business Management iv. Ensure good ride quality
v. Make good journey environment
1. Money – Medium of Exchange vi. Ensure real and perceived during journey
2. Gold Standard – the note that can directly exchange vii. Ensure an acceptable standard of safety
for equivalent amount of gold viii.Service reliability / punctuality
3. Fiat Money – the money that by the order of ix. Minimize asset utilization to cope with fixed cost
government. x. Profit or high social benefit
4. Monetary Policy – Control the supply of money by xi. cashflow
nation’s centre bank 21. Critical Success Factors – must be measurable by
5. Fiscal Policy – Control the taxation and expenditure of means of KPI to control the company progress
the government 22. Business Qualifier and Winners
6. Public Limited Company – have thousands of owner
(shareholders) limited company
7. Limited Company – owned by several partners with
limited liability
8. Partnership – owned by several partners with
unlimited liability
9. Sole trader – owned by one person with unlimited
liability.
10. Fix cost and Variable Cost
i. Fixed Cost – costs that regardless of output volume
ii. Variable Cost – costs which may increase / decrease 23. KPI – Key performance Indicators**
regarding the change in output volume i. KPI are formed by a bundle of measurements that
iii. Marginal cost – the extra cost of producing the last assess the business progress in adapting to market
unit of output. requirements.
iv. Sunk Cost –cannot be recovered when you close. ii. Railway Paradigm– FQQS
E.g. cost of an access road built for the council.
11. RPI – Retail Price Index
A basket that includes housing costs
12. CPI – Consumer Price Index
A basket that excludes housing costs
13. Assets
i. Fixed / Tangible Asset –physical assets, such as iii. KPI example: passenger death per million passenger
machinery, rolling stock, infrastructures, lands, etc. km, operating cost per passenger km, Fare revenue
ii. Intangible Assets– not physical assets, such as per passenger km, Total energy consumption per
trademark, license, copyright, patents, franchise, passenger km, % passenger journeys on time,
etc. capacity km per route km, public performance
iii. Current Asset–any asset that expected to be sold, measure (PPM)
consumed or exhausted with the current financial 24. Strategic Business Process**
year.
14. Liability – the things the business owes, including any
type of borrowing.
15. Insolvency - Accounting insolvency - unable to meet
the financial obligations.
i. Accounting insolvency – total liabilities exceed total
assets
ii. Cash-flow insolvency – involves a lack of liquidity to
pay debts as they fall due.
16. CAPEX – Capital Expenditure
17. OPEX – Operating Expenditure
18. EBIT – Earning Before Interest & Tax
19. EBITA – Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation
25. Organizational Culture
and Amortization
i. Culture – the customary and traditional way of
20. Success Factor of Railway
thinking and doing of things. The way that people
i. Competitive D2D journey / transit
see and do things in the organization. The sum of
ii. Create perception of competitive fare
values, customs, traditions that make a firm unique.
iii. Minimize complexity of D2D transit
ii. Beliefs, Attitudes, Psychology, Experiences (BAPE)

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 iii. Norms–Don’t challenge the boss, profit is main iii. Gap 3 – Operations Planning / design
thing, good people don’t stay here, working longer iv. Gap 4 – Marketing accuracy / honesty
means we are recognised. 33. 6-sigma***
iv. Values–safety, staff engagement, fair, justice, i. A set of techniques and tools for process
ethical, quality, excellent, innovative, collaborative, improvement.
secure, efficient, continuous development, self ii. Moving the average performance closer to the
sustainable. target and reducing the variability around the target.
26. Law of Demand – other factor being constant, the iii. How to apply? Setting up six sigma workshops of
higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded. staff from business area concerned to look at issues
27. Elasticity such as fare collection and rolling stock reliability.
%𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒𝒒 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 iv. Statistical data on a per-service basis
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 =
% 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 v. Standardised the fleet service on the basis of Six
i. |Elasticity|> 1, demand elastic Sigma study of failures and maintenance activity.
|Elasticity|< 1, demand inelastic vi. 6 std dev above the mean = 99.99966% defect free
|Elasticity| = 1, unit elastic
output. The Defects Per Million Opportunities
ii. Commuter, η= -0.3, Leisure = -0.6
(DPMO) = 3.4.
28. Impact of Sales Tax
34. Project Management
i. The role of Project Manager - maintain the
equilibrium of Time, Cost and Quality
ii. Competence of PM: Technical Competence,
Organisation and Planning, Commercial Awareness,
People Management, Drive and Commitment
iii. Six Steps to PM

29. Proportion of tax paid by buyer = Elasticity of Supply /

(Elasticity of Supply + |Elasticity of Demand|)
30. GDP and GNP
i. Gross Domestic Product - measures the total output
produced within the country, whether produced by
that country’s own local firms or by foreign firms.
ii. Gross National Product – measures output
generated by a country’s enterprises whether
physically located in the country or abroad. 35. Delegation
i. Provide Necessary Information
ii. Describe expect results
iii. Assign a level of delegation
iv. Set up methods of control

Households Government

Firms

36. Change Management***

Where C = Consumption, I = Investment, G = i. Recognize impact of change
Government spending, X = Export, Z = M = Import, B = • Programme Delays
Benefit, Y = GDP, Td = direct Tax, S = Saving, Te = • Re-work
indirect tax • Affect the quality of work done
31. Business Process Control • Affect the availability of resources
i. Productivity = output/input • Team may need to work long hours to mitigate
ii. Performance = output/target(or expectation) the impact of change
32. Quality Gap • Causes confusion within the team
i. Gap 1 – Good operations management • May lead to mistakes being made
ii. Gap 2 – Interpretation of Market research, • Causes tension
Understanding customer need • Demoralise the team
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 • Increase costs
ii. Implementing Change
• Recognise the change
• Assess the impact of change – Time, Cost,
Quality
• Document it – Change Form (record reason,
before and after, date of completion, resources
required, etc)
• Process it – Reject, Defer, Accept, Communicate
37. Project Control – Earned Value Management ***
i. Definition:
• a project management technique for measuring
project progress in an objective manner.
• EVM has the unique ability to combine
measurements of scope, schedule, and cost in a
single integrated system.
• EVM can also provide early warning of
performance problem.
ii. Planned Value = Budgeted Cost for Work Scheduled
(BCWS)
iii. Earned Value = Budgeted Cost for Work
Performed(BCWP)
iv. Actual Cost = Actual Cost for Work Performed
(ACWP)
v. Cost Variance (CV) for performance analysis
= BCWP – ACWP
vi. Schedule Variance (SV) for schedule analysis
= BCWP – BCWS
vii. Cost Performance Index (CPI) = BCWP/ACWP
viii.Schedule Performance Index (SPI) = BCWP/BCWS
ix. Cost Schedule Index(CSI) = CPI x SPI
Project 1: Bad - ACWP > BCWP but BCWP > BCWS, cash
flow problem and ahead of schedule.
Project 2: Very Bad - BCWP < BCWS = behind schedule,
BCWP M ACWP = over budget. Refine the project.
Project 3: Good - BCWP > ACWP > BCWS, good project
progress but actual cost > budget cost. Slower the project
progress to reduce the actual cost.
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Project 4: Very Good - BCWP > BCWS > ACWP, very good
project progress. Ahead of schedule and spend less than
planned.
CSI value < 1: the less likely project recovery to the
baseline cost and duration.
CSI value > 1: recovery is possible.
38. Models of Competition
i. Perfect Competition – Homogeneous products and
perfect knowledge. Only one price for the product.
Many firms and consumers so everyone take the price
as given. Firms produce until marginal cost = price. Free
entry and exit. Firms just break even in the long (price =
average cost)
ii. Monopoly – Firm can sell more by reducing price but
this cuts the margins on existing sales. Maximise profits
by setting marginal revenue to equal marginal cost.
Natural Monopoly - a single firm can serve a market at
significant low cost than two or more firms would.
Economy of scale, Railway networks are a major
example. Postal service and electricity / gas supply also.
iii. Oligopoly –Small number of firms in the market. Some
barriers to entry or exit. Need to predict rivals reactions.
39. Railway Industry structure
i. Vertically integrated - Publicly owned (China, India)
ii. Vertically Integrated – Privately owned (USA, Japan)
iii. Vertically Separated - Publicly Owned (France,
Germany)
iv. Vertically Separated – Hybrid (Great Britain)
v. HLOS – High Level Output Specification.
vi. Role of ORR
• Regulate safety of railway.
• License TOCs and Network Rail.
• Decide the funding to NR should receive every 5
years.
• Determine track access charge
vii. Role of Rail Safety and Standard Board (RSSB)
viii.Role of Rail Accident Investigation Branch (RAIB)
ix. Safety Regulation
• EU Directives
• Health and Safety at Work Act
• Regulations to support / implement EU safety
directive
• ORR as enforcing body
• RAIB investigates accidents
• Self regulation – GB standard set by industry and
RSSB.
 • Safety management system involve self assurance • Understand where the costs are adopted
x. Franchise efficiently on maintenance, operations and
• DfT specifies a level of service for a particular part renewal.
of the country and usually the rolling stock. Invites • Optimise the performance, costs and risk using
bids. whole life cycle cost.
• Private sector competes on both quality and cost • Asset Register can assist in defining depreciation
and the best bid is awarded the Franchise – may to help reduce tax bill.
be subsidy or premium.
• Franchise take on:
- Track Access Contract with NR
- Rolling Stock Contracts
- Staff
- Station Leases
• Franchises are not quite exclusive – open access
40. Rolling Stock Leasing Companies
41. Business Operation Models of Freight Train
i. Customer-Focused Model
• Variable Train length
• combined containers
• Deliver goods according to customer needs
• Operates carload trains
• Higher operating cost but better customer
services which may lead to more shipments.
ii. Operation Based Model
• Scheduled Trains
• Fixed train length
• Deliver goods according to timetable
• Yield Management
• Reduces operating costs
42. How Freight Train increase profit
i. Reduce the cost of Equipment
• Locomotive instead of multiple units
ii. Increase cargo carrying volume or reduce tare
mass of equipment for a given carrying capacity
• Longer or heavier trains or both
• Stacking of containers
• New lighter wagons (aluminium vs steel)
• Articulation
iii. Convenient end-to-end solution
• Trailer on flatcar
• Quick unloading of mines and ores
• Flexibility of distribution
iv. Minimise empty runs
43. Asset Management– RPV***
i. Risk, Performance, Value
ii. Why Manage Asset?
• Safety Risk – failure of asset lead to incident
• Reputation Risk – badly affect the reputation
when incident or service interruption occur.
• Financial Risk – lost of money due to poor
planning of replacement, maintenance, etc.
iii. How to manage?
• Asset Information and database
• Inspect and monitor the conditions of critical
assets. Understand why it would fail and plan for
maintenance and replacement if needed.
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LMR38 – Ergonomics iv. So designed that the size and shape facilities good
fits and reasonable comfort for the user.
1. Ergonomics definition v. Present no undue risk to users
i. Ergonomics is a science-based discipline vi. Present no undue risk to other people who interact
ii. Bring together knowledge from other subjects with it.
iii. To ensure that designs complement the strengths
vii. Allows for reasonably foreseeable misuse
and abilities of people viii.Operates satisfactorily throughout its life cycle.
iv. minimize the effects of their limitation.
9. 3 Key Aspects of Ergonomics
2. Ergonomics integrates 4 things i. Be precise – define aim and objectives
i. Who does it? ii. Involve consider primary, secondary, tertiary users
ii. What they do? iii. Establish a timetable which includes
iii. What they use? implementation and evaluation periods
iv. Where they do it?
10. Human Variability
3. People can adaptable and sometimes compensate i. Age, Gender, Cultural Difference, Ability Difference,
the poor design
Behavioural Difference
4. Highest Paid Person’s Opinion (HIPPO) 11. Design for all Concept
i. Ergonomics is about engaging with end user and
i. Accessible Design–design to accommodate specific
their needs
individuals or group of individuals with disabilities.
ii. Reduce risk of inappropriate decisions based on
ii. Inclusive Design–design to accommodate everyone,
those with loudest voice or whoever is available at
regardless of age, gender or circumstance by
the eleventh hour
working with users to remove barriers in the social,
5. Basic Ergonomics Approach
technical, political and economic processes
i. Determine Users Needs
underpinning building and design.
• Observe Activities iii. Barriers of design for all or inclusive design -
• Consult AACPPS
• Use Anthropometry • Aging – acquired disabilities
ii. Understand Task Factor • Attitudinal – ignorance, complacency, prejudice
• Task Analysis • Cognitive – perception, reasoning, intuition
• Risk Assessment • Physical – mobility, dexterity, size, shape
• Review Provision • Psyche – mental stat
iii. Identify Improvements
• Sensory – visual, aural, olfactory, haptic
• ‘Off-the-shelf’ iv. Ergonomists are encouraged to work toward
• Evaluate with Trials design-for-all and overcome the below barriers:
• Fit for Purpose • Ageing – acquired disabilities
iv. Provide Support • Attitudinal – ignorance, complacency, prejudice
• Information • Cognitive – perception, reasoning, intuition
• Training • Physical – mobility, dexterity, size, shape
• Monitoring • Psyche – mental state
6. Task Analysis
• Sensory – visual, aural, olfactory, haptic
i. Collection and interpretation of the manner in
12. Task Analysis Process – Hierarchical Task Analysis
which activities are performed.
ii. Evaluation of jobs to identify risk.
iii. Evaluate working method.
iv. Help determine the optimum allocation of activities
between people and automation.
7. Evaluate with Trials
i. Evaluate the designs via trials and ensure they are
fit for purpose
ii. Fitting Trials – full size mock-ups to help determine
the position element of the design.
iii. User Trials – sophisticated mock-ups or even 13. Interview and Discussion Group
finished articles to evaluate their suitability for use i. Why need interview and consultation?
by their targeted users. • Not possible to observe people all the time.
8. Fit for Purpose • People may not perform all activities they do during
i. Performs in a manner intended by designer observation period.
ii. Performs in a manner expected by user ii. Individuals –
iii. Accessible and useable for target users Advantages
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 • one to one discussion provide opportunities to
explore issue in depth and privately.
• Flexibility – the interviewer can adjust the questions
as interview is taking place.
• Respondent are able to answer more due to
informal atmosphere.
Disadvantages
• May select wrong representative and make
incorrect conclusion.
• Time and cost consuming in interview process.
• Limit sample size since each interview may last for a
long time.
• Difficult to draw conclusion of the problem since
everyone have their own ideas which may have high
diversity.
iii. Group discussions –
Advantages
• More efficient to get the required information than
the individual interview.
• can create discussion, conflicts and generate
conclusions.
• Help to combine individual strengths of group
members
Disadvantages
• May affect individual thinking due to peer pressure.
• One member can dominate the discussion
• Shy people may refuse to participate
• Challenging for the organizer if group members do
not interact easily.
• Easy to digress from the topic.
14. Surveys
i. Can collect a lot of information within short time
ii. Can be conducted face-to-face, online and on the
phone
iii. Important to pilot the questionnaires and ensure all
questions are understandable.
iv. Make the data collection material useable for
respondents. (large front size, sufficient space)
v. Cannot control the returns
vi. Good Survey form:
• Short questionnaire is preferred.
• Avoid monotony
• Provide introduction
• Make the first question interesting
• Put sensitive questions in later part of survey
• Avoid jargon
• Visuals can enhance the experience
• Don’t use emotive or leading languages to avoid
bias answers.
15. Question Types
i. Open Questions – request respondents to answer
the question in whatever way they want.
ii. Close Questions – request respondents to answer
the question in some predefined answers.
16. Neutral Posture –
posture that muscles and ligaments are stretched to
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the least possible extent and able to deliver their
greatest force. The posture that minimize static
muscular loading.
17. Fixed Posture
Holding a fixed posture increase the load on muscles
and contribute to fatigue due to static muscular
loading.
18. Adjustability of workstation
i. Accessible controls
ii. Sensible adjustments
iii. Easy to use controls
iv. Worthwhile increments
v. Information and training
19. Basic Hazard Factor Groups – UPET
i. User Factors (Who they are?)
ii. Task Factors (What they do?)
iii. Equipment Factors (What they use?)
iv. Place Factors (Where they do it?)
20. 3 Types of Users
i. Primary – frequent contact and have the greatest
demand of the equipment.
ii. Secondary – less contact but still important
interaction with the equipment.
iii. Tertiary – others who make less use of the
equipment.
21. 3 Types of Hazard – P,S,D
i. Physical: Things of a physical nature such as sharp
edges, hot surfaces, trip conditions etc.
ii. System: Things which may cause users to act
unwisely
iii. Design:Can arguably be described as physical or
system hazards, but it is useful to check for aspects
which look or seem appropriate but because of
their very design will not work.
22. Ergonomics Response– Triangulation (WAM)
To look for agreement between information collected,
particularly to substantiate subjective feedback.
i. Watching – Task Analysis
ii. Asking – Interview and Survey
iii. Measuring - Anthropometry
iv. Advantages
• Makes sense of opinions and perceptions
• Comparing objective and subject information which
is more convincing than from a single source
• The very process of triangulation causes the
investigation to slow down
• By considering the different aspects of an
ergonomics investigation it is possible to under
23. MAT Assessment – Musculoskeletal Disorder risk
Assessment for Train driver tool
24. MAC – Manual handling Assessment Chart
i. Determine the level of risk for manual handling
ii. Consider the factors involved in the manual
handling process such as load / frequency of lifting
per hour chart, handed distance, vertical lift region,
Posture constraint, grip on the load, Floor Surface,
Other Environmental Factors.
 iii. Low risk – vulnerability of special risk groups should • Environment – context is important, so the
be considered where appropriate. setting in which the solution will be deployed
iv. Medium risk – examine tasks closely can be influential.
v. High risk – prompt action needed – significant • Pleasurability – extension to desirability
proportion of workers may be at risk of injury • Usability – ensuring it works in the manner that
vi. Very high risk – stop the task immediately and make users expect.
improvement measures.
25. Manual Handling - TILE
i. Task – twisting the body, lifting from floor, lifting
above shoulder, poor workplace layout, repetition,
insufficient rest or recovery.
ii. Individual – gender, age, size difference, pregnancy,
psychosocial.
iii. Load – weight, bulk, grasp, stability, predictably.
iv. Environment – postural constraints, slippery floors,
contaminated floors, variations in levels, lighting,
temperature, air movement, PPE.
26. Fitting Trials
i. Used to determine whether the fit of design is
acceptable.
ii. Usually done early as a one-off process to
determine the design parameters.
iii. How to Conduct Fitting Trials
• Select a group of representative; consider the
sizes of key dimensions and age, gender,
experience and disabilities. 12 participants is
sufficient.
• Build a crude mock-up which can be adjusted in
all dimensions. Ask the participants to position
the items to his/her preferred, minimum and
maximum acceptable positions.
• Perform psychophysical experiments - each
participant is asked to state the positions twice
by being tested in both directions.
• Plot all the positions for each design aspect and
finding a dimension which falls between as
many ‘acceptable’ results as possible.
• Analyze the results to determine the acceptable
position.
27. User Trials
i. Used to determine whether the design performs as
the user expects, does what users need it to do.
ii. May be done several times with increasingly
sophisticated mock-ups as the design develops.
iii. Once all dimensions are sorted, user trials are
conducted. These trials are to test opinion about
the design; its feel usability and acceptability.
iv. The process of user trials can be iterative.
28. Desirability
i. If users want to make life much easier when trying
to implement a new solution.
ii. Examples issues to consider:
• Abandonment – user reject the solution even it
is technically okay (colour not good)
• Acceptance– important when creating change;
best achieved through user participation.

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