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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018
EE6702 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR LTPC

3003
OBJECTIVES:
 To educate the causes of abnormal operating conditions (faults, lightning
and switching surges) of the apparatus and system.
 To introduce the characteristics and functions of relays and protection schemes.
 To impart knowledge on apparatus protection
  To introduce static and numerical relays
 To impart knowledge on functioning of circuit breakers
UNIT I PROTECTION SCHEMES 9
Principles and need for protective schemes – nature and causes of faults – types of
faults – fault current calculation using symmetrical components – Methods of Neutral
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grounding – Zones of protection and essential qualities of protection – Protection
schemes
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UNIT II ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
Operating principles of relays - the Universal relay – Torque equation – R-X diagram
9
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– Electromagnetic Relays – Over current, Directional, Distance, Differential, Negative
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sequence and Under frequency relays.
UNIT III APPARATUS PROTECTION
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Current transformers and Potential transformers and their applications in protection
9
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schemes - Protection of transformer, generator, motor, busbars and transmission line.
UNIT IV STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION
ing 9
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Static relays – Phase, Amplitude Comparators – Synthesis of various relays using
Static comparators – Block diagram of Numerical relays – Over current protection,
transformer differential protection, distant protection of transmission lines.
UNIT V CIRCUIT BREAKERS
t 9
Physics of arcing phenomenon and arc interruption - DC and AC circuit breaking – re-
striking voltage and recovery voltage - rate of rise of recovery voltage - resistance
switching - current chopping - interruption of capacitive current - Types of circuit
breakers – air blast, air break, oil, SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers – comparison of
different circuit breakers – Rating and selection of Circuit breakers.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
 Ability to understand and analyze power system operation, stability, control
and protection.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Sunil S.Rao, „Switchgear and Protection‟, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 2008.
2. B.Rabindranath and N.Chander, „Power System Protection and Switchgear‟, New
3. M.L.Soni, P.V.Gupta, U.S.Bhatnagar, A.Chakrabarti, „A Text Book on Power

System Engineering‟, Dhanpat Rai & Co.,1998.
REFERENCES:
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1. Badri Ram ,B.H. Vishwakarma, „Power System Protection and Switchgear‟, New
Age International Pvt Ltd Publishers, Second Edition 2011.
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2. Y.G.Paithankar and S.R.Bhide, „Fundamentals of power system protection‟,
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Second Edition, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2010.
3. C.L.Wadhwa, „Electrical Power Systems‟, 6th Edition, New Age International (P)
Ltd., 2010
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4. Ravindra P.Singh, „ Switchgear and Power System Protection‟, PHI Learning
Private Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
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5. Bhavesh Bhalja, R.P. Maheshwari, Nilesh G. Chotani,‟Protection and Switchgear‟
Oxford University Press, 2011.
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DETAILED LESSON PLAN

Aim
To expose students should understand power system operation, stability, control and
protection.
Objective
To impart knowledge on types of relay, apparatus protection, numerical relays and
functioning of circuit breakers
Cum. Books
S.No Topics Covered Hours
Hours Referred
UNIT-1 PROTECTION SCHEMES

1 Importance of protective schemes for electrical 1 1 T2
apparatus and power system
ww 2 Nature and causes of faults
Fault current calculation using symm etrical

1 2 T2
3
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components & Types of faults 1 3 T2
4
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Protectio n against over
lightning and switching
voltages due to
2 5 T1
5
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Power system Earthling & Neutral Grounding 2 7 T2
6 Surge absorber and diverter

gin 1 8 T2
7
Essential qualities of protection & Zone
protection eer of
1 9 T2,T1
UNIT II ELEC TRO M AG NE TIC REL AY S ing

8 Operating Principles of Relays 1
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10 T2
10
Universal relay & Torque equation
Electromagnetic relays
1
1
11
12
t T1
T2
11 Non Directio nal over current Relay 1 13 T2
12 Directional Relay over current Relay 1 14 T2
13 Distance Relay 1 15 T2
14 Differential Relay 1 16 T2
15 Under frequency relays 1 17 T1
16 Negative sequence Relay 1 18 T2

UNIT III APPARATUS PROTECTION

CTs and PTs and their applications in
19 protection schemes 1 19 Notes
20 Generator Protection 2 21 T2
21 Transformer Protection 2 23 T2
22 Motor Protection 1 24 T1
23 Protection of Busbars 1 25 T2
24 Protection of Transmission Lines 2 27 T2
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UNIT IV STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION
Block diagram of Static relays & Introduction
25
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to comparators
2 29 T2,R2
26
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Detailed description of phase,
hybrid comparators
amplitude &
1 30 T2,R2
27 En
Static overcurrent relay, Static Differential
1 31 T2,R2
Protection,
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28
Numerical relays eer
Static distance protection & Block Diagram of
1 32 T2,R2
29 Numerical overcurrent protection

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1 33 T2,R2
30 Numerical transformer differential protection 1
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34 T2,R2
31
Numerical distant protection of
lines
transmission

2 36
t T2,R2
32 Physics of arc phenomena & Arc interruption 1 37 T2
Restriking voltage & Rate of rise of recovery

33 voltage 1 38 T2
34 Resistance switching & Current chopping 2 40 T2
Interruption of capacitive current & DC circuit

35 breaking 1 41 T2
36 Air break & Air blast circuit breaker 1 42 T2,R2

37 oil circuit breaker 1 43 T2
38 SF6 & Vacuum Circuit breaker 2 45 T2
39 Comparative merits of different circuit breakers 1 46 T2
40 Selection of Circuit breakers 1 47 T2

INDEX
UNIT Q.NO TITLE PAGE
NO
1 – 11 PART A 8-9
PART B
ww 1 (i) Essential Qualities of Protective Relaying 10
w.E 2
(ii)Nature and Causes of Faults in a power system.
Protective zones
13
16
I 3
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Faults in power system 18
4
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Types of neutral Grounding 20
5
1 – 12 PART A gin
Types of lightning arrestors 25
31-32
PART B
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1 Non Directional over current relay
ing 33
2
3
Directional over current relay
Differential relay .ne 34
36
II 4
5
Distance relay
Electromagnetic relay
t 39
42
1-11 PART A 46-47
PART B
(i)Differential Protection of Transformer 48
1
III (ii)Buchholz relay 50
(i)Faults occur in generator 52
2
(ii)Merz-Price protection of a generator 55
3 Motor Protection 56

4 Transmission Line Protection 58

5 Comparison of C.T / P.T 61
1-10 PART A 62-63
PART B
1 Block Diagram of Solid State relays 64

2 Block Diagram of Numerical relays 66
3 Numerical overcurrent Protection 69
IV
4 Numerical Transformer Differential protection 71
5 Static Instantaneous Overcurrent protection relay 72
ww 1-10 PART A
PART B
74-75
w.E 1 SF6 Circuit breaker 75

V 2
3 asy
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Oil Circuit Breaker
78
80
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Air Blast Circuit Breaker 82
5
(i)
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Rate of rise of Restriking Voltage 86
(ii) Resistance Switching
Anna University Questions eer 87
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
Industrial Connectivity
 Substations
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 Power grid

 Power Plant

UNIT I - PROT EC TION SCHE M ES

PART-A
1. State any four functions of protective relaying. (MAY-20 15 )
 To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to avoid the damage
Within effective operation of the rest of the system.

 To prevent the subsequent faults arising due to the primary fault.

 To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to
minimize the damage to the faulty part itself.

 To improve system performance, reliability and service continuity.
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2. What is protective zone? (MAY-20 15 )
A protective zone is a separate zone which is established around each element
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of power system remains unprotected. The area of a power system which remains
unprotected such that any fault occurring in that area would not be cleared at all is
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called dead spot or blind spot of a power system.
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3. List the basic requirements or essential qualities of protective relaying.
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(i)Reliability (ii) selectivity and discrimination (iii) speed and time (iv)sensitivity (v)
stability (vi) adequateness eer
(vii) simplicity and economy.
4. what is backup protection?
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The protection which comes in to the play when the primary protection fails is
called backup protection. When the primary protection is made inoperative for the
maintenance purpose then backup protection acts like main protection.
5. Define pickup value and plug setting multipl ier.
t(DEC-201 0)
Pickup value: it is the minimum value of an actuating quantity at which relay
starts operating. In most of the relays actuating quantity is current in the relay coil and
pickup value of current is indicated along with the relay.
Plug setting multiplier: the ratio of actual fault current in the relay coil to the
pickup current is called plug setting multiplier(P.S.M.).
6. Why the secondary of the C.T. should not be open? (MAY-2 01 5)
If the secondary of the C.T. is kept open then current through the secondary
becomes zero hence the ampere turns produced by secondary which generally oppose

primary ampere turns becomes zero. As there is no counter m.m.f., unopposed

primary m.m.f. produce high flux in the core. This produces excessive core loss
heating the core. It also produces heavy e.m.f. on primary and secondary side which
may damage the insulation of the winding. This is dangerous from the operator point
of view as well. Hence the secondary of C.T. should not be open.
7. What is pickup current? (DEC-201 4)
The minimum value of the actuating current at which the relay starts operating
is called pickup current of the relay.
8. What are the different types of faults in a power system? (May 17)(MAY-2014)
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Symmetrical faults: the fault which gives rise to equal fault currents in all the lines
with displacement of 120° between them. The example is line to line fault i.e. shorting
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of all three lines.
Unsymmetrical faults: The fault which gives rise to unequal fault currents in all the
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lines with unequal displacement between them. The example is line ground, line to
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line, line to line to ground faults.
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9. What are the causes of faults in a power system? (DEC-201 3)
The various causes are failure of insulation of conductor at one or more places,
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conducting objects comes in contact with the live part of the system, mechanical
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failure, excessive internal and external stress, over voltages due to switching surges,
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lightning strokes, heavy winds and storms, falling of trees on the lines, accidents of
vehicles with the towers or poles, perching of birds on the lines, accidental short
circuits due to snakes, kites, strings etc.
10. What are the various methods of earthing in substations?
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(MAY-20 15 )
 Solid or effective grounding

 Resistance grounding

 Reactance grounding

 Resonant grounding
11. Why earth wire is provided in overhead transmission lines? (DEC-201 5)
 To protect the line conductors from direct lightning strokes.

 To reduce the line outages

 To reduce the interference on neighbouring installations.

 To transmit telecommunication signals.


12. What is the difference between a short circuit and an overload. (DEC-2015)
When there is a short circuit, the impedance at the fault point is almost zero and
the voltage at the fault point is zero. The short circuit current is very high. While an
overload means the load is higher than the rated load which is specified as the safe
load. Thus the current is also higher than the safe load. The overload does not causes
damage instantly but if persists for long time, can cause damage to the system.
PART - B
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1. (i) Describe the Essential Qualities of Protective Relaying. (MAY-2014)
A protective relaying scheme should have certain important qualities. Such an
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essential qualities of protective relaying are,
1. Reliability
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2. Selectivity and Discrimination
3. Speed and Time
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4. Sensitivity
5. Stability gin
6. Adequateness eer
7. Simplicity and Economy
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1.1 Reliability
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A protective relaying should be reliable is its basic quality. It indicates the ability
of the relay system to operate under the predetermined conditions. The reliability of a
protection system depends on the reliability of various components like circuit
breakers, relays, current transformers (C.T.s), potential transformers (P.T.s), cables,
trip circuits etc. The proper maintenance also plays an important role in improving the
reliable operation of the. This can be achieved by the factors like,
i) Simplicity ii) Robustness iii) High contact pressure iv) Dust free enclosure iv)
Good contact material vi) Good workmanship vii)Careful Maintenance
1.2 Selectivity and Discrimination
The selectivity is the ability of the protective system to identify the faulty part
correctly and disconnect that part without affecting the rest of the healthy part of
10

system. The discrimination quality of the protective system is the ability to distinguish
between normal condition and abnormal condition and also between abnormal
condition within protective zone and elsewhere. The protective system should operate
only at the time of abnormal condition and not at the time of normal condition. Thus
the protective system should select the fault part and disconnect only the faulty part
without disturbing the healthy part of the system.
The protective system should not operate for the faults beyond its protective
zone. For example, consider the portion of a typical power system shown in the Fig.
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It is clear from the Fig that if fault F2 occurs on transmission line then the
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circuit breakers 2 and 3 should operate and disconnect the line from the remaining
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system. If the protective system is not selective then it operates for the fault beyond its
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protective zones and unnecessary the large part of the system gets isolated.
1.3 Speed and Time
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a protective system must disconnect the faulty system as fast as possible. If the
faulty system is not disconnect for a long time then,
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1. The devices carrying fault currents may get damaged.
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2. The failure leads to the reduction in system voltage. Such low voltage may
affect the motors and generators running on the consumer sude.
3. If fault persists for long time, then subsequently other faults may get generated.
The total time required between the instant of fault and the instant of final arc
interruption in the circuit breaker is called fault clearing time. It is the sum of relay
time and circuit breaker time. The fault clearing time should be as small as possible to
have high speed operation of the protective system.
11

1.4 Sensitivity
The protective system should be sufficiently sensitive so that it can operate
reliably when required. The sensitivity of the system is the ability of the relay system
to operate with low value of actuating quantity.It indicates the smallest value of the
actuating quantity at which the protection starts operating in relation with the
minimum value of the fault current in the protected zone.
The relay sensitivity is the function of the volt-amperes input to the relay coil
necessary to cause its operation. Smaller the value of volt-ampere input, more
sensitive is the relay. Thus 1 VA input relay is more sensitive than the 5VA input
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relay.
1.5 Stability
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The stability is the quality of the protective system due to which the system
remains inoperative and stable under certain specified conditions such as transients,
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disturbance, through faults etc. In most of the cases time delays, filter circuits,
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mechanical and electrical bias are provided to achieve stable operation during the
disturbances.
1.6 Adequateness gin
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There are variety of faults and disturbance those may practically exists in a power
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system. It is impossible to provide protection against each and every abnormal
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condition which may exist in practice, due to economical reasons. But the protective
system must provide adequate protection for any element of the system. The
adequateness of the system can be assessed by considering following factors,
1. Ratings of various equipments
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2. Cost of the equipments
3. Locations of the equipments
4. Probability of abnormal condition due to internal and external causes.
5. Discontinuity of supply due to the failure of the equipment
1.7 Simplicity and Economy
In addition to all the important qualities, it is necessary that the cost of the
system should be well within limits. In practice sometimes it is not necessary to use
ideal protection scheme which is economically unjustified. In such cases compromise
12

is done. As a rule, the protection cost should not be more than 5% of the total cost.
But if the equipments to be protected are very important, the economic constrains can
be relaxed.The protective system should be as simple as possible so that it can be
easily maintained. The simpler system are always more reliable.
(ii). Discuss the Nature and Causes of Faults in a power system. (DEC-2007)
Any fault in electrical apparatus is nothing but the defect in its electrical circuit
which makes current path directed from its intended path. Normally due to breaking
of conductors or failure of insulation, these faults occur. The other reasons for
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occurrence of fault include mechanical failure, accidents, excessive internal and
external stresses. The impedance of the path in the fault is low and the fault currents
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are comparatively large. The reduction of the insulation is not considered as a fault
until its show some effects such as excessive current flow or reduction of impedance
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between conductors or between conductors and earth. When a fault occurs on a
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system, the voltages of the three phases become unbalanced. As the fault currents are
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large, the apparatus may get damaged. The flow of power is diverted towards the fault
which affects the supply to the neighbouring zone.
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A power system consists of generators, transformers, switchgear, transmission
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and distribution circuits. There is always a possibility in such a large network that
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some fault will occur in some part of the system. The maximum possibility of fault
occurrence is on transmission lines due to their greater lengths and exposure to
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atmospheric conditions. The fault can not be totally eliminated from the system but
their occurrence can be minimized by improving system design, quality of the
equipment and maintenance.
The faults can be classified according to causes their incidence. The breakdown
may occur at normal voltage due to deterioration of insulation. The breakdown may
also occur due to damage on account of unpredictable causes which include perching
of birds, accidental short circuiting by snakes, kite strings, three branches etc. The
breakdown may occur at abnormal voltages due to switching surges or surges caused
by lighting.
13

The AC faults can also be classified as single line to ground fault, double line to
ground fault, three phase fault, that may occur in the system due to unbalance in
current and voltage, over voltages, reversal of power, power swings, under frequency,
temperature rise and instability.
It may be necessary to know the frequency of the fault occurrance on various
parts of the system which help in designing suitable protection circuit. Following table
gives us an idea as to how the faults are distributed in the various parts of the system.
Equipment % Total of Fault
1 Overhead line 50
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3
Switchgear
Transformer
15
12
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5
Cables
Miscellaneous
10
8
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6 Control equipment 3
7
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CTs and PTs 2
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It can be seen from the above table that maximum number of faults are occurring
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on overhead lines. In case of three phase system, the breakdown of insulation between
one of the phases and earth is known as line to ground fault. In line to line fault, there
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is insulation breakdown between either of two phases. While the insulation
breakdown between two phases and earth forms double line to ground fault. The
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breakdown of insulation between three phases is nothing but three phase fault.
Following table gives occurance of these faults. t
It can be seen from the above table that most of the faults are line to ground
faults in case of overhead lines. A large number of these faults are transitory in nature.
the word transitory refers to the fault which remains for short duration of time. The
fault current varies with time. For example if a twig falls across a line and across arm
and burns itself out or just falls down then the fault is transient as it vanishes after few
cycles. During first one to three cycles, the fault current is very high but later on
decreases very rapidly. This zone in which the current is very high but decreases very
rapidly is called 'sub transient' state. After these first few cycles, the rate of current
decreases is slower. This zone is called 'transient' state. This state remains for several
14

cycles. After the transient state is over, steady state is reached. During the steady state ,
the rms values of short circuit current remains constant. The circuit breaker operates
during transient state.
ww This fault current produced by line to ground fault has considerable magnitude.
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So the protective system must be properly designed so as to have operation of relays
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under line to ground fault.
The Line to Line to Line (L-L-L) fault is nothing but symmetrical three phase
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fault which normally occurs due to carelessness of operating personnel. Usually the
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phase lines are tried together with the help of a bare conductor so as to protect the
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lineman working on the lines against inadvertent charging of the line. Sometimes after
the work, if lineman forgets to remove the tie up between phase lines and if the circuit
breaker is closed then three phase symmetrical fault occurs.
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The most serious effect of uncleared fault is nothing but fire which destroys the
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equipment, spreads up in the system and causes total failure. The most common type
of fault which may prove the dangerous is short circuit. Due to this fault, there is great
reduction in the line voltage over a major part of the power system. There is damage
which may result to the elements of the system by electric arc which accompanies
short circuit. The other apparatus in the system are damaged due to overheating and
due to setting up of abnormal mechanical forces. The stability of the power system is
distributed which may sometimes result in complete shut down of the power system.
Due to reduction voltage, currents drawn by motors are abnormally high. This may
result into loss of industrial protection. So such faults are avoided from occurring by
designing suitable and reliable but economical protective scheme.
15

2. Explain the overlapping of protective zones with neat sketch. (DEC-201 5)

Protective Zones is a protective relaying scheme, the circuit breakers are
placed at the appropriate points such that any element of the entire power system can
be disconnected for repairing work, usual operation and maintenance requirements
and also under abnormal conditions like short circuits. Thus a protective covering is
provided around rich element of the system. A protective zone is the separate zone
which Es established around each system element. The significance of such a
protective zone I B that any fault occurring within cause the tripping of relays which
causes opening of all the circuit breakers within that zone. The various components
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which are provided with the protective zone are generators, transformers, transmission
lines, bus bars, cables, capacitors etc. No part of the system is left unprotected The
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Fig. shows the various protective zones used in a system
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The boundaries of protective zones are decided by the locations of the current
transformer. In practice, various protective zones are overlapped. The overlapping of
protective zones is done to ensure complete safety of each and every element of the
system. The zone which is unprotected is called dead spot. The zones are overlapped
and hence there is no chance of existence of a dead spot in a system. For the failures
within the region where two adjacent protective zones are overlapped, more circuit
breakers get tripped than minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty element If there
are no overlaps, then dead spot may exist, means the circuit breakers lying within the
16

zone may not trip even though the fault occurs. This may cause damage to the healthy
system. The extent of overlapping of protective zones is relatively small. The
probability of the failures in the overlapped regions is very low; consequently the
tripping of the too many circuit breakers will be frequent. The figure shows the
overlapping of protective zones in primary relaying.
The circuit breakers are located in the connections to each power system element. This
provision makes it possible to disconnect only the faulty element from the system.
Occasionally for economy in the number of circuit breakers, a breaker between the two
adjacent sections may be omitted but in that Case both the power system are required to
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be disconnected for the failure in either of the two. Each protective zone has certain
protective scheme and each scheme has number of protective systems.
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Primary and Backup Protection:
The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorized with
two types as
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1. Primary protection 2. Backup protection
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The primary protection is the first line of defense and is responsible to protect
all the power system elements from all the types of faults. The backup protection
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comes into play only when the primary protection fails.The backup protection is
1. Failure in circuit breaker ing

provided as the main protection can fail due to many reasons like,
2. Failure in protective relay .ne

3.
4.
Failure in tripping circuit
Failure in d.c tripping voltage
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Thus it the backup protection is absent and the main protection tails then there is a
possibility of severe damage to the system. When the primary protection is made
inoperative for the maintenance purpose, the backup protection acts like a main
protection. The arrangement of back up protective scheme should be such that the
failure in main protection should not the failure in bark up protection as well This is
satisfied if back up relaying and primary relaying do not have anything common.
Hence generally backup protection is located at different stations from the primary
protection. Front the cast and economy point of sew. The backup protection is
17

employed only for the protection against short circuit and not for any other abnormal
conditions.
3. Classify the different faults in power system. Which of these are more
frequent?
Electrical fault is the deviation of voltages and currents from nominal values or
states. Under normal operating conditions, power system equipment or lines carry
normal voltages and currents which results in a safer operation of the system.But
when fault occurs, it causes excessively high currents to flow which causes the
ww damage to equipments and devices. Fault detection and analysis is necessary to select
or design suitable switchgear equipments, electromechanical relays, circuit breakers
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and other protection devices.
Active Faults
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The “Active” fault is when actual current flows from one phase conductor to another
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(phase-to-phase) or alternatively from one phase conductor to earth (phase-to-earth).
This type of fault can also be further classified into two areas, namely the “solid” fault
and the “incipient” fault. gin
Passive Faults
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Passive faults are not real faults in the true sense of the word but are rather conditions
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that are stressing the system beyond its design capacity, so that ultimately active faults
will occur.
Typical examples are:

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Overloading - leading to overheating of insulation (deteriorating quality,
 reduced life and ultimate failure).

Overvoltage - stressing the insulationbeyond its limits. Under frequency
 - causing plant to behave incorrectly.

Powerswings - generators going out-of-step or synchronism with each
other
Transient & Permanent Faults
Transient faults are faults which do not damage the insulation permanently and
allow the circuit to be safely re-energized after a short period of time. A typical
18

example would be an insulator flashover following a lightning strike, which would be

successfully cleared on opening of the circuit breaker, which could then be
automatically reclosed. Transient faults occur mainly on outdoor equipment where air
is the main insulating medium. Permanent faults, as the name implies, are the result of
permanent damage to the insulation. In this case, the equipment has to be repaired and
reclosing must not be entertained. There are mainly two types of faults in the electrical
power system. Those are symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults.
1.Symmetrical faults
These are very severe faults and occur infrequently in the power systems.
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These are also called as balanced faults and are of two types namely line to line to line
to ground (L-L-L-G) and line to line to line (L-L-L). Only 2-5 percent of system faults
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are symmetrical faults. If these faults occur, system remains balanced but results in
severe damage to the electrical power system equipments. Above figure shows two
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types of three phase symmetrical faults. Analysis of these fault is easy and usually
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carried by per phase basis. Three phase fault analysis or information is required for
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selecting set-phase relays, rupturing capacity of the circuit breakers and rating of the
protective switchgear.
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1. Unsymmetrical faults
These are very common and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are
mainly three types namely line to ground (L-G), line to line (L-L) and double line to
ground (LL-G) faults.
19

Line to ground fault (L-G) is most common fault and 65-70 percent of faults are of
this type. It causes the conductor to make contact with earth or ground. 15 to 20
ww
percent of faults are double line to ground and causes the two conductors to make
contact with ground. Line to line faults occur when two conductors make contact with
w.E
each other mainly while swinging of lines due to winds and 5- 10 percent of the faults
are of this type.These are also called unbalanced faults since their occurrence causes
asy
unbalance in the system. Unbalance of the system means that that impedance values
En
are different in each phase causing unbalance current to flow in the phases. These are
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more difficult to analyze and are carried by per phase basis similar to three phase
balanced faults.
eer
ing
4. Explain the various methods of earthing the neutral point of the power system.
(DEC-2015) (May 2017)
.ne
“The process of connecting the metallic frame of electrical equipment or some
t
electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral point in a star-connected system) to earth (i.e.
soil) is called grounding or earthing.”
Methods of Neutral Grounding
i. Solid Grounding
ii. Resistance Grounding
iii. Reactance Grounding
iv. Resonant Groundings/Peterson coil Groundings
Solid Grounding
“When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3- phase generator,3-phase
transformer etc.) is directly connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a wire of negligible
20

resistance and reactance, it is called solid grounding or effective grounding.” Fig.

shows the solid grounding of the neutral point. Since the neutral point is directly
connected to earth through a wire, the neutral point is held at earth potential under all
conditions.
ww
When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the phase to earth voltage of
the faulty phase becomes zero. However, the phase to earth voltages of the remaining
w.E
two healthy phases remain at normal phase voltage because the potential of the neutral
asy
is fixed at earth potential. This permits to insulate the equipment for phase voltage.
The neutral is effectively held at earth potential. Therefore, there is a saving in the
cost of equipment.
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
When earth fault occurs on any phase, the resultant capacitive current IC is in phase
opposition to the fault current IF. The two currents completely cancel each other.
Therefore, no arcing ground or over-voltage conditions can occur.
DISADVANTAGES
The following are the disadvantages of solid grounding :
i. Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to earth faults, the
system has to bear a large number of severe shocks. This causes the system to become
unstable.
21

ii. The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the fault has to
be cleared by the circuit breakers, the heavy earth fault currents may cause the burning
of circuit breaker contacts.
iii. The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in the
neighbouring communication lines.
RESISTANCE GROUNDING
In order to limit the magnitude of earth fault current, it is a common practice to
connect the neutral point of a 3-phase system to earth through a resistor. This is called
resistance grounding. When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase
ww generator, 3-phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a resistor,
it is called resistance grounding.
w.E
asy
En
gin
If the earthing resistance R is very high, the system conditions become similar to
eer
ungrounded System. If the value of earthing resistance R is very low, the earth fault
ing
current will be large and the system becomes similar to the solid grounding system.
.ne
The value of R should neither be very low nor very high. Fig. shows the grounding of
neutral point through a resistor R.
t
In practice, that value of R is selected that limits the earth fault current to 2 times the
nor-mal full load current of the earthed generator or transformer. The value of R is so
chosen such that the earth fault current is limited to safe value but still sufficient to
permit the operation of earth fault protection system. The following are the advantages
of resistance earthing:
 
 It improves the stability of the system.

The earth fault current is small due to the presence of earthing
  Therefore, interference with communication circuits is
resistance.
reduced.
 
By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be minimized.
22

The fault current IF lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted phase by a certain
angle depending upon the earthing resistance R. Suppose earth fault occurs in phase B
ww as shown in Fig. The capacitive currents IR and IY flow in the healthy phases R and Y
respectively.
w.E
If the value of earthing resistance R is so adjusted that IF2= IC, the arcing ground is
completely eliminated and the operation of the system becomes that of solidly
asy
grounded system. The lagging component IF2 is in phase opposition to the total
En
capacitive current IC. The fault current IF can be resolved into two components viz.
i.
ii. gin
IF1 in phase with the faulty phase voltage.
IF2 lagging behind the faulty phase voltage by 90°.
eer
However, if R is so adjusted that IF2 < IC, the operation of the system becomes that
of ungrounded neutral system.
ing
.ne
The following are the disadvantages of resistance grounding:




This system is costlier than the solidly grounded system.
 t
A large amount of energy is produced in the earthing resistance during 
earth faults. Some-times it becomes difficult to dissipate this energy to atmosphere.

Since the system neutralis displaced during earth faults, the equipment has
to be insulated for higher voltages.
REACTANCE GROUNDING
In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and ground as shown in Fig.
The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current. By changing the earthing
reactance, the earth fault current can to changed to obtain the conditions similar to that
of solid grounding.
23

This method is not used these days because of the following disadvantages :
 
 High transient voltages appear under fault conditions.

device is
In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective
higher than that of resistance grounding for the same fault conditions.
RESONANT GROUNDING (OR) ARC SUPPRESSION COIL GROUNDING
ww (OR) PETERSON COIL

(May 2017)
(MAY-20 15 )
w.E
We have seen that capacitive currents are responsible for producing arcing grounds.
These capacitive currents flow because capacitance exists between each line and
asy
earth. If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel with the
En
capacitance of the system, the fault current IF flowing through L will be in phase
opposition to the capacitive current IC of the system. If L is so adjusted that IL = IC,
gin
then resultant current in the fault will be zero.
eer
“When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that the fault current IF exactly
ing
balances the capacitive current IC, it is called resonant grounding.”
.ne
t
The reactor is provided with tappings to change the inductance of the coil. By
adjusting the tappings on the coil, resonant grounding can be achieved. An arc
suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an iron-cored coil connected between the
neutral and earth as shown in Fig.
The Peterson coil grounding has the following advantages:
24

 
 The Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral system

The Peterson coilis completely effective in preventing any damage by
an arcing ground.
 
 The lines should be transposed.

Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network
changes from time totime. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil
 requires readjustment.
5. Explain in detail the various types of lightning arrestors and working Principle
of LA. (May 2017)
ww The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical system
w.E
against direct lightning strokes but they fail to provide protection against traveling
waves, which may reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters or surge
asy
diverts provide protection against such surges. A lightning arrester or a surge diverted
En
is a protective device, which conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to
the ground.
Type of LA for Outdoor Applications: gin
eer
There are several types of lightning arresters in general use. They differ only in
ing
constructional details but operate on the same principle, providing low resistance path
for the surges to the round.
1. Rod arrester .ne
2. Horn gap arrester
3. Multi gap arrester
t
4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
5. Valve type lightning arrester
(1) Rod Gap Arrester
It is a very simple type of diverter and consists of two 1.5 cm rods, which are
bent at right angles with a gap in between as shown in Fig. One rod is connected to the
line circuit and the other rod is connected to earth. The distance between gap and
insulator (i.e. distance P) must not be less than one third of the gap length so that the
25

arc may not reach the insulator and damage it. Generally, the gap length is so adjusted
that breakdown should occur at 80% of spark-voltage in order to avoid cascading of
very steep wave fronts across the insulators.The string of insulators for an overhead
line on the bushing of transformer has frequently a rod gap across it. Fig 8 shows the
rod gap across the bushing of a transformer. Under normal operating conditions, the
gap remains non-conducting. On the occurrence of a high voltage surge on the line,
the gap sparks over and the surge current is conducted to earth. In this way excess
charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted to earth
ww
w.E
asy
En
Limitations:
gin
eer
(i) After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is maintained by the normal supply
voltage, leading to short-circuit on the system.
ing
(ii) The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive heat produced by the arc.
.ne
(iii) The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity, temperature etc.) affect the
performance of rod gap arrester.
t
(iv) The polarity of the f the surge also affects the performance of this arrester.
Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is only used as a back-up protection
in case of main arresters.
(2) Horn Gap Arrester:
It consists of a horn shaped metal rods A and B separated by a small air gap.
The horns are so constructed that distance between them gradually increases towards
the top as shown. The horns are mounted on porcelain insulators. One end of horn is
connected to the line through a resistance and choke coil L while the other end is
effectively grounded. The resistance R helps in limiting the follow current to a small
26

value. The choke coil is so designed that it offers small reactance at normal power
frequency but a very high reactance at transient frequency. Thus the choke does not
allow the transients to enter the apparatus to be protected. The gap between the horns
is so adjusted that normal supply voltage is not enough to cause an arc across the gap.
ww Under normal conditions, the gap is non-conducting i.e. normal supply voltage
w.E
is insufficient to initiate the arc between the gap. On the occurrence of an over
voltage, spark-over takes place across the small gap G. The heated air around the arc
asy
and the magnetic effect of the arc cause the arc to travel up the gap. The arc moves
En
progressively into positions 1, 2 and 3. At some position of the arc (position 3), the
gin
distance may be too great for the voltage to maintain the arc; consequently, the arc is
extinguished. The excess charge on the line is thus conducted through the arrester to
the ground.
eer
(3) Multi Gap Arrester:
ing
.ne
It consists of a series of metallic (generally alloy of zinc) cylinders insulated
from one another and separated by small intervals of air gaps. The first cylinder (i.e.
t
A) in the series is connected to the line and the others to the ground through a ser ies
resistance. The series resistance limits the power arc. By the inclusion of series
resistance, the degree of protection against travelling waves is reduced.
In order to overcome this difficulty, some of the gaps (B to C in Fig) are shunted by
resistance. Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential and the normal
supply voltage is unable to break down the series gaps. On the occurrence an over
voltage, the breakdown of series gaps A to B occurs. The heavy current after
breakdown will choose the straight – through path to earth via the shunted gaps B and
C, instead of the alternative path through the shunt resistance.
27

Hence the surge is over, the arcs B to C go out and any power current following the
surge is limited by the two resistances (shunt resistance and series resistance) which
are now in series. The current is too small to maintain the arcs in the gaps A to B and
normal conditions are restored. Such arresters can be employed where system voltage
ww
does not exceed 33kV.
(4) Expulsion Type Arrester:
w.E
This type of arrester is also called „protector tube‟ and is commonly used on
asy
system operating at voltages up to 33kV. Fig shows the essential parts of an expulsion
type lightning arrester. It essentially consists of a rod gap AA‟ in series with a
En
second gap enclosed within the fiber tube. The gap in the fiber tube is formed by two
gin
electrodes. The upper electrode is connected to rod gap and the lower ele ctrode to the
eer
earth. One expulsion arrester is placed under each line conductor. Fig shows the
installation of expulsion arrester on an overhead line.
ing
.ne
t
On the occurrence of an over voltage on the line, the series gap AA‟ spanned and an
arc is stuck between the electrodes in the tube. The heat of the arc vaporizes some of
the fiber of tube walls resulting in the production of neutral gas. In an extremely short
time, the gas builds up high pressure and is expelled through the lower electrode,
28

which is hollow. As the gas leaves the tube violently it carries away ionized air around
the arc. This de ionizing effect is generally so strong that the arc goes out at a current
zero and will not be re-established.
Advantages:
 (i) They are not very expensive.

 (ii)They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they block the flow of
power frequency follow currents 

 (iii)They can be easily installed.
Limitations:
ww

 (i)An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited number of operations as
during each operation some of the fiber material is used up. 

w.E
(ii) This type of arrester cannot be mounted on enclosed equipment due to
discharge of gases during operation.

asy
(iii)Due to the poor volt/am characteristic of the arrester, it is not suitable for
En
protection of expensive equipment
(5) Valve Type Arrester:
gin
Valve type arresters incorporate non linear resistors and are extensively used on
eer
systems, operating at high voltages. Fig shows the various parts of a valve type
ing
arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps and (ii) non-linear resistor
.ne
discs in series. The non-linear elements are connected in series with the spark gaps.
Both the assemblies are accommodated in tight porcelain container.
t
The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number of identical spark
gaps in series. Each gap consists of two electrodes with fixed gap spacing. The
voltage distribution across the gap is line raised by means of additional resistance
elements called grading resistors across the gap. The spacing of the series gaps is such
that it will withstand the normal circuit voltage. However an over voltage will cause
the gap to break down causing the surge current to ground via the non-linear resistors.
The non-linear resistor discs are made of inorganic compound such as thyrite or
metrosil. These discs are connected in series. The non-linear resistors have the
property of offering a high resistance to current flow when normal system voltage is
applied, but a low resistance to the flow of high surge currents. In other words, the
29

resistance of these non-linear elements decreases with the increase in current through
them and vice-versa.
ww
Working.
w.E
Under normal conditions, the normal system voltage is insufficient to cause the break
down of air gap assembly. On the occurrence of an over voltage, the breakdown of the
asy
series spark gap takes place and the surge current is conducted to earth via the non-
En
linear resistors. Since the magnitude of surge current is very large, the non-linear
gin
elements will offer a very low resistance to the passage of surge. The result is that the
surge will rapidly go to earth instead of being sent back over the line. When the surge
eer
is over, the non-linear resistors assume high resistance to stop the flow of current.
ing
.ne
t
30

UNIT II
ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
PART – A
1. Mention any two applications of differential relay.
Protection of generator & generator transformer unit; protection of large motors
and busbars .
2. What is meant by differential relay? (April / May 2015)&(May / June 2013)
A differential relay is defined as the relay that operates when the phasor
difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value.
ww
Thus a current differential relay operates on the result of comparison between the
phase angle and magnitudes of the currents entering and leaving the system to be
w.E
protected.
asy
3. What is biased differential bus zone reduction? (April / May 2015)
The biased beam relay is designed to respond to the differential current in
En
terms of its fractional relation to the current flowing through the protected zone. It is
gin
essentially an over-current balanced beam relay type with an additional restraining
eer
coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the
operating force.
4. What is meant by directional relay? ing (May / June 2012) The
.ne
directional power relay is not suitable to use as a protective relay under short circuit
t
conditions. This is because under short circuit conditions the voltage frills
drastically and such a reduced voltage may not be sufficient to produce the driving
torque required for the relay operation.
5. What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely to be
subjected?
Failure of steam supply; failure of speed; overcurrent; over voltage; unbalanced
loading; stator winding fault .
6. What is an under frequency relay? (Nov/Dec 2014)
An under frequency relay is one which operates when the frequency of the
system (usually an alternator or transformer) falls below a certain value.
31

7. Define the term pilot with reference to power line protection.

Pilot wires refers to the wires that connect the CT‟s placed at the ends of a
power transmission line as part of its protection scheme. The resistance of the pilot
wires is usually less than 500 ohms.
8. What are the features of directional relay?
High speed operation; high sensitivity; ability to operate at low voltages;
adequate short-time thermal ratio; burden must not be excessive.
9. Define Positive Sequence Componenets.
Positive sequence components have three vectors equal in magnitude and

displaced from each other by an angle 120˚ and having the phase sequence as original
ww
vectors.
w.E
10. Define Negative Sequence Component. (Nov/Dec 2015)
It has three vectors and equal in magnitude displaced from each other by an
asy
angle 120˚and the phase sequence in opposite to its original phasor.
En
11.What are the types of electromagnetic relay?
Electromagnetic attraction
(i) gin
Attracted armature type relay
(ii) Solenoid type relay
eer
(iii) Balanced type relay
Electromagnetic Induction ing
(i) Shaded pole struture .ne
(ii) Watt – hour meter
(iii) Induction cup
t
32

PART - B
UNIT- II
1. With neat Diagram explain the construction and operation of Non Directional
over current relay.
Non-directional
This relay is also called earth leakage induction type relay .The over current
relay operates when the current in the circuit exceeds a certain preset value. The
induction type non directional over current relay has a construction similar to a watt-
hour meter, with slight modification .The fig shows the constructional details of non
ww
directional induction type over current relay.
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
It consists of two electromagnets. The upper is E shaped while the lower is shaped the
ing
aluminium disc is free to rotate between the two magnets. The spindle of the disc
.ne
carries moving contacts and when the disc rotates the moving contacts come in
contact with fixed contacts which are the terminals of a trip circuit. The upper magnet
t
has two windings. Primary and secondary. The primary connected to the secondary of
C. I. on the be protected. This winding is tapped at intervals. The tapping‟s are
connected to plug setting. With the help of this bridge, number of turns of primary
winching can be adjusted. Thus the desired current setting for the relay can be
obtained. There are usually seven sections of tapping‟s to have he overcurrent range
from 50% to 20%, in steps of 25%. These values are percentages of the curre nt rating
of the relay. Thus a relay current may be MA i.e it car be connected to C.T. with
secondary current rating of WA but with 50% setting the relay will start operating at
SA. So adjustment of the current setting is made by inserting a pin between spring
loaded jaw of the bridge socket. at he proper tap value required. When the pin is
33

withdrawn for the purpose of changing the setting while relay is in service then relay
automatically adopts a higher current setting thus secondary of C.T. is not open
circuited. So relay remains operative for the fault occurring during the point of
changing the setting. The secondary winding on the central limb of upper magnet is
connected in series with winching on the lower magnet. This winding is energised by
the induction from primary By this arrangement: of secondary winding, the leakage
duxes of upper and lower magnets are sufficiently displaced in space and time to
produce a rotational torque on the aluminium disc. The control torque is provided by
the spiral spring. When current exceeds its preset value, disc rotates and moving
ww
contacts on spindle make connection with trip circuit terminals. Angle through which
the disc rotates is between 0' to 360". The travel of the moving contacts can be
w.E
adjusted by adjusting angle of rotation of disc. This gives the relay any desired setting
which o indicated by a pointer on a time setting dial. The dial is calibrated from 0 to I.
asy
This does not give direct operating time but it gives multiplier which can be used
En
along with the time-plug setting multiplier curve to obtain actual operating time of the
gin
relay. The time-plug setting multiplier curve is provided by the manufacturer.
eer
2. With neat Diagram explain the construction and operation of Directional over
current relay.
ing (Nov / Dec 2015)
.ne
Directional over current relays
Directional Induction Type Over current Relay The directional power relay is
t
not suitable to use as a protective relay under short circuit conditions. This is because
under short circuit conditions the voltage frills drastically and such a reduced voltage
may not be sufficient to produce the driving torque required for the relay operation.
Hence in practice, directional induction type over current relay is used. This relay
operates almost independent of system voltage and power factor. directional induction
type over current relay uses two relay elements mounted. They elements are,
1. Directional element which is directional power relay 2. Non directional element
which is non directional over current relay The schematic arrangement of such a
directional relay is shown in the fig:
34

ww
w.E
asy
Directional element: The directional element is nothing but a directional power relay
En
which operates when power in the circuit flows in all particular direction the voltage
gin
coil of this element is energized by a system voltage through a potential transformer.
eer
The current coil on the lower magnet is energized by the system current through a
current transformer .The trip contacts of this relay (1 - V) are connected in series.
ing
With the second's y winding of non directional element Non directional element: The
.ne
current coil of the directional element is connected in series with the primary winding
t
of non directional element. The plug setting bridge is provided in this element to
adjust current setting as per the requirement. The trip contacts (I - I') are in series with
winding on lower magnet of non directional element. So unless and until trip contacts
(1 - V) are closed two the movement of the dice of directional element, the non
directional Operation Under normal conditions, power flows in the proper direction
and hence directional element of the relay is inoperative. Thus the secondary winding
on lower magnet of on directional element is open and hence non directional element
is also inoperative. When the fault takes place, the current or power in the circuit has a
tendency to flow in reverse direction. The current flows through current aid of
directional element which produces the flux. The current in the voltage coil produces
another flux. The two fluxes interact to produce the torque due to which the disc
35

rotates. As disc rotates, the trip contacts (1 - V) get closed. Note that the design of
directional element is such that it is very sensitive and though voltage falls under short
circuit, the current coil is responsible to produce sufficient torque to have disc rotation
It is so sensitive that it can operate even at 2 % of power flow in reverse direction The
current also flows through the primary winding on the upper magnet of non
directional element. Thus energizes the winding to produce the flux. This flux induces
the e.m.f. in the secondary winding of the non directional element according to
induction principle. As the contacts (I - V) are closed, the secondary winding has a
closed path. Hence the induced e.m.f. drives the current though it, producing the flux.
ww
The two fluxes interact to product. The driving torque which rotates the disc. Thus the
contacts of trip circuit get closed and it opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty
w.E
section. So directional element must operate first to have the operation of the non
directional element.
3.
asy
Draw and Explain about differential relay. (April / May 2015 & 12)
En
In the overcurrent relays, a current is sensed but such relays are not very
gin
sensitive as these relays cannot distinguish between heavy loads and minor fault
conditions. In such cases, differential relays can be used. A differential relay is
eer
defined as the relay that operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar
ing
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. Thus a current differential relay
.ne
operates on the result of comparison between the phase angle and magnitudes of the
currents entering and leaving the system to be protected. Under normal conditions, the
t
two currents are equal in phase and magnitude hence relay is inoperative. But under
fault conditions, this condition no longer exists. The relay is connected in such a
manner that the difference between current entering and curial leaving flows through
the operating coil. If this difference current exceeds a preset vane then the relay
operates and opens the circuit breaker. Almost any type of relay connected in a certain
way can be made to operate as a differential relay
Types of Differential Relays:
I. Current differential relay
II. Biased beam relay or percentage differential
relay III. Voltage balance differential relay
36

I. Current differential relay
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Current Differential Relay of the differential relays is of current differential type.
eer
Consider an over current relay connected in the circuit seas to operate as the current
ing
differential relay. This fig shown Two current transformers are used having same ratio
.ne
are connected on the either side of the section to be protected. The secondaries of
current transformers are connected in series, so they carry induced currents in the
same direction.
t
This relay suffers front the following disadvantages, The current transformers
are connected through tables called pilot cables. The impedance of such pilot cables
generally CAM'S slight difference between the currents at the ends of the section to be
protected A sensitive relay can operate to a very small difference IT the two currents,
though there is no fault existing.
BIASED BEAM RELAY or PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
The biased beam relay also called percentage differential relay is designed to
respond to the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the current
flowing through the protected section. It‟s called percentage differential relay because
37

the ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is a fixed

percentage. It‟s called bias relay because restraining known as biased coil produces
the bias force. Fig 17 a, shows the schematic arrangements of biased beam relay. It is
essentially an over current balanced beam type relay with an additional restraining
coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the
operating force.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force due to restraining coil
eer
is greater than operating force. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an
internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias force. Consequently the trip
ing
contacts are closed to open the circuit breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by
varying the number of turns on the restraining coil.
.ne
VOLTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
t
The given Fig shows the arrangement of voltage balance protection. In this
scheme of protection, two similar current transformers are connected at either end of
the element to be protected (e.g. an alternator winding) by means of pilot of wires.
38

The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series with a relay in such a
way that under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f‟s are in opposition.
Under healthy conditions, equal currents will flow in both primary windings.
Therefore, the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced against each
other and no current will flow through the relay-operating coil. When a fault occurs in
they protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ from one another and
their secondary voltages will no longer be in balance. This voltage difference will
cause a current to flow through the operating coil of the relay, which closes the trip
circuit.
ww
Disadvantages
The voltage balance system suffers from the following drawbacks
w.E
(i) A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve the accurate balance
between current transformer pairs.
asy
4. Explain the working principle of distance relays.
En (April/May 13)(Nov/Dec 2012 &15)
gin
The operation of the distance relays is dependent on the magnitude of the
current or voltage of the circuit to be protected. In distance relays the operation k
eer
dependent on the ratio of the voltage and current, which is expressed in terms of
ing
impedance(K). Hence basically distance relays are called impedance relays. The
.ne
impedance is nothing but an electrical measure of distance along a transmission line.
The relay operates when the ratio V/I i.e impedance is less than a predeter mined
t
value. As the ratio WI affects the performance of these relays, the relays are also
called ratio relays. Dependent on the ratio of V and I there are three types of distance
relays which are,
1. Impedance relay which is based on measurement of impedance
2. Reactance relay which is based on measurement of reactance X.
3. Admittance or Mho relay which is based on measurement of component of
admittance Y.
In short, a distance relay is one whose performance is based on the
measurement of impedance, reactance or admittance of lire between the location of
relay and the point where fault occurs. The impedance relay works corresponding to
39

the ratio of voltage V and current I of the circuit to be protected. There are two
elements in this relay; the one produces a torque proportional to current while the
other produces a torque proportional to voltage. The torque produced by the current
element is balanced against torque produced by the voltage element. Thus the current
element produces operating torque, pickup torque which can be said to the positive
torque. The voltage element produces restraining torque, reset torque which can be
said to be negative torque. So this relay is voltage restrained over current relay.
ww
w.E
asy .
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The current element is energized by current though CT while voltage element
is energized by voltage through PT* The section Ali of the line n protected under
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normal conditions, the ratio of voltage V and current I is denoted as which i s
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impedance of line. The relay is inoperative under this condition. When the fault occurs
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at point F in the protected when then the voltage drops while current increases. Thus
the ratio Vin i.e. the impedance reduces drastically. This is the impedance of line
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between the points at which relay is connected and the point F at which tend so when
t
the impedance reduces than it predetermined value A. it trips and makes the circuit
breaker open.
Time Distance impedance relay: (May 2017)
Reactance relay
Relay the operating torque b obtained by current while the restraining torque
due to a current- voltage directional relay. The overcurrent element develops the
positive torque and directional unit produces negative torque. Thus the reactance relay
is an overcurrent relay with the directional restraint. The directional element is so
designed that the maximum torque angle.
40

The structure used tor the reactance relay can be of induction cup type. It is a
four pole structure. It has operating coil, polarizing coil and a restraining coil. The
ww
schematic arrangement of coils for the reactance relay is shown in the Fig. The current
w.E
I flows from pole 1, through iron core stacking to lower pole 3. The winding on pole 4
is fed from voltage V. 1ow operating torque is produced by interaction of fluxes due
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to the windings drawing current coils of (produced by poles I. 2 and 3. While the
restraining torque is developed due to interaction of fluxes due to the poles 1, 3 and
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4). Hence the operating torque is proportional to the square of the current while the
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restraining torque is proportional to the product of V and I (VI) The desired maximum
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torque angle is obtained with the help of RC circuit.
MHO RELAY
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In the impedance relay a separate unit is required to make it directional while
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the same unit can not be used to make a reactance relay with directional feature. The
mho relay is made inherently directional by adding a voltage winding called
t
polarizing winding. This relay works on the measurement of admittance Y z 0. This
relay is also called angle impedance relay.
41

ww In this relay the operating torque is obtained by V and I element while the
restraining torque is obtained by a voltage element. Thus an admittance relay is a
w.E
voltage restrained directional relay. Thy operating torque is produced by the
interaction of the fluxes duo to the windings carried by the poles I, 2 and 3. While the
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restraining torque is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the windings
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carried by the poles I. 3 and 4. Thus the restraining torque is proportional to the square
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of the voltage (V2) while the operating torque is proportional to the product of voltage
and current (VI). The torque angle is adjusted using series tuning circuit.
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5. What are the Classification of Electromagnetic Relays?(Nov2013,May2012)
ing
All the relays consist of one or more elements which gets energized and
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actuated by the electrical quantities of the circuit. Most of the relays used now a days
are On-no-mechanical type which work on the principles of electromagnetic attraction
and electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays (May 2017)
t
The electromagnetic attraction type relays operate on the principle of attraction
of an armature by the magnetic force produced by undesirable current or movement of
plunger in a solenoid. These relays can be actuated ay a.c. or d.c. quantities. The
various types of these relays are,
1. Solenoid Type: In this relay, the plunger or iron core moves into a solenoid and the
operation of the relay depends on the movement of the plunger.
42

2. Attracted Armature Type: This relay operates on the current setting. When
current in the circuit exceeds beyond the limit, the armature gets attracted low the
magnetic force produced by the undesirable current the current rating of the circuit in
which relay is connected plays an important role in the operation of the relay.
ww
w.E
asy
En
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3. Balanced Beam Type: In this relay, the armature is fastened to a balanced beam
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for normal current, the beam remains horizontal hut when current exceeds, the
ing
armature gets attracted and beam gets tilted causing the required operation.
.ne
t
Electromagnetic Induction Type Relays
(i) Shaded-pole structure.
The general arrangement of shaded-pole structure is shown in Fig. below It
consists of a pivoted aluminum disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an electromagnet.
One half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading
ring. The alternating flux φs in the shaded portion of the poles will, owing to the
43

reaction of the current induced in the ring, lag behind the flux φu in the unshaded
portion by an angle α. These two a.c. fluxes differing in phase will produce the
necessary torque to rotate the disc. As proved earlier, the driving torque T is given by:
ww
(ii) Watthour-meter structure.
This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used in watthour meters. It
w.E
consists of a pivoted aluminium disc arranged to rotate freely between the poles of
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two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries two windings ; the pirmary and
the secondary. The primary winding carries the relay current I1 while the secondary
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winding is connected to the winding of the lower magnet.
gin
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ing
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t
The primary current induces e.m.f. in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it.
The flux φ2 Induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of
the upper magnet will lag behind φ1 by an angle α. The two fluxes φ1 and φ2
differing in phase by α will produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to
φ1φ2sin α. An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be
44

controlled by opening or closing the secondary winding circuit. If this circuit is

opened, no flux can be set by the lower magnet however great the value of current in
the primary winding may be and consequently no torque will be produced. Therefore,
the relay can be made inoperative by opening its secondary winding circuit.
(iii) Induction Cup Type:
ww
w.E
Fig. aside shows the general arrangement of an induction cup structure. It most closely
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resembles an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor
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conductor portion being free to rotate. The moving element is a hollow cylindrical
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rotor which turns on its axis. The rotating field is produced by two pairs of coils
wound on four poles as shown. The rotating field induces currents in the cup to
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provide the necessary driving torque. If φ 1 and φ2 represent the fluxes produced by
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the respective pairs of poles, then torque produced is proportional to φ1 φ2 sin α
where α is the phase difference between the two fluxes. A control spring and the back
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stop for closing of the contacts carried on an arm are attached to the spindle of the cup
t
to prevent the continuous rotation. Induction cup structures are more efficient t orque
producers than either the shaded-pole or the Watt-hour meter structures. Therefore,
this type of relay has very high speed and may have an operating time less then 0·1
second.
45

UNIT III
APPARATUS PROTECTION
PART – A
1. What are the problems associated with bus zone differential protection?(May
– June 2012)
Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits for
external faults Saturation of C.T cores due to D.C component and A.C component in
short circuit. This saturation introduces ratio-error. It split bus or sectionalizing bus is
existing, it makes the bus protection all the more difficult
ww2. What are the main safety devices available with transformers?(May 2012)
Oil level gauge, sudden pressure delay, oil temperature indicator, winding
w.E
temperature indicator of earth fault relay.
3. What is meant by relay operating time?(Nov 2012)
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It is defined as the time period extending from the occurrence of the fault
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through the relay detecting the fault to the operation of the relay.
 Failure of prime – mover gin

4. What are the various faults that would affect an alternator?(May2013&2015)
 


Failure of field

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


Over current


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


Over speed
Over voltage

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



Unbalanced Loading

Stator winding fault


t
5. Discuss the different faults that may occur in transformer.
 
 External fault
 
 Internal fault
 Short circuit in transformer winding and connection.


 Incipient or slow developing fault.
(May 2017)
6. . What are the uses of Buchholz’s relay?(May 2009)
Bucholz relay is used to give an alarm in case of incipient( slow-developing)
faults in the transformer and to connect the transformer from the supply in the event of
46

severe internal faults. It is usually used in oil immersion transformers with a rating
over 750KVA.
7. Why neutral resistor is added between neutral and earth of an alternator?
In order to limit the flow of current through neutral and earth a resistor is
introduced between them.
8. Why busbar protection is needed?
a. Fault level at busbar is high
b. The stability of the system is affected by the faults in the bus zone.
c. A fault in the bus bar causes interruption of supply to a large portion of the
ww system network.
9. What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are protected from it?
w.E
Sudden loss of all or major part of the load causes over-speeding in alternators.
Modern alternators are provided with mechanical centrifugal devices mounted on their
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driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime mover when a dangerous over-speed
occurs.
En
10.
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Give the limitations of Merz Price protection. (May 2017)
Since neutral earthing resistances are often used to protect circuit from earth-
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fault currents, it becomes impossible to protect the whole of a star-connected
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alternator. If an earth-fault occurs near the neutral point, the voltage may be
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insufficient to operate the relay. Also it is extremely difficult to find two identical
CT‟s. In addition to this, there always an inherent phase difference between the
primary and the secondary quantities and a possibility of current through the relay
even when there is no fault.
t
47

PART- B
1. Explain about transformer protection using the following methods
i) Differential protection (Merz-price protection) (8) (May june 2014,
(May 2017), Nov Dec 2013)
ii) Buchholz relay (8) (May– June 2013)

i) Differential protection (8)
Differential protection, as its name implies, compares currents entering and leaving
the protected zone and operates when the differential current between these currents
exceed a pre-determined level.
ww
The type of differential scheme normally applied to a transformer is called the current
balance or circulating current scheme as shown in the Figure.
w.E
asy
En Fault
gin Relay
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Figure - Differential protection using current balance scheme
(external
fault conditions)
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The CTs are connected in series and the secondary current circulates between
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them. The relay is connected across the midpoint where the voltage is theoretically nil,
t
therefore no current passes through the relay, hence no operation for faults outside the
protected
Under internal fault conditions (i.e. faults between the CTs) the relay operates,
since both the CT secondary currents add up and pass through the relay.
This protection is also called unit protection, as it only operates for faults on the unit it
is protecting, which is situated between the CTs. The relay therefore can be
instantaneous in operation, as it does not have to coordinate with any other relay on
the network.
48

Fault
Relay
Differential protection and internal fault conditions
This type of protection system can be readily applied to auto-transformers as shown

in Figure. All current transformer ratios remain the same and the relays are of the
ww
high-impedance (voltage-operated) type, instantaneous in operation.
w.E
asy
En
gin HZ
R
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Relay
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Differential protection applied to auto-tranformers
Practical Power Systems Protection

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There are number of factors that need consideration:
• Transformer vector group (i.e. phase shift between HV and LV) t
• Mismatch of HV and LV CTs
• Varying currents due to on-load tap changer (OLTC)
• Magnetizing in-rush currents (from one side only)
• The possibility of zero sequence current destabilizing the differential
for an external earth fault.
Factor (a) can be overcome by connecting the HV and LV CTs in star/delta
respectively (or vice versa) opposite to the vector group connections of the primary
windings, so counteracting the effect of the phase shift through the transformer.
49

The delta connection of CTs provides a path for circulating zero sequence current,
thereby stabilizing the protection for an external earth fault as required by factor (e).
It is then necessary to bias the differential relay to overcome the current unbalances
caused by factor (b) mismatch of CTs and (c) OLTC. Finally, as the magnetizing
current in-rush is predominantly 2nd, harmonic filters are utilized to stabilize the
protection for this condition (d).
Most transformer differential relays have a bias slope setting of 20%, 30% and 40%
as shown. The desired setting is dictated by the operating range of the OLTC, which
is responsible for the biggest current unbalance under healthy conditions; e.g. if the
OLTC range is +15 to –5% = 20% then the 20% bias setting is selected. Typical
ww
connections for a delta–star transformer would be as shown in Figure.
P1
w.E P2 A2 A1 a1 a2 P2 P1
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S2 S1
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BW BW ing
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A B C
t
ii) Buchholz Relay (8)
Failure of the winding insulation will result in some form of arcing, which can
decompose the oil into hydrogen, acetylene, methane, etc. Localized heating can also
precipitate a breakdown of oil into gas.
Severe arcing will cause a rapid release of a large volume of gas as well as
oil vapor. The action can be so violent that the build-up of pressure can cause an oil
surge from the tank to the conservator.
50

The Buchholz relay can detect both gas and oil surges as it is mounted in
the pipe to the conservator.
ww
w.E
asy
The unit contains two mercury switches. The production of gas in the tank will
En
eventually bubble up the pipe to be trapped in the top of the relay casing, so
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displacing and lowering the level of the oil. This causes the upper float to tilt and
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operate the mercury switch to initiate the alarm circuit. A similar operation occurs if
a tank leak causes a drop in oil level.
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The relay will therefore give an alarm for the following conditions, which are of a
low order of urgency:
• Hot spots on the core due to shorted laminations .ne
• Core bolt insulation failure
• Faulty joints
t
• Inter-turn faults and other incipient faults involving low power
• Loss of oil due to leakage.
The lower switch is calibrated by the manufacturers to operate at a certain oil flow
rate (i.e. surge) and is used to trip the transformer HV and LV circuit breakers.
This calibration is important, particularly with large transformers having force d
circulation, where starting of the pumps can sometimes cause a rush of oil into the
conservator pipe. Obviously operation should not occur for this condition.
Because of the universal response to faults within the transformer, some of which are
51

difficult to protect by other means, the Buchholz relay is invaluable. Experience has
shown that it can be very fast in operation. Speed as fast as 50 ms have been
recorded, beating all other protection systems on the transformer in process. Gas
sampling facilities are also provided to enable gas to be easily collected for analysis.
2. Explain about the following.
a) Faults occur in generator (12) (Apr 2015 ,May 2014, Nov 2012 )
b) Merz-Price protection of a generator (4) (Nov-Dec 2014,May
2013) a) Generator Faults
The various faults which can occur associated with a generator can be classified as,
ww 1. Stator faults: The faults associated with the stator of the generator
2. Rotor faults: The faults associated with the rotor of the generator.
w.E
3. Abnormal running conditions: This includes number of abnormal conditions
which may occur in practice, from which the generator must be protected.
Stator Faults
asy
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The stator faults mean faults associated with the three phase armature windings of the
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generator. These faults are mainly due to the insulation failure of the armature
windings. The main types of stator faults are.
1. Phase to earth faults
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2. Phase to phase faults
ing
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3. Inter-turn (involving turns of same phase winding). The most important and
common fault is phase to earth fault. The other two are not very common while
inter-turn fault is very difficult to detect.
Phase to Earth Faults:
t
The faults mainly occur in the armature slots. The faults are dangerous and can
severe damage to the expensive machine. The fault currents less than 20 A cause
negligible burning of core if machine is tripped quickly. But if the fault currents are
high, severe burning of stator core can take place. This may lead to the requirement of
replacing the laminations which Is very costly and time consuming. So to avoid the
damage due to phase to earth faults, a separate, and sensitive earth fault protection is
necessary for the generators along with the earthing resistance.
52

Phase to Phase Faults: The phase to phase faults means short circuit between two
phase windings. Such faults are uncommon because the insulation used between the
coils of different phases in a slot is large. But once phase to earth fault occurs, due to
the over heating phase to phase fault also may occur. This hull is likely to occur at the
end connections of the armature windings which are overheating parts outside the
slots. Such a fault causes severe arcing with very high temperatures. This may lead to
melting of copper and lire if the insulation is not fire resistant.
Stator Inter-Turn Faults: The cols used in the alternators are generally multi tum
coils. So short circuit between the turns of One Coil may occur which Is called an
ww
inter-turn fault. This fault occurs due to current surges with high value of (L di/do
voltage across the turns. But if the coils used are single turn then this fault can not
w.E
occur. Hence for the large machines of the order of 50 kVA and more, it is a normal
practice to use single turn coils. But in some countries, multi tum coils are very
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commonly used where protection against inter-turn faults is must.
En
Rotor Faults: The construction of an alternator is generally a field winding as most of
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the alternators arc of rotating field type. The field winding is made up of number of turns.
So the conductor to earth faults and short circuit between the turns of the field winding,
eer
are the commonly occurring faults with respect to a rotor. These severe mechanical and
ing
thermal stresses, acting on the field winding insulation. The field winding is generally not
grounded and hence single line to ground fault does not give any fault current. A second
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fault to earth will bring circuit the part of the field winding and may there by produce an
t
unsymmetrical field system. Such an unsymmetrical system gives rise to the unbalanced
forces on the rotor and results in pressure on the hearings and the shaft distortion, if stub
a fault is not cleared vet, early. So it is very much necessary to know the existence of the
lust occurrence of the earth fault so that corrective measures can be taken before second
pull occurs. The unbalanced loading on the generator is responsible to produce the
negative sequence currents. Thee currents produce a rotating magnetic field which rotates
in opposite direction to that of rotor magnetic field to this field, there is induced e. m f. in
the rotor winding. This causes overheating of the rotor .Rotor earth fault protection and
rotor temperature indicators are the essential and arc provided to large rating generators.
53

Abnormal Running Conditions: In practice there are number of situations in which

generator is subjected to some abnormal running conditions. The protection must be
provided against the abnormal conditions. These abnormal conditions include, I.
Overloading 2. Over speeding 3. Unbalanced loading 4. Over voltage 5. Failure of
prime mover (Arc of excitation (Field failure) 7. Cooling system failure
Overloading: Due to the continuous overloading, the overheating of the stator results.
This may increase the winding temperature. If this temperature rise exceeds certain
limit, the insulation of the winding may get damaged .The degree of overloading
decides the effects and temperature the. The protection is generally very high value
ww
hence continuous overloads of less value than the setting cannot be sensed by
overcurrent protection
w.E
Over speeding: In caw of hydraulic generators a sudden loss of load results in over
speeding of the generator. This is because the water flow to the turbine cannot be
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stopped or reduced instantly. Generally a governor is provided to present the over
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speeding. But it there is any fault in the turbine governor then the dangerous over
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speeding may take place. Hence it is necessary to supervise the working of turbine
governor and rake some corrective measures if there is some fault in the governor.
eer
Unbalanced Loading: The unbalanced loading of the generator results in the
ing
circulation of negative sequence currents. These currents produce the rotating
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magnetic field. This rotating magnetic field rotates at the synchronous speed with
respect to rotor. The direction of rotation of this magnetic field is opposite to that of
rotor.
t
Failure of Prime Mover: The failure of prime mover results in motoring operation
of synchronous generator. The generator draws active power from the network and
continues to run at synchronous speed as a synchronous motor. This may lead to
dangerous mechanical conditions if allowed to persist for more than thirty seconds.
The serious overheating of the steam turbine blades may result to prevent this reverse
power protection achieved by directional power relays is used.
Loss of Excitation: The loss of excitation or reduced excitation is possible due to the
field failure i.e. opening of field winding or due to short circuit in field or due to some
fault in exciter system. Such loss of excitation results in loss of synchronism within a
54

second and the. Causes the increase in speed of the generator. Since power input to
the machine remains same, the generator starts working as an induction generator,
drawing the reactive power from the bus. The machine starts drawing an exciting
current from the system. Which is equal to the full load rated value? This leads to the
overheating of the stator winding and the rotor body due to induced current' The loss
of excitation may also lead to the pole slipping condition which results in the voltage
reduction for the output above hail the rated load Loss of excitation should not persist
for long and corrective measures disconnection of alternator should be taken
immediately. For this a tripping scheme can be used which can trip the generator
ww
circuit breaker immediately when there is a field failure.
Cooling System Failure: failure of cooling system also causes severe overheating to
w.E
rise the temperature above safe limit. This may lead to insulation failure, causing
some other faults to occur. The thermocouples or resistance thermometers are used in
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large machines to sensor the temperature. The corrective measures are taken
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whenever the temperature exceeds the limit Apart from the above dominant abnormal
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conditions, some conditions may exist which are fare m practice.
b) Merz-price protection of a generator
eer
This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator windings.
ing
The scheme is also called biased differential protection and percentage differential
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protection. In this method, the currents at the two ends of the protected section are
sensed using current transformers. The wires connecting relay coils to the current
t
transformer secondary‟s arc called pilot wires. Under normal conditions, when there
is no fault in the windings, the currents in the pilot wires fed (mm C.T. secondary‟s
are equal. The differential current is - through the operating cods of the relay as zero.
Hence the relay is inoperative and system is said to be balanced. When fault occurs
inside the protected section ot the stator windings, the differential current i, - 12 flows
through the operating coils of the relay. Due to this current, the relay operates.. This
trips the generator circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section. The field is also
disconnected and is discharged through suitable impedance.
55

3.Explain about Motor protection (16)

Ground fault protection
The ground fault protection is achieved using earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB).
ww
When the fault current or leakage current flows through earth return path then it forms
w.E
the earth fault. These faults are relatively frequent and hence protection is required
against these which is provided with the help of Earth leakage circuit breaker.
asy
Consider an example of a person whose finger sticks into the socket. Even though the
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metal enclosure is securely earthed, the person will receive a severe shock. Under
such case there must be certain device that will cut the supply. This can he done with
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the help of ELCB which will typically trip in around 25 cms if current exceeds its
preset value. The schematic of ELCB is shown in Fig.
eer
ing
.ne
t
As shown in the Fig ELCB consists of a small current transformer surrounding live
and neutral wire. The secondary winding of current transformer is connected to relay
circuit which can trip the circuit breaker which is connected in the circuit.
Under normal conditions, the current in line and neutral conductor is same so the net
current (IL -IN) flowing through the core is zero. Eventually there will not be any
production of flux in the core and no induced emf. So the breaker does not trip. If
56

there is a fault due to leakage from live wire to earth or a person by mistake touching
to the live terminal then the net current through the core will no longer remain as zero
but equal to IL -IN or I, which will set up flux and emf in CT. As per the preset value
the unbalance in current is detected by C.T. and relay coil is energized which will
give tripping signal for the circuit breaker. As C.T. operates with low value of
current, the core must be very permeable at low flux densities.
Phase Fault Protection
This protection is also called short circuit protection. At the time of such a fault, the
current increases by 8 to 10 times the full load current of the motor. Attracted
ww
armature type relay unit is connected in each phase with a current setting of 4 -5
times the full load current. This is because starting current can he 4-5 times full load
w.E
current.
asy
En
gin
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ing
.ne
t
The phase faults can cause burn out of coils and stampings and hence motor should be
disconnected as quickly as possible when fault occurs. Fast over current relays also
are used to provide phase fault protection. As mentioned above to avoid relay
functioning during starting, the short circuit protection current setting must be just
above the maximum starting current of the motor.
Phase Reversal Protection: The direction of induction motor depends on the
direction of rotating magnetic field produced by the stator windings. For a particular
phase sequence RYB the motor rotates in a particular direction due to corresponding
direction of rotating magnetic field. But if any two lines are interchanged after repairs
the phase sequence reverses such as YRB. Then the direction of rotating magnetic
57

field also reverses and induction motor starts rotating in opposite direction. Such a
change of direction is dangerous if the induction motor is used for cranes, hoists, lifts
or in threading mills etc.
Thus to disconnect induction motor from supply if there is phase reversal, phase
reversal protection is provided. This protection is provided using motor driven disc
working on electromagnetic principle. The secondaries of two current transformers
connected in two lines drive the motor to operate the disc. The arrangement is such
that for a normal direction of motor, disc rotates in a particular direction which keeps
the auxiliary contacts closed. But if there is phase reversal then the torque produce d
ww
reverses to rotate the disc in opposite direction. Due to this auxiliary contacts get
opened. This in turn either operates the circuit breaker or de-energizes starter coil to
w.E
disconnect the motor from the supply. Thus phase reversal protection for the
induction motor is achieved. Now a day's solid state phase reversal relay sensing the
asy
phase reversal is used.
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4. Explain about the Protection of transmission line. (16)( Nov 2013,April 2013)
gin
The transmission lines are required to be protected by comprehensive and quite
complicated protective schemes so that the interruption is reduced to minimum with
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regard to the time of interruption and the area affected by power interruption. The
ing
probability of faults occurring on the transmission lines is much more due to their
length and exposure to atmospheric conditions.
Main requirements .ne
t
1. In the event of fault, or short circuit the breaker close to the fault should open
and all other breakers are to remain in closed position, except in case of grid
lines.
2. In case the nearest breaker to the fault to open, back-up protection should be
provided by the adjacent breakers.
3. The relay operating time should be as short as possible in order to pressure
system stability.
Protection of transmission line has quite a different problem, compared to
protection of generators, transformers, motors etc.
58

A transmission system may use one or more of the following types of

protection.
1. Over current protection non directional time and current graded scheme
2. Directional time and current graded scheme
3. Distance protection using high speed distance relays
4. Pilot wire protection
5. Carrier current pilot protection
6. Micro wave pilot protection
Distance protection of lines
ww Impedance relay, reactance relay and admittance relay form the family
of distance relays.
w.E
Pilot wire protection
Pilot relaying is an adaptation of principles of differential relaying for the
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protection of transmission lines. The term „pilot‟ means an interconnecting channel
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of sort over which signaling information can be conveyed. These channels are three
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types viz.Pilot wire channel, carrier current channel or micro wave channel.
In pilot wire channel, physical wires are to be run from one end to the o ther. In
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carrier current pilot channel a low voltage high frequency ( 30 kHz to 200kHz)
ing
currents are transmitted along a power line conductor to be received at the other end,
the ground wire generally acting as a return conductor.
.ne
A micro wave pilot is an UHF radio system operating above 900 MHz. a pilot
t
wire channel is generally economical for distances of the order of 10 o 15 kms,
beyond which carrier current pilot usually becomes more economical.
Using microwave pilot, many services can be rendered which is not
technically feasible in carrier current pilot.
Translay type protection consists of two induction relays, one relay at the
sending end and the other in the receiving end. Induction relay consists of two coils
viz. current coil and primary coil wound on two electromagnets.
59

Current transformer Current transformer
10
ww Pilot wires
w.E Using microwave pilot, many services can be rendered which is not
technically feasible in carrier current pilot.
asy
Translay type protection consists of two induction relays, one relay at the
En
sending end and the other in the receiving end. Induction relay consists of two coils
gin
viz. current coil and primary coil wound on two electromagnets.
The primary coils of the two relays are connected to C.Ts of the three
eer
phases. Both the secondary coils of the relays are connected in opposition to the
pilot wires.
ing
.ne
This relay is of balance voltage type and it operates on the principle based
on the comparison of the magnitude and phase of the currents at the two ends of the
protected section. It uses the principle of differential protection.
Operation
t
Due to the interaction of the fluxes produced by the current coil and
primary coil, the disc rotates. This causes the contacts of the trip coil to close and
then the CB will open. Under normal operating condition the current in the
secondary of the C.Ts are Ia, Ib, Ic. But as Ia + Ib + Ic = 0, no flux is produced in the
primary coil.
T ∞ φ1 φ2 sinα
If flux is zero, the torque is also zero. The disc does not rotate.
60

When there is a fault, the sum of the current will not be zero and it induces flux in
the primary coil. The primary coil is highly resistive and the current coil is highly
inductive, so there will be phase angle between the two fluxes. Thus the torque is
produced and this causes the disc to rotate and close the trip coil. It is a good scheme
up to 16 kms.
Disadvantages
Additional cost of pilot wires
Needs supervision check
Open circuit and short circuit of pilot wires leads to relay failure.
ww
5.Differentiate between CT and PT. (6). (May June 2012) (May 2017)
S. Current Transformers (CT) Potential/Voltage Transformers
No
1 w.E
The Primary winding of a C.T have
(PT/VT)
The Primary winding of a P.T have
secondary.
asy
smaller number of turns than larger number of turns than secondary.
2
En
The secondary of a C.T cannot be
open circuited on any circumstance
The secondary of a P.T can be open
circuited without any damage being
when it is under service.
gin caused either to the operator or the
transformer.
3 A CT may be considered as a series
transformer.
eer
P.T may be considered as a parallel
transformer.
4 The primary current in a C.T is
independent of the secondary circuit
ing
The primary current of a P.T depends
upon the secondary circuit conditions
5
conditions (burden/load).
The primary winding of the CT is
(burden/load).
.ne
The primary winding P.T is connected
connected in series with the line
carrying the current to be measured.
Hence it carries of the full line
current.
t
across the line of voltage to be
measured. Hence the full line voltage
is impressed across its terminal.`
6 With the help of CT, a 5A ammeter With the help of P.T, a 120V voltmeter
can be used measure a high current can be used to measure very high
like 200A. voltages like 11KV.
61

UNIT IV
STATIC RELAYS AND NUMERICAL PROTECTION
PART A
1. What is a static relay?
A static relay refers to a relay in which measurement or comparison of
electrical quantities is done in a static network which is designed to give an output
signal, when a threshold condition is passed, which operates a tripping device.
2. List the types of static relays.
1. Electronic relays 2. Transducer relays 3. Rectifier bridge relays
ww 4. Transistor relays 5. Hall effect relays 6. Guass effect relays

3. What are the advantages of a static relay over electromagnetic relay?(Nov

w.E
2013)
Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is

less.
asy


En
Low Weight and Requires Less Space which results in panel space saving.


 gin
Arc less switching and No acoustical noise. 
Multi-function integration and Fast response.



eer
Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations 


 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay ing

High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay

 Low Electromagnetic Interference and Less power consumption .ne

4. What are the limitations of a static relay?
 Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.
t
 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation
of breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of CTs and PTs.

Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay
contacts etc.

Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics of semiconductor
devices are affected by ambient temperature. Highly reliable power supply
 circuits are required
62

5. Define comparator.
Comparator is a part of a static relay which receives two inputs to be compared
and gives output based on comparison. Types are amplitude comparator, phase
comparator, Hybrid comparator.
6. What are the types of electronic circuits used in a static protection system?
Analog circuits – For simple functions
Digital circuits – For complex functions Hybrid
circuits – For highly complex functions
ww
7. How does a numerical over current relay work? (May 2017)
Numerical overcurrent protection algorithm first reads all the setting such as
w.E
the type of charaterisitcs to be implemented, the pick up value Iperunit, the time
multiplier setting in case of inverse time overcurrent relay or the time delay in case of
asy
DTOC relay. Using a multiplexer,, the microproceesor can sense the faults currents. If
En
fault current exceeds a pickup value,, microprocessor sends a tripping signal to the
C.B of the faulty circuit.
8. Define a hybrid comparator. gin
eer
It is a comparator which compares both magn itude and phase of the input
ing
quantities. Hence amplitude and phase comparators are used. Inputs are given to phase
.ne
comparator and output of phase comparator is given to amplitude comparator.
9. What is digital filtering?
Digital filtering is performed using analog filters consisting of RLC circuits
and active filters using operational amplifiers which is the most needed operation in
t
numerical relaying.
10. Define sampling theorem. (May 2017)
It states that in order to preserve the information contained in a signal of

frequency it must be sampled at a frequency at least equal to or greater than twice the
signal frequency.
ɷsampling,min ≥ 2ɷsignal
63

PART B
1. Explain with neat block diagram the solid state relays. (16)(Nov 2013)
 The static relay are next generation relays .The Solid Static relays was first
introduced in 1960‟s. The term „static‟ implies that the relay has no moving
mechanical parts in it. Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static
relay has longer life-span, decreased noise when operates and faster respond speed.
However, it is not as robust as the Electromechanical Relay.
 Static relays were manufactured as semi conductor devices which incorporate
ww transistors, ICs, capacitors, small micro processors etc.The static relays have been
designed to replace almost all the functions which were being achieved earlier by


w.E
electromechanical relays.
Measuring principles: The working principle of the Solid Static relays is
asy
similar to that of the Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid Static relays can

En
perform tasks that the Electromechanical Relay can perform.

gin
The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic
coils and mechanical components to create the relay characteristics. the measurement
eer
is carried out by static circuits consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc .In
ing
a solid state relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by
.ne
analog circuits, not recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared to settings
made by the user via potentiometers in the relay, and in some case, taps on

transformers.

t
Function of Relay: Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and
diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in
electronics enabled the use of linear and digital integrated circuits in later versions for
signal processing and implementation of logic functions. While basic circuits may be
common to a number of relays, the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single
protection function percase, while complex functions required several cases of
hardware suitably interconnected.

 User programming was restricted to the basic functions of adjustment of relay
characteristic curves. Therefore it can be viewed in simple terms as an analogue 
64

electronic replacement for electromechanical relays, with some additional flexibility

in settings and some saving in space requirements.
 In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for reduced CT/VT output
requirements. in a static relay there is no armature or other moving element and
response is developed by electronic, magnetic or other components without
mechanical motion.

 A relay using combination of both static and electro-magnetic units is also
called a static relay provided that static units accomplish the response. 

 The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are
ww

fast acting and accuracy of measurement is better than electromagnetic relay. 
 Operation of Relay: The essential components of static relays are shown in
w.E
fig. The output of CT and PT are not suitable for static components so they are
brought down to suitable level by auxiliary CT and PT. Then auxiliary CT output is
asy
given to rectifier. Rectifier rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or
PT or a Transducer 
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
 The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit comprising of comparators,
level detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is actuated when the dynamic input
(i.e., the relaying quantity) attains the threshold value. This output of the measuring
unit is amplified by amplifier and fed to the output unit device, which is usually an
electro-magnetic one. The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay operate s.
Advantages of Solid State Relay:
 Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error
is less.
65

 Low Weight and Requires Less Space which results in panel space saving.
 Arc less switching and No acoustical noise.
 Multi-function integration and Fast response.
 Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations
 High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay
 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay
 Low Electromagnetic Interference and Less power consumption.
 Shock and vibration resistant
 Microprocessor compatible.

ww

No moving parts and No mechanical contact bounce or arcing:
Low input signal levels and Low Cost
 w.E
Limitations of static relays:
Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.

asy
Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation
 En
of breaker and isolator in the primary circuit of CTs and PTs.
gin
Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit,
relay contacts etc.

eer
Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics of semiconductor
 ing
devices are affected by ambient temperature. Highly reliable power supply
.ne
circuits are required.
 Effect of environmental conditions like humidity, high ambient temperature,

dust accumulation on PCB leading to tracking.
The component failure and Non availability of fault data.
t
 Characteristic variations with passage of time
2. Explain the block diagram of numerical rel ay with neat sketch. (16) (May 2017)
The first protection devices based on microprocessors were employed in 1985. The
widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the customer and the experiences of
the user helped in developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990.
Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard wired relays. Their wiring is
fixed, only their setting can be manually changed. Numeric relays are
66

programmable relays. The characteristics and behaviour of the relay can be

programmed.
 First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay
protection characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of
providing complete protection with added functions like control and monitoring.
Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection,
reliability, and trouble shooting and fault information. 

 Measuring principles: The input analogue signals are converted into a digital
representation and processed according to the appropriate mathematical algorithm.
ww Processing is carried out using a specialized microprocessor that is optimized for

signal processing applications, known as a digital signal processor or DSP for short.


w.E
Digital processing of signals in real time requires a very high power microprocessor. 
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays
asy
(electromechanical and static) are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which
En
can differ in many aspects like the type of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal
gin
processing, hardware selection, software discipline, etc. These are microprocessor -
based relays in contrast to other relays that are electromechanically controlled.


eer
Function of Relay:Modern power system protection devices are built with
ing
integrated functions. Multifunction like protection, control, monitoring and measuring
.ne
are available today in numeric power system protection devices. Also, the
communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and

data transfer.
 Numerical protection devices are available for generation,transmission and
t
distribution systems 

 Numerical relays are micro processor based relays and having the features of
recording of parameter used as disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms &
can be used one relay for all type of protections of one equipment hence less area is
required. Wide Range of setting, more accurate,. Numeric relays take the input analog
quantities and convert them to numeric values. All of the relaying functions are
performed on these numeric values.
67

 These relays provide great precision and convenience in application in the

sophisticated electronic products. By combining several functions in one case,
numerical relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical
relays.

 Operation of Relay: A current signal from CT is converted into proportional
voltage signal using I to V converter.The ac voltage proportional to load current is
converted into dc using precision rectifier and is given to multiplexer (MUX) which
accepts more than one input and gives one output. Microprocessor sends command
signal to the multiplexer to switch on desired channel to accept rectified voltage
ww

proportional to current in a desired circuit. 
 Output of Multiplexer is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) to obtain
w.E
signal in digital form. Microprocessor then sends a signal ADC for start of conversion
(SOC), examines whether the conversion is completed and on receipt of end of
asy
conversion (EOC) from ADC, receives the data in digital form. The microprocessor
En
then compares the data with pick-up value. If the input is greater than pick-up value

 gin
the microprocessor send a trip signal to circuit breaker of the desired circuit. 
In case of instantaneous over current relay there is no intentional time delay
eer
and circuit breaker trips instantly. In case of normal inverse, very inverse, extremely
ing
inverse and long inverse over current relay the inverse current-time characteristics are
stored in the memory of microprocessor in tabular form called as look-up table.
Advantages of Numerical relays: .ne


Compact Size
Flexibility:
t
 Reliability
 Multi Function Capability
 Modular frame:
 Low burden: .
 Sensitivity:
 Speed & Fast Resetting
68

ww
w.E
Limitations of Numerical Relay:

asy
Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Numerical
En
Relay can make faster decisions. Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-
proprietary software, exposing the system to potential risk of hacking.


gin
Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to externally-sourced
 eer
transient interference that would not affect conventional technology. 

ing
Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there
are common failure modes that can affect multiple elements of protection. 
.ne
3. Describe with neat block diagram the working of numerical over current
t
protection. (16)
The output of the rectifier is fed to the multiplexer. The microcomputer sends a
command to switch on desired channel of the mu;tiplexer to obtain the rectified
voltage proportional to the current ina particular circuit. The output of the multiplexer
is fed to the A/D converter to obtain the signal in digital form. The A/D converter
ADC 0800 has been used for this purpose. The microcomputer reads the end of
conversion signal to examine whether the conversion is over or not. As soon as the
69

conversion is over, the microcomputer reads the current signal in digital formand then
compares it with the pick up value.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
The microprocessor first determines the magnitude of the fault current and then
ing
selects the corresponding time of the desired delay. Using the sample program, any
.ne
characteristics such as IDMT, very inverse or extremely inverse can be realized by
simply changing the data of the look up table according to the desired characteristics
t
to be realized. The microcomputer continuosly measures the current and moves in the
loop and if the measured current exceeds the pick up value, it compares the measured
value of the current with the digital values of current given in the look up table in
order to select the corresponding count for a time delay. Then it goes in delay
subroutine and sends a trip signal to the C.B after the predetermined time delay. The
program flowchart is shown below.
70

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
When the fault current exceeds the pick up value, the fault current is measured once
again by the microprocessor to confirm whether it is a fault current or transient. In
case of any transient of short duration, the measured current above pick up value will
not appear in the second measurement. But if there is an actual fault, it will again
appear in the second measurement also and then the microprocessor will issue the
tripping signal to disconnect the faulty part of the system.
4. Describe with neat block diagram the working of numerical transformer
differential protection. (16)
71

The figure below shows the conceptual block diagram for numerical protection of the
transformer. The idea is to estimate the pohasor value of the current on both sides of
the transformer and find the phasor difference between the two. If them magnitude of
this difference is substantial, an internal fault is indicated and the trip signal should be
issued. The above is the description of the simple differential scheme. All the reasons
that prompt us to go in for the percentage differential relay exist here as well.
Therfore, the numerical relay algorithm should be made to implement the percentage
differential relay.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
1. Read percentage bias B and the minimum Pick up Ipu. .ne
Algorithm for percentage differential relay will consists of the following steps.
2.
3.
Read ip samples . estimate phasor Ip using any technique.
Read is samples. Estimate phasor Is using any technique.
t
4. Compute spill current Ispill = Ip - Is.
5. Compute circulating current Icirculating = (Ip + Is ) / 2
6. If Ispill > (BIcirculating + Ipu) then trip, else restrain.
5. Describe with neat block diagram the working of static instantaneous

overcurrent protection relay. (16)
The block diagram of the static instantaneous overcurrent relay is shown
below. The current derived from the C.T is fed to the input transformer which gives a
72

proportional output voltage. The input transformer has an airgap in the iron core to
give linearity in then current / voltage relationship up to the highest value of current
expected and is provided with tappings on its secondary winding to obtain different
current settings. The ouput voltage of the transformer is rectified through a rectifier
and then filtered at a single stage to avoid undesirable time delay in filtering, so as to
ensure high speed of operation. A limiter made of zener diode is also incorporated in
the circuit to limit the rectified voltage to safe values even when the input current is
very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of the rectified and filtered voltage
(through a potential divider) is compared against a preset pick up by a level detector
ww
and if it exceeds the pick up value, a signal through an amplifier is given to the output
device which issues the trip signal. The output may either be a static thyristor circuit
w.E
or an electromagnetic slave relay.
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t
73


PART-A
1. What is resistance switching?
It is the method of connecting a resistance in parallel with the contact spac e(arc). The
resistance reduces the restriking voltage frequency and it diverts part of the arc
current. It assists the circuit breaker in interrupting the magnetizing current and
capacity current.
2. What do you mean by current chopping?(Nov 2014)
When interrupting low inductive currents such as magnetizing currents of the
ww
transformer, shunt reactor, the rapid deionization of the contact space and blast effect
may cause the current to be interrupted before the natural current zero. This
w.E
phenomenon of interruption of the current before its natural zero is called current
chopping.
asy
3. What is an arc? (May 2013)
En
Arc is a phenomenon occurring when the two contacts of a circuit breaker separate
gin
under heavy load or fault or short circuit condition.
4. Give the two methods of arc interruption? (Nov 2012,Apr 2015)
eer
High resistance interruption:-the arc resistance is increased by elongating, and
ing
splitting the arc so that the arc is fully extinguished _ Current zero method:-The arc is
.ne
interrupted at current zero position that occurs100 times a second in case of 50Hz
power system frequency in ac.
5.What is restriking voltage? (May 2017)
t
It is the transient voltage appearing across the breaker contacts at the instant of arc
being extinguished.
6. What is meant by recovery voltage?(May 2013,May 2012)
The power frequency rms voltage appearing across the breaker contacts after the arc is
extinguished and transient oscillations die out is called recovery voltage.
7. What is RRRV?(Apr 2015)
It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage, expressed in volts per microsecond. It is
closely associated with natural frequency of oscillation.
74

8. What are the advantages of oil as arc quenching medium?


It absorbs the arc 
energy to decompose the oil into gases, which have excellent
 cooling properties

It acts as an insulatorand permits smaller clearance between line conductors and
 earthed components
9. What are the types of air blast circuit breaker?
Arial-blast type
Cross blast
Radial-blast
10. What are the advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
 
ww



It requires lesser quantity of oil
It requires smaller space



 w.E
There is a reduced risk of fire

M aintenance problem are reduced


asy
En PART-B
gin
1.Explain about the SF6 circuit breaker in detail.(Nov 2015,2014,2012) (16)
SF6 circuit breaker.
eer
At this point we are aware that the medium in which arc extinction of the circuit
ing
breaker takes place greatly influences the important characteristics and life of the
.ne
circuit breaker. the working of a vacuum circuit breaker was illustrated. We already
know that the use of vacuum circuit breaker is mainly restricted to system voltage
below 38 kV. The characteristics of vacuum as medium and cost of the vacuum CB
does not makes it suitable for voltage exceeding 38 kV. In the past for higher
t
transmission voltage Oil Circuit Breaker (OCB) and Air Blast Circuit Breaker
(ABCB) were used. These days for higher transmission voltage levels SF6 Circuit
Breakers are largely used. OCB and ABCB have almost become obsolete.
In fact in many installations SF6 CB is used for lower voltages like 11 kV, 6 kV
etc.. i)sulphur Hexafluoride symbolically written as SF6 is a gas which satisfy the
requirements of an ideal arc interrupting medium. So SF6 is extensively used these days
as an arc interrupting medium in circuit breakers ranging from 3 kv upto 765 kv class. In
addition to this SF6 is used in many electrical equipments for insulation. Here
75

first we discuss in brief, some of the essential properties of SF6 which is the reason of
it's extensive use in circuit breakers. SF6 gas has high dielectric strength which is the
most important quality of a material for use in electrical equipments and in particular
for breaker it is one of the most desired properties. Moreover it has high Rate of Rise
of dielectric strength after arc extinction.
CONSTRUCTION and PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
ww
w.E
asy
En
The construction and working principles of SF6 circuit breaker varies from
gin
manufacturer to manufacturer. In the past double pressure type of SF6 breakers were
used. Now these are obsolete. Another type of SF6 breaker design is the self blast
eer
type, which is usually used for medium transmission voltage. The Puffer type SF6
ing
breakers of single pressure type are the most favored types prevalent in power
.ne
industry. Here the working principle of Puffer type breaker is illustrated As illustrated
in the figure the breaker has a cylinder and piston arrangement. Here the piston is
t
fixed but the cylinder is movable. The cylinder is tied to the moving contact so that for
opening the breaker the cylinder along with the moving contact moves away from the
fixed contact (Fig-A(b)). But due to the presence of fixed piston the SF6 gas inside the
cylinder is compressed. The compressed SFe gas flows through the nozzle and over
the electric arc in axial direction. Due to heat convection and radiation the arc radius
reduces gradually and the arc is finally extinguished at current zero.
The dielectric strength of the medium between the separated contacts increases rapidly
and restored quickly as fresh SF6 gas fills the space. While arc quenching, small
quantity of SF6 gas is broken down to some other fluorides of sulphur which mostly
76

recombine to form SF6 again. A filter is also suitably placed in the interrupter to
absorb the remaining decomposed by product.
The gas pressure inside the cylinder is maintained at around 5 kgf per sq. cm. At
higher pressure the dielectric strength of the gas increases. But at higher pressure the
SF6 gas liquify at higher temperature which is undesired. So heater is required to be
arranged for automatic control of the temperature for circuit breakers where higher
pressure is utilised. If the SF6 gas will liquify then it loses the ability to quench the
arc. Like vacuum breaker, SF6 breakers are also available in modular design form so
that two modules connected in series can be used for higher voltage levels. SF6
ww
breakers are available as both live tank and dead tank types. In Fig-above a live tank
outdoor type 400 kV SF6 breaker is shown.
w.E
This characteristics is very much sought for a circuit breaker to avoid restriking.
SF6 is colour less, odour less and non toxic gas.
asy
SF6 is an inert gas. So in normal operating condition the metallic parts in
En
contact with the gas are not corroded. This ensures the life of the breaker and reduces
the need for maintenance.
gin
SF6 has high thermal conductivity which means the heat dissipation capacity is
eer
more. This implies greater current carrying capacity when surrounded by SF6 .
ing
The gas is quite stable. However it disintegrates to other fluorides of Sulphur in
.ne
the presence of arc. but after the extinction of the arc the SF6 gas is reformed from the
decomposition.
SF6 being non-flammable so there is no risk of fire hazard and explosion.
A sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur
t
hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for transmission-level
voltages and may be incorporated into compact gas-insulated switchgear. In cold
climates, supplemental heating or de-rating of the circuit breakers may be required
due to liquefaction of the SF6 gas.
Advantages:
Due to superior arc quenching property of sf6 , such breakers have very short
arcing time
77

Dielectric strength of sf6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such breakers can
interrupt much larger currents.
Gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit
Closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that there is no moisture problem
There is no risk of fire as sf6 is non-inflammable
There are no carbon deposits
Low maintenance cost, light foundation requirements and minimum auxiliary
equipment
sf6 breakers are totally enclosed and sealed from atmosphere, they are
ww
particularly suitable where explosion hazard exists
Disadvantages:
w.E
sf6 breakers are costly due to high cost of sf6
sf6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker, additional
asy
equipment is required for this purpose
En
2. Explain about the vacuum circuit breaker in detail.(Apr 2015) (16)
Vacuum circuit breakers
gin
In this breaker, vacuum is being used as the arc quenching medium. Vacuum
eer
offers highest insulating strength, it has far superior arc quenching properties than any
ing
other medium. When contacts of a breaker are opened in vacuum, the interruption
.ne
occurs at first current zero with dielectric strength between the contacts building up at
a rate thousands of times that obtained with other circuit breakers. Principle: When
t
the contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum (10 -7 to 10 -5 torr), an arc is
produced between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapours of contacts. The arc
is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons, and ions produced
during arc condense quickly on the surfaces of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting
in quick recovery of dielectric strength. As soon as the arc is produced in vacuum, it is
quickly extinguished due to the fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum
Construction:
Fig shows the parts of a typical vacuum circuit breaker. It consists of fixed
contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber. The
movable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows
78

This enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the
possibility of leak .A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating
body. The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by
preventing metallic vapours falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating cover.
ww
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asy
Working:
En
When the breaker operates the moving contacts separates from the fixed
gin
contacts and an arc is struck between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the
eer
ionization of metal ions and depends very much upon the material of contacts. The arc
ing
is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced
during arc are diffused in short time and seized by the surfaces of moving and fixed
.ne
members and shields. Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric
t
strength, the arc extinction in a vacuum breaker occurs with a short contact separation.
Advantages:
They are compact, reliable and have longer life.
There are no fire hazards
There is no generation of gas during and after operation
They can interrupt any fault current. The outstanding feature of a VCB is that it
can break any heavy fault current perfectly just before the contacts reach the definite
open position.
They require little maintenance and are quiet in operation
Can withstand lightning surges
79

Low arc energy

Low inertia and hence require smaller power for control mechanism.
Applications:
For outdoor applications ranging from 22 kV to 66 kV. Suitable for majority of
applications in rural area.
3. Explain about the oil circuit breakers in detail.(16)(Nov 2013,Nov 2015)

Types of oil Circuit Breakers
Oil circuit breakers can be classified into following types:
ww
1) Bulk oil circuit breakers
which use a large quantity of oil. In this circuit breaker the oil serves two purposes.
w.E
Firstly it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and secondly it insulates the
current conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank. Such circuit
asy
breakers are classified into:
En
Plain oil circuit breakers
Arc control circuit breakers
gin
In the former type no means is available for controlling the arc and the contacts are
eer
exposed to the whole of the oil in the tank. In the latter special arc control devices are
ing
employed to get the beneficial action of the arc as efficiently as possible
.ne
2) Low (Minimum) oil circuit breakers
Which use minimum amount of oil. In such circuit breakers oil is used only for arc
t
extinction, the current conducting parts are insulated by air or porcelain or organic
insulating material.
Construction
There are two chambers in a low oil circuit breaker; the oil in each chamber is
separated from each other. The main advantage of this is that low oil is re quired and
oil in second chamber won„t get polluted. Upper chamber is called the circuit breaker
chamber and lower one is called the supporting chamber. Circuit breaking chamber
consists of moving contact and fixed contact. Moving contact is connected with a
80

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asy
En
piston it„s just for the movement of the contact and no pressure build due to its
gin
motion. There are two vents on fixed contact they are axial vent for small current
produced in oil due to heating of arc and radial vents for large currents. The whole
eer
device is covered using Bakelite paper and porcelain for protection. Vents are placed
in a tabulator.
ing
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Operation
Under normal operating conditions, the moving contacts remain engaged with the
t
upper fixed contact. When a fault occurs, the moving contact is pulled down by the
tripping springs and an arc is struck. The arc vaporizes oil and produces gases under
high pressure. This action constrains the oil to pass through a central hole in the
moving contact and results in forcing series of oil through the respective passages of
the turbulator. The process of tabulation is orderly one, in which the sections of arc
are successively quenched by the effect of separate streams of oil, moving across each
section in turn and bearing away its gases constrains the oil to pass through a central
hole in the moving contact and results in forcing series of oil through the respective
passages of the turbulator .The process of tabulation is orderly one, in which the
81

sections of arc are successively quenched by the effect of separate streams of oil,
moving across each section in turn and bearing away its gases
Advantages: A low oil circuit breaker has following advantages compared to bulk oil
circuit breaker
It requires lesser quantity of oil
It requires smaller space
There is reduced risk of fire
Maintenance problems are reduced
Disadvantages
ww Low oil circuit breaker has following disadvantages compared to bulk oil
circuit breaker
w.E
Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonization is increased
There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time
asy
The dielectric strength of oil deteriorates rapidly due to high degree of
carbonization.
En
gin
4. Explain about the air blast circuit breakers in detail. (16)(Apr 2015 ) (May 2017)
Air blast circuit breaker
eer
ing
This type of circuit breakers, is those kind of circuit breaker which operates in air at
.ne
atmospheric pressure. After development of oil circuit breaker, the medium voltage air
circuit breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit breaker in different
t
countries. But in countries like France and Italy, ACBs are still preferable choice up to
voltage 15 KV. It is also good choice to avoid the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit
breaker. In America ACBs were exclusively used for the system up to 15 KV until the
development of new vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
Working principle of air circuit breaker(ACB)
The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in any other types
of circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit breaker is to prevent the
reestablishment of arcing after current zero by creating a situation where in the contact
gap will withstand the system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same
but in different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in excess of the
82

supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum voltage required maintaining
the arc. This circuit breaker increases the arc voltage by mainly three different ways,
1. It may increase the arc voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc
plasma is decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence more
voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc.
2. It may increase the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc
path is increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to maintain the
same arc current more voltage is required to be applied across the arc path. That
means arc voltage is increased.
ww
3. Splitting up the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.
The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as large an
w.E
area as possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is fitted with a
chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber is called „arc chute‟. The arc is driven
asy
into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped, and if the arc can conform to the
En
shape, the arc chute wall will help to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be
gin
made from some kind of refractory material
The second objective that is lengthening the arc path is achieved concurrently with the
eer
first objective. If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped in such a way that the arc is
ing
not only forced into close proximity with it but also driven into a serpentine channel
projected on the arc chute wall. The lengthening of the arc path increases the arc
resistance. .ne
t
The third objective is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc chute. The
main arc chute is divided into numbers of small compartments by using metallic
separation plates. These metallic separation plates are actually the arc splitters and
each of the small compartments behaves as individual mini arc chute. In this system
the initial arc is split into a number of series arcs, each of which will have its own
mini arc chute.
1. Main contacts 4. Arc splitter plates
2. Arcing contacts 5.Current carrying terminals
3. Arc rifling in the direction of the arrow 6. Arc runners Arc getting split
83

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w.E
asy
En
gin
In the air reservoir there is a high pressure air stored between 20 to 30 kg/cm2. And
that air is taken from compressed air system. On the reservoir there are three hollow
eer
insulator columns mounted with valves at their base. On the top of the hollow
ing
insulator chambers there are double arc extinguishing chambers mounted. The current
.ne
carrying parts connect the three arc extinction chambers to each other in series and the
pole to the neighboring equipment, since there exist a very high voltage between the
t
conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction chamber assembly is mounted
on insulators. Since there are three double arc extinction poles in series, there are six
breakers per pole. Each arc extinction chamber consists of one twin fixed contact.
There are two moving contacts. The moving contacts can move axially so as to open
or close. Its opening or closing mechanism depends on spring pressure and air
pressure.
The operation mechanism operates the rods when it gets a pneumatic or electrical
signal. The valves open so as to send the high pressure air in the hollow of the
insulator. The high pressure air rapidly enters the double arc extinction chamber. As
84

the air enters into the arc extinction chamber the pressure on the moving contacts
becomes more than spring pressure and it causes the contacts to be open.
The contacts travel through a short distance against the spring pressure. At the end of
contacts travel the part for outgoing air is closed by the moving contacts and the entire
arc extinction chamber is filled with high pressure air, as the air is not allowed to go
out. However, during the arcing period the air goes out through the openings and takes
away the ionized air While closing, the valve is turned so as to close connection
between the hollow of the insulator and the reservoir.
The valve lets the air from the hollow insulator to the atmosphere. As a result the
ww
pressure of air in the arc extinction chamber is dropped down to the atmospheric
pressure and the moving contacts close over the fixed contacts by virtue of the spring
w.E
pressure, the opening is fast because the air takes a negligible time to travel from the
reservoir to the moving contact. The arc is extinguished within a cycle. Therefore, air
asy
blast circuit breaker is very fast in breaking the current. Closing is also fast because
En
the pressure in the arc extinction chamber drops immediately as the value operates and
gin
the contacts close by virtue of the spring pressure.
Advantages:
eer
The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for
arc extinction is very small, this reduces the size of device.
The risk of fire is eliminated. ing
.ne
Due to lesser arc energy, air blast circuit breakers are very suitable for
conditions where frequent operation is required.
The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas the oil
t
deteriorates with successive operations; the expense of regular oil is replacement is
avoided.
The energy supplied for arc extinction is obtained from high pressure air and is
independent of the current to be interrupted.
The arcing time is very small due to the rapid buildup of dielectric strength
between contacts. Therefore, the arc energy is only a fraction that in oil circuit
breakers, thus resulting in less burning of contacts.
85

Disadvantages:
Considerable maintenance is required for the compressor plant which supplies
the air blast.
Air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to the variations in the rate of
restriking voltage.
Air blast circuit breakers are finding wide applications in high voltage
installations. Majority of circuit breakers for voltages beyond 110 kV are of this type.
5.(a). Explain about Rate of rise of recovery voltage (8)(May 2012)
ww
Rate of rise of recovery voltage
It is the rate of increase of restriking voltage and is abbreviated by R.R.R.V. its
w.E
unit is kV/m sec.Consider the fig2 below showing the opening of circuit breaker under
fault conditions. Before current interruption, the capacitance C is short circuited by
asy
the fault and the short circuit current through the breaker is limited by inductance L of
the system
En
gin
The short circuit current will lag the voltage by 90° where i represents the short circuit
current and ea represents the arc voltage. Under short circuit condition the entire
eer
generator voltage appears across inductance L. when the contacts are opened and the
ing
arc finally extinguishes at some current zero, the generator voltage e is suddenly
.ne
applied to the inductance and capacitance in series. This L-C combination forms an
oscillatory circuit produces a transient of frequency;fn= 1/ [ 2π(LC)1/2] , which
t
appears across the capacitor and hence across the contacts of the circuit breaker. This
transient voltage is known as restriking voltage and may reach an instantaneous peak
value twice the peak phase neutral voltage i.e. 2 Em.
It is R.R.R.V, which decides whether the arc will re-strike. If R.R.R.V is greater than
the rate of rise of dielectric strength between the contacts, the arc will re -strike. The
arc will fail to re-strike if R.R.R.V is less than the rate of increase of dielectric
strength between the contacts of the breaker. The value of R.R.R.V depends on:
Recovery voltage
Natural frequency of oscillations
86

5 (b) Write short notes on Resistance switching (8)(Nov 2015,May 2013)

Resistance switching
To reduce the restriking voltage, RRRV and severity of the transient
oscillations, a resistance is connected across the contacts of the circuit breaker.
This is known as resistance switching. The resistance is in parallel with the arc. A part
of the arc current flows through this resistance resulting in a decrease in the arc
current and increase in the deionization of the arc path and resistance of the arc.
This process continues and the current through the shunt resistance increases and arc
current decreases. Due to the decrease in the arc current, restriking voltage and RRRV
ww
are reduced. The resistance may be automatically switched in with the help of a sphere
gap as shown in Fig. The resistance switching is of great help in switching out
w.E
capacitive current or low inductive current.
asy
En
gin
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ing
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The analysis of resistance switching can be made to find out the critical value of the
t
shunt resistance to obtain complete damping of transient oscillations. Figure 5.8
shows the equivalent electrical circuit for such an analysis.
87

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

EE6702 PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEAR LTPC

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3. M.L.Soni, P.V.Gupta, U.S.Bhatnagar, A.Chakrabarti, „A Text Book on Power

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

DETAILED LESSON PLAN

UNIT-1 PROTECTION SCHEMES

ww 2 Nature and causes of faults

Fault current calculation using symm etrical

6 Surge absorber and diverter

UNIT II ELEC TRO M AG NE TIC REL AY S ing

11 Non Directio nal over current Relay 1 13 T2

12 Directional Relay over current Relay 1 14 T2

15 Under frequency relays 1 17 T1

16 Negative sequence Relay 1 18 T2

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

UNIT III APPARATUS PROTECTION

24 Protection of Transmission Lines 2 27 T2

29 Numerical overcurrent protection

UNIT V CIRCUIT BREAKERS

32 Physics of arc phenomena & Arc interruption 1 37 T2

Restriking voltage & Rate of rise of recovery

34 Resistance switching & Current chopping 2 40 T2

Interruption of capacitive current & DC circuit

36 Air break & Air blast circuit breaker 1 42 T2,R2

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

37 oil circuit breaker 1 43 T2

38 SF6 & Vacuum Circuit breaker 2 45 T2

39 Comparative merits of different circuit breakers 1 46 T2

40 Selection of Circuit breakers 1 47 T2

ww 1 (i) Essential Qualities of Protective Relaying 10

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

4 Transmission Line Protection 58

1 Block Diagram of Solid State relays 64

w.E 1 SF6 Circuit breaker 75

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

UNIT I - PROT EC TION SCHE M ES

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

primary ampere turns becomes zero. As there is no counter m.m.f., unopposed

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

 To transmit telecommunication signals.

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

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EE6702 – PROTECTION AND SWITCHGEARS Department of EEE 2017-2018

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