Syllabus

Pragati Book House

1676-14th, Main Road, Prakash Nagar,
9 1 . Circuit Breakers : Arc voltage, Arc interruption, restriking voltage and recovery voltage ,
resistance switching, current chopping interruption of capacitive current . [ Chapter - 1 ]
Bangalore - 56002 1
Phone : 23324037, Fax : 2332484 8 . Classification of CBs, Air blast CBs . Air break CBs . SF6 CBs, Vacuum CBs, operating
Mobile No . 98450 2155 2 mechanism, selection of CBs , H 4)C CBs, rating of CBs, testing of CBs . [ Chapter - 2 ]

3. Fuses : Introduction, definition, characteristics, types, applications, selectio n

Pragati Books discrimination . Introduction to protection, protection system and its attributes, sensitivity ,
# 911, Montieth Roa d selectivity, speed reliability and dependability, system transducers CTs, PTs etc, principles o f
Behind Taos Mahal, Egmore , power system protection . [ Chapter - 3, 4 ]
Chennai - 600 00 8
Ph . - (044) 5518 353 5
Mobile - 94440 01782 Thermal re ar y, over current relay, directional over current relay, characteristics an d
application for protection of transmission lines and feeders . [ Chapter - 5 ]

Differential protection-basic principles, zone of protection, percentage differential relay ,

Note to Students
Dear Students, it has come to our notice that some booksellers hav e
resorted to selling the pirated versions of our popular books . To check
this problem, we have used a security hologram on the cover pag e
of this book . The hologram has the effect shown here .
If you do not find the hologram on the cover page of this book, pleas e
inform us giving the details of the book shop and place of purchase .
We will keep your identity confidential and also reward you suitably .
earth leakage protection, bus bar protection. [ Chapter - 6 ]
I/
istance protection of transmission lines-impedance relay, reactance relay, mho relay ,
rotection of a 3-phase line . [ Chapter - 7 ]
7'. Generator protection-protection against stator and rotor faults and abnormal operatin g
conditions (such as unbalanced loading, loss of excitation, over speeding) [ Chapter - 8 ]
8 . Induction motor protection, protection against electrical faults (such as phase fault, ground
fault) and abnormal operating conditions (such as single phasing, phase reversal overload .)
[ Chapter - 9 ]

Transformer protection-types of faults, overcorrect protection, differential protection ,

differential relay with harmonic restraint, protection against high resistance ground faults ,
interturn faults, Buchholz relay. [ Chapter - 10 ]
Available at all leading book shops
10. Introduction to carrier aided protection, numerical protection . [ Chapter - 11 ]
 Table of Content s

Chapter-1 Principles of Circuit Breakers (1 to 39 )

Chapter - 2 Circuit Breakers (40 to 91 )

Switchgear. & Protection
Chaptèr= 3 Fuses (92 to 113)
Chapter - 4 Protective Relaying (114 to 138)
'Chapter-5 Electromagnetic Relays (139 to 166)
Chapter=,6 Differential Protection (I 67 to 175)
Uday A. Bakshi
Chapter- 7 Distance Protection (176 to 195) M. E.(Electrical )
Chapter 8 GeneratorProtection° (196 ta 234) Formerly Lecturer in Department of Electronics Engg .
Vishwakarma Institute of Technology
Chapter-9 Induction Motor Protection (235 to 242 ) Pun e

Chapter-10 Transformer Protection (243 to 26 6

Chapter- 11 Carrier Aided Protection and Static Relays (267 to 290) Mayuresh V. Bakshi
B . E .(Electrical )
Lecturer in Department of Electrical Engg .
Modern College of Engineering Shivajinaga r
Pun e

Best of Technical Publications

per revised syllabus of VTU - 2002 Cours e
Semester VI [EEE]
• 'Power System Analysis & Stability P. P. De o
• Switchgear & Protection U . A . Bakshi, M . V. Baksh i
• Transformers & Induction Machines U . A . Bakshi, M . V. Baksh i
• Electrical Machine Design P P. De o
 First Edition : March 200 5
First Reprint
Second Reprint
: April 200 6
: January 200 7
Prefac e
All rights reserved with Technical Publications
. No part of this book should be
reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy The power system is one of the important branches of an Electrical Engineering . Th e
or any information storage an d
retrieval system without prior permission in writing,
from Technical Publications, Pune . switchgear and protection is a sub-branch of power system engineering . The overwhelmin
g
ISBN 81 - 8431- 149 - 4 response to our other books, written as per various subjects also inspired us to write thi s
Printers :
Published by book, covering the entire revised syllabus of the subject Switchgear and Protectio n
Vikram Printers
Technical Publications Puune 8 34, Parvati Industrial Estat e
The book covers the fundamentals of various protective devices used in switchgear, i n
#1, Amit Residency, 412, Pune-Satara Road ,
Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India . Pune - 411009 . easy and simple language
. The book uses the plain, lucid and everyday language t
Head offic e explain the subject. The circuit operations are well illustrated with clear and self explanator o
y
(Pane- Maharashtr a waveforms and diagrams . The solved problems are added wherever necessary
1 Amit Residen . Th e
I (020) 24195496 chapters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to buil d
(, upon earlier studies .

The most important element of a switchgear is a circuit breaker . The Chapter 1 i

Bangalore tt„„at,I,, ,
s
devoted to the principles of circuit breakers and the theory of arc quenching . It explains i
n
f{yderaba d simple language the concept of a .c . and d .c . current breaking and theories of ar
interruption c
eitenrtai (Tti) . It gives the stepwise derivations of expressions for restriking voltage, rate of ris e
of restriking voltage and recovery voltage .

After knowing the basic principles of circuit breakers, it is necessary to know the variou s
types of circuit breakers and applications . The Chapter 2
uses a very systematic metho d
of explaining working of various types of circuit breakers . The discussion of selection o
Wholesale Distributio n f
circuit breaker is also included in the chapter .
Pan e
Pragati Books Pvt . Ltd. Mumba i The Chapter 3 explains the concept of fuse, various types of
119, Budhwar Peth, Jogeshwari Mandir lane, Pragati Books Pvt . Ltd . .fuse, characteristics of
Pune -411 002, Indi a 385, S .V.P. Road, Rasdhara, Co-op . Society, Girgaum , fuse, fuse law and various applications of fuses .
Phone : (020) 24452044 Mumbai - 400 004 India .
Phone : (022) 23869976, 2385633 9 The Chapter 4 gives the introduction of protective relaying
Bangalore
Chennai . The chapter starts wit h
Pragati Book House explaining what is protective relaying . The various characteristics of protective relaying
1676-14th, Main Road, PrakashNagar ,
Pragati Book s ,
# 911, Montieth Road, Behind Teas Mahal , overlapped zones and various technologies used in protective relaying are included in thi s
Bangalore - 560021, Indi a Egmore, Chennai - 600 008
Phone : (080) 23324037, Telefax : 2332 4437 , India . Ph. - (044) 6518 3535 Mobile - 94440 01782, chapter .
Mobile : 98805 8233 1
Chennai The Chapter 5 includes variety of protective relays used in the practical power syste
Technical Books Distributo r Hyderabad m
B - Ground floor, 'QUANTAANNAM' 24th Street, H-965/966, Nirali Book Hous e protection . The relay includes attracted armature type, solenoid and plunger type, inductio
Opp . U C MAS'Anna Nagar (W) Chennai -600040, 22,Shivam Enclave, 4-5 . 947, Badi Chavadi , n
Phone :(044)26161903 Mobile : 9840324419 Hyderabad - 5000 type and thermal relays .
India . Mobile : 9440030606 Phone : (040) 655453/35
The Chapter 6 is devoted to differential protection including types of differential relay
s
and busbar protection .
 The Chapter 7 includes distance protection including various distance relays and thei r
use in protection of transmission lines .
The Chapter 8 includes generator protection including generator faults, differentia l
protection, Merz-Price protection, earth fault protection, rotor earth fault protection an d
protection against loss of excitation .
The Chapter 9 explains induction motor protection against single p hdsi ng ,
overloading, phase fault, ground fault, and phase reversal .
The Chapter 10 includes protection of transformers including discussion of possibl e
transformer faults, differential protection, Merz-Price protection and Buchholz protection .
The Chapter 11 includes the discussion of carrier aided protection, static relays an d
microprocessor based relays .
. The book not only covers the entire syllabus of the subject but explains the philosoph y
of the subject . This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes th e
subject more interesting . The book will be very useful not only to the students but also t o
the subject teachers . The students have to omit nothing and possibly, have to cover nothing
°
******l******* *8** **l**}**** 4*
***********v* **v*w**** ******* * *'
We wish to express our profound thanks to all those who ,helped in .ng this book a
reality . Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerou s
occasions by our whole families .
We are specially grateful to the great teacher Prof. A . V . Bakshi for his time to time ,
very much needed valuable guidance . We are also thankful to Mr . Sachin S he|orfor hi s
help while preparing this book . Without full support and cheerful encouragement o f
Mrs . Varsha U . 8okuhi the book would not have been completed in time .
Finally we wish to thank Mr . Avinash VVoni, Mr . Bovindro Wani and the entire
team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in tim e
` with quality printing .
Any suggestions for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and wel l
appreciated .
 \-4 .13 Interruption of Capacitive Current
s
/1
71.14l5 Resistance
Current Chopping (Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current)
N Switching 25
1 .16 Arc Extinction 27
;
Table of Content s 1 .16 .1 High Resistance Interruption . . . . 31
1 .16 .2 Low Resistance or Current Zero Interruption ''''' .• 31
Chapter-1 Principles of Circuit Breaker s 1 .16 .3 Artificial Current Zero Interruption " 31
1 .1 Introduction 1 1 .17 Ionization of Gases 31
""'
1
1 .2 Formation of an Arc 1 .17.1 Thermal Ionization „, ' ,, , 32
1 .2.1 Initiation of Arc 2 1 .17 .2 Ionization by Collision 32
1 .2 .1 .1 By High Voltage Gradient 2 1 .17 .3 Thermal Emission from Surface of Contacts
2 • 32
1 .2 .1 .2 By Increase of Temperature 1 .17 .4 Secondary Emission at Contact Surface • •
1 .2 .2 Maintenance of an Arc 2 „ • • • • • • , • • . . 32
1 .17.5 Field Emission
1 .2.3 Arc Extinction 3
1 .17 .6 Phofoemission 32
1 .2 .3 .1 High Resistance Method 3
32
1 .18 D eionization
1 .2.3 .2 Low Resistance Method 3
3 1 .18 .1 Recombination •••••,•••••,, , 32
1 .3 D.C . Circuit Breaking
5 1 .18 .2 Diffusion 33
1 .4 A.C. Circuit Breaking
5 1 .18 .3 Conduction of Heat " "" 33
1 .5 Short Circuit in R- L Series Circuit 1ij " „" „
1 .19 Arc Formation 33
1 .6 Current Interruption in A .C . Circuit Breakers 9 . .. . . . . . . . . . .. .. .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .... .. . ... . .
1 .20 33
1 .7 Transient Rec Voltage 11 High Resistance Arc Interruption Methods
1 .20 .1 Lengthening the Arc 33
1 .8 Effect of Different Parameters on Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 12
1 .20 .2 Splitting of Arc 34
1 .8 .1 Effect of Natural Frequency on TRV 13
1.20 .3 Cooling of Arc,, 34
1 .8 .2 Effect of Power Factor on TRV 13
1 .21 Low 34
11 .9,Recovery Voltage 14 Resistance or Zero Point Extinction
V 1 .9.1 Effect of Reactance Drop on Recovery Voltage 1 .22 Arc I nterruption Theories - . . .3 5
15
15 1 .22 .1SIepian'sTheory 35
1 .9 .2 Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltage
15 1,22,2 Lassie's Theory 35
1 .10 Single Frequency Transient
Examples with Solutions 36
.1 .11 Double Frequency Transient 16
16 Review Questions . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . """ ' • . 37
1 .12 Derivation of Rate of Rise of TRV . .. .. . . . . . .
University Questions """""""• .38
1 .12 .1 Expression for Maximum Value of Restriking Voltage E m and Corresponding Time t m 18 .. . . .. . . .
1 .12.2 Expression for RRRV and Maximum RRRV 19 5ter 2
1 .12 .3 Frequency of Oscillation of Restriking Voltage (Transient) 19 40
2 .1 Introduction . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . .
1 .12 .4 Restriking Voltage Under Various Conditions 19
2 .2 Requirements of Circuit Breaker
1 .12.5 First Pole to Clear Factor 20 40
2 .3 Basic Action of a
Circuit Breaker
40
 62
2 .9 .1 .1 Single Break Oil Circuit Breaker
41 63
2.4 Classification of Circuit Breakers 2 .9 .1 .2 Double Break Oil Circuit Breaker
/ 42 65
35'
*/J***[
- Blast Circuit Breakers 2 .9 .1 .3 Factors Affecting Performance of Plane Break Oil Circuit Breaker
42 65
2.5.1 Construction of an Air Blast Circuit Breaker 2 .9 .1 .4 Advantages of Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker
' ' . ' 44 66
2.5.2 VVo rkin -q 2 .9 .1 .5 Disadvantages of Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker
44 66
2.5.2 .1 Cross Blast Type 2 .9 .1 .6 Applications
45 66
2122 Axial Blast Type 2.9 .2 Self Generated Pressure Oil Circuit Breaker
47 66
2.5 .3 Compressed Air System for Air Blast Circuit Breaker 2 .9 .2 .1 Plain Explosion Pot
48 67
2.5.4 Advantages 2 .9 .2 .2 Cross Jet Explosion Pot
48 67
2.5 .5 Disadvantages 2.9 .2 .3 Self Compensated Explosion Pot
48 68
2.5 .6 Applications Blast Explosion Pot
2 .9 .2 .4 Oil 68
.' 48 2 .9 .3 Forced Blast Oil Circuit Breakers
2Air Break Circuit Breaker - '6
49 / 2 .10 Low {}ii or Minimum (}i\ Circuit *}[88k8[---~
211 Cons ruobon 70
' .' ' . . . .' .' ' 50 .10 .1 Construction 92
2.6.2 Working ' 72
' ' 50 ' 2.10 .2 Operation
2.6.3 Applications 72
51 2.10 .3 Maintenance of Oil Circuit Breakers
2 .7/Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF 6) Circuit Beaker 72
" 2.10 .4 Advantages
2.7 .1 Properties of SFo Gas ' 72
51
- 2.10 .5 Disadvantages
2 .7 .1 .1 Physical Properties *
52 72
2.7 .1 .2 Chemical Properties 2.10 .6 Applications
52 . 73
2 .7 .1 .3 Dielectric Properties ** l H\/D C Circuit B no@ k B[
^^ \*- * 73
2I2 Construction of Non-puffer TvoeGF 6 Breaker 2 .12 Selection of Circuit Breaker
' " 51 75
2 .7 .2 .1 Working ' '
55 2 .13 Circuit Breake r Ratings
2.7 .3 Single Pressure Puffer Type 8F6 Circuit Breaker 75
56 , 2.13 .1 Rated Volta g e
2.7 .4 Double Pressure Type SFoC ircV it Breaker 75
"" 2 .13 .2 Rated Insulation Level
2.7 .5 Advantages of SFs Circuit Breaker ' .' 76
` _ 2.13 .3 Rated Current
2.7 .6 Disadvantages 1 * 76
' .' . . .' . . . .' ` ' ' . . . ." 2.13 .4 Rated Frequency
2 .7 .7 Applications 76
---' 57, 2 .13 .5 Rated Duration of Short Circuit
Breakers ~24/8VacumCirt 76
58 2131 Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current
2. 8. 1 High Vacuum 77
1 "7 7 " . ; ` "!-" - 2.13 T R atndGho d Circuit Making (Current
2.8 .2 Construction ' 77
' ` .' .' . .' .' .' 59 2.13 .8 Rated Peak Withstand Current
2.8 .3 Working 78
60 2 .13.9 Rated TRV for Terminal Faults
2.8.4 Advantages ' 7
60 2.13 .10 Rated Operating Sequence
2.8 .5 Disadvantages ` Dov*oa 7
? :0061
.G1 .13 .11 Rated Supply Vobooo*nC*a* g and Opening 82
2.8 .6 Recovery
^--Strength Characteristics
- 79
" . ' .' 61 .13 .12 Rated Pressure of Compressed Gas 82
2.8 .7 Applications .__ _ __-** O
82 2 .14 Type Tests
210111 Circuit Breakers -'
' ` 82
2.9 .1 Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker
 85
2.15 Routine T e St3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 80 3.4 .4 Fusing Current
85
2.16 Dôv8|Opnl e Ot Tests 81 3 .4 .5 Fusing Factor
7: 96
2.17 Reliability T e StG . .81 3.4 .6 Prospective Current
I I 96
2 .18 Commissioning Te GtS-- 81 847Cu t-ot Current I

^.. 97
2 .19 Short Circuit Test Layout--- 3.4 .8 Pre-arcing Time : I
82 98
2.19 .1 Short Circuit Testing Plants 82 3 .4 .9 Arcing Time
98
2.19 .2 Layout of a Short Circuit Testing Station 82 3.4 .10 Total Operating Time
98
2.19.3 Short Circuit Generator and Drive Motor 83 3.4 .11 Breaking Capacity
98
21 SA Short Circuit Transformers 84 3/A2 Pre-arcing It
98
Z 1 15 Reactors 84 3.4 .13 Arcing Pt
98
2.19 .6 Master Circuit Breaker 84 3 .4.14 Clearing It I

98
2.19 .7 Making Device 85 3 .4 .15 Voltage Rating of Fuse
'
2.19 .8 Capacitor 85 /` ~? , 5 Fuse Element **8t e [8]
99
2 .19 .9 Rosistum 85 / '- 3 .6 Tinl8- Current Characteristic of Fuse
10 1
2.19 .10 Test Cubicles I 85 3 .7 Fuse [8VV
10 3
2.19 .11 Sequence Switch I . . .1 85 \/3'.8 /\ d V8Otage S of Fuse ---- .
. . 103
2.19 .12 Different Measurements 85 3.Q Disadvantages Of Fuse
. 103
2.20 Indirect Testing G0 FU 8---- . . ..
*//*- . 1 OH R**
s

103
2201 Unit Testing 86 ^^ 3.10 .1 Construction
~

104
2.20 .2 Synthetic Testing : I 87 1/3 .10 .2 Operation
.

104
2 .21 Types of Synthetic Test Circuits 87 105
~. /3 .1031 Qd'uff Characteristics
2.21 .1 Parallel Current Injection Method 87 *
' 10
2212 Series Current Injection Method 89 Al O32 Time - Current Characteristics I

106
2.21 .3 Bm wnBovoh s Synthetic Testing Circuit 90 .10 .3 .3 pL Characteristics . . ` '* 5V3
'
' ' .' 107
3.10 .4 Fuse Element of HRCFuoe '
Review Questions ': -A0 107
3 .10 .5 Advantages of oHRC Fuse
University Questions . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . 9 1 * ^ . .' 107
8.1O.O ,Disadvantages of eHRO J ueo,
91. 108
3.1D .7 Selection of MRC Fuse
108
.10.8 Application s3
10 8
3 .2Introduction of Fuse . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . - ' 92 3 .11 HRC Fuse With Tripping [}8ViQS----
.. . 10 9
3.3 Types of Fuses ' 03 3.11 .1 Advantages
._`--- 109
3.4 Definitions 95 -+/3 .12 Liquid Fuse .
1* *
. ~~
u^3 .4.1 Fuse S5 ~/^ 3 1 3 []iGC[FOiO8t**O ^~ ^
,..---'3 UFuse Element 95 114 Difference Between Fuse and Circuit Breaker 1 -1 -1

3.4 .3 Current Rating of Fuse 95

 Review Questions 11 2
University Questions 11 3
Chapter 4 Protective Relaying 11 4
4 .1 Introduction 11 4
4 .2 Functions of Protective Relaying 11 4
4 .3 Protective Zones 11 5
4 .4 Primary and Backup Protection 11 7
4 .4.1 Concept of Backup Relaying 11 7
4.4 .2 Methods of Backup Protection 11 8
4 .5 Essential Qualities of Protective Relaying 11 9 Chapter-5 Electromagnetic Relays
X5.1 Reliability 11 9
X5.2 Selectivity and Discrimination 11 9
X1.5 .3 Speed and Time 120
V4.5.4 Sensitivity 121
V4.5.5 Stability 121
4.5.6 Adequateness 121
4.5 .7 Simplicity and Economy 121
4.6 Classification of Protective Relays 122
4 .6 .1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relays 122
4.6.2 Induction Type Relays 122
4.6 .3 Directional Type Relays 122
4.6.4 Relays Based on Timing 123
4.6.5 Distance Type Relays 123
4.6.6 Differential Type Relays : 123
4.6 .7 Other Types of Relays 123
4.7 Terminologies Used in Protective Relaying 124
4.8 Instrument Transformers : .> :x 127
4 .9 Current Transformers (C .T.) : : 127
4.9.1 Working Principle : 127
4 .10 Construction of Current Transformers 128
4.10.1 Wound Type .Current Transformer 128
4.10 .2 Bar Type Current Transformer 129
4 .11 Why Secondary of C .T. Should not be Open ? : 130
4 .12 Potential Transformers (P .T.) 130
4.12 .1 Construction 13 1
' :4 .13 Comparison of C .T. and P .T 132
4.14 Errors in the Instrument Transformer 133
4.14.1 Ratio Error 133
4.14.2 Phase Angle Error 134
4.14.3 Reduction of Ratio and Phase Angle Errors 135
4 .15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers 137
Review Questions 137
University Questions : 138
13 9
5 .1 Introduction : 139
5.1 .1 Basic Trip Circuit Operation . ., . ,13 9
5.1 .2 Auxiliary Switch 140
5 .2 Tripping Schemes in,, Circuit Breaker 140
5.2.1 Relays with Make Type Contact 141
5.2.2 Relay with Break Type Contact 142
5.3 Electromagnetic Attraction Relays 14 4
5.3.1 Attracted Armature Type Relay 144
5.3.2 Solenoid and Plunger Type Relay 145
5.3.3 Operating Principle of Electromagnetic Attraction Relays . . , 146
5.3.4 Advantages of. ElectromagneticRelays 148
5 .3.5 Disadvantages of Electromagnetic Relays 148
5.3.6 Applications of Electromagnetic Relays 148
5.4 Induction Type Relays 148
I/5.4.1 Torque Equation for Induction Type Relays 149
5.4.2 Shaded Pole Type Induction Relay : 150
5.4 .3 Watthour Meter Type Induction Relay ,.. , 152
5.4.4 Induction Cup Type Relay : 152
Nondirectional Induction Type Overcurr t Relay 154
x 5.5.1 Time-Current characteristics : 155
✓ 5.2 Operation 155
5 .6 irectional Power Relay : 158
.7 Directional Induction Type Overcurr Relay 15 9
1/5.7.1 Operation 161
 16 1 7 .4 Mho Relay or Admittance Relay 186
5 .7 .2 Directional Characteristi
5 .8 Thermal Relays 16 3 7 .4 .1 Construction 18 6
164 7 .4 .2 Torque Equation 187
5 .9 Universal Relay Torque Equation
Review Questions . 164 7 .4 .3 Operating Characteristics 18 8
: 166 7 .5 Classification of Distance Relays 190
University Questions
7 .5 .1 Definite Distance Type Impedance Relay 19 1
Chapter-6 Differential Protectio n 16 7
7 .5 .2 Distance Time Impedance Relay 192
: 167
6 .1 Introduction 7 .5 .3 Applications and Advantages of Distance Relays 194
. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 16 7
6 .2 Types of Differential Relays Review Questions : 19 5
:16 7
6 .2 .1 Current Differential Relay University Questi ns y. . . . 195
169
6 .2 .2 Biased Beam Relay or Percentage Differential Relay . . .
17 1 Chapter-8 Generator Protection 19 6
6 .2 .3 Voltage Balance Differential Relay
17 1 8 .1 Introduction 196
6 .3 Busbar Protection
: . : 17 1 8.2 Generator Faults 196
6 .3 .1 Bus Bar Faults
: ; :172 8 .2 .1 Stator Faults 19 6
6 .4 Frame Leakage Protection of Bus Bar . . . . :
...: 173 8 .2 .1 .1 Phase to Earth Faults 19 7
6 .5 Circulating Current Protection of Bus Bar . . . :..
. 174 8 .2 .1 .2 Phase to Phase Faults : 19 7
6 .6 High Impedance Differential Protection of Bus Bar . . . .
8 .2 .1 .3 Stator Inter-turn Faults 19 7
175
6 .7 Difficulties in Bus Bar Protection 8 .2 .2 Rotor Faults : : : . : : : . : : . : . : . : : : : . . : :19 7
Review Questions :: : : . .. . :. :. . : 175
8 .2 .3 Abnormal Running Conditions :.. . . 19 8
University Questions : : : 175 8 .2 .3 .1 Overloading : ., 19 8

1' 76 8,2 .3 .2 Overspeeding 19 8

Chapter 7 DtsIan.e Protection y
8 .2 .3 .3 Unbalanced Loading 19 8
.. . . . . .. . : 176
7 .1 Distance Relays 8 .2 .3 .4 Overvoltage 19 9
: 176
7 .2 Impedance Relay 8 .2 .3 .5 Failure of Prime Mover 19 9
17 7
7 .2 .1 Torque Equation 8 .2 .3 .6 Loss of Excitation 19 9
17 7
7 .2 .2 Operating Characteristics 8 .2,3 .7 Cooling System Failure 20 0
, 17 8 8.3 Basic Differential Protection Scheme for Generators__ : 200
7 .2 .3 Operating Characteristics on R-X Diagram
18 0 18.4 Basic Percentage ,Differential Protection Scheme for-Generators 20 1
7 .2 .4 Disadvantages of Plain Impedance Relay
18 0 8 .5 Merz-Price Protection of Alternator Stator Windings :. : 202
7 .2 .5 Directional Impedance Relay
18 1
7 .2 .6 Use of Impedance Relayfor Transmission Line Protection 8 .6 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Generator . .. .: 204
7.3 Reactance Relay 184 8 .6 .1 Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding Unprotected . : 206
18 4 8 .7 Unrestricted Earth Fault Protection 208
7 .3 .1 Construction
18 5
7 .3 .2 Torque Equation -8 .8 Balanced Earth Fault Protection :: . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . : 209
:, 186
7 .3 .3 Operating Characteristics : 8.9 100% Earth Fault Protection 21 1
186
7 .3 .4 Disadvantages 8.10 Stator Protection Against Interturn Faults 21 2
 257
*0 6 .2 Advantages
21 3
8 .11 Rotor Earth Fault Protection 10 .6 .3 Limitations
25 7
21 5 25 7
8 .12 Protection Against Loss of Excitation 10 .6 .4 Applications
21 6 257
8 .13 Negative Sequence Relays Examples with Solutions
22 0
8 .13 .1 Induction Type Negative Sequence Relay Review Questions 26 6
22 3 266
8 .14 Protection Against Unbalanced Loading University Questions
224
Examples with Solutions
267-
Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
232 Chapter-11 Carrier Aided Protection and Static (delays
233 267
University Questions 11 .1 Block Schematic of Carrier Aided Protection
270
235 %7 .2 Phase Comparison Method of Carrier Current Protection
Chapter-9 Induction Moto r Protectio n 27 3
11 .3 Advantages of Carrier Current Protection
: : 23 5 27 3
9 .1 Introduction 11 .4 Static Relays
23 5
f9,2 Abnormal Conditions and Failure in Case of Induction Motor . : 11 .5 Basic Elements of a Static Relay 274
: : . 23 7 274
9 .3 Protection Circuit for Induction Motor 11 .5 .1 Input Element
:': : : : . . . : 23 8 27 4
9 .4 Single Phasing Preventer 11 .5 .2 Measuring Element
:: 238 27 6
9.5 Ground Fault Protection 11 .5 .3 Output Element
: : 24 1 276
/9 .6 Phase Fault Protection 11 .5 .4 Feed Element
: 24 2 276
1/9 .7 Phase Reversal Protection 11 .6 Comparison of Static and Electromagnetic Relays
: _ 242 27 7
Review Questions 11 .6 .1 Advantages of Static Relays
277
3f 11 .6 .2 Limitations of Static Relays
;Chapter-10 Transformer Protection 27 8
243 11 .7 Semiconductor Devices used in Static Relays
10 .1 Introduction 27 9
243 11 .8 Static Time Current Relay
'Vf0 .2 Possible Transformer Faults 27 9
, 243 11 .8 .1 Static Time-Current Characteristics
10 .2.1 Overheating 280
, 244 11 .8 .2 Static Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
10 .2.2 Winding Faults 28 2
24 4 11 .8 .3 Inverse Time-Current Relay
10 .2 .3 Open Circuits •••••••••• .•• .::•••••••••28 3
24 4 11 .9 Directional Static Overcurrent Relay
10 .2 .4 Through Faults 284
„ ,,, ,244 11 ;10 Static Differential Relay
10,2 .5 0verfluxing
245 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 28 4
: .4.1 11 Static Distance Relay
10 .3 Percentage Differential Protection for Transformers 286
24 7 11 .12 Microprocessor Based Relay
0 .3 .1 Merz-Price Protection for Star-Delta Transformer
24 8 : 290
Review Questions
\/0 .3 .2 Merz-Price Protection for Star-Star Transformer
: 251 291
10 .4 Problems Encountered in Differential Protection ndex
• 25 3
10 .4 .1 Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blocking
254
-10 .5 Frame Leakage Protection
. . :.. . .: :. : 25 5
0.6 Buchholz Relay
25 6
110 .6 .1Operation
1 .1 Introductio n
The different circuits of a power system viz transmission lines, distributors, generatin g
stations etc .- are required to be operated under both normal and abnormal conditions .
Whenever any fault occurs somewhere in the system, it must be immediately detected an d
disconnected from the system . This is necessary since it ensures less damage to the faulte d
apparatus and the fault is not spread into the system . Also quick recovery of fault results in
less interruption of service to the consumers .
Previously the function of switching on and off of the power system elements wa s
accomplished with the help of switch and fuse which is placed in series with the circuit . But
it suffers some difficulties such as replacement of fuse takes a long time . So supply to the
consumers will be restored after long time . The another limitation is that it will not be able to
interrupt successfully the heavy fault currents . Due to these disadvantages the use of switch
and fuse unit is restricted to the low voltage and small capacity circuits where frequent
operations are not performed .
With the development in power system the transmission lines and various equipment s
operate at very high voltages carrying large currents . The switch and fuse arrangement
explained earlier will fail to serve the desired function in high capacity circuits . The use o f
circuit breakers can facilitate the opening and closing of heavy electric circuits smoothly an d
efficiently. A circuit-breaker can.make or break a circuit either manually or-automaticall y
under no load, full load or short circuit conditions . Thus it forms important element in an y
protective scheme .
Any circuit breaker essentially consists of :fixed-contact and moving contact . Under
abnormal conditions or whenever the circuit breaker is operated then the internal
mechanism makes the moving contact to move away from the fixed contact . Whenever
contacts are separated from each other the circuit is not breâked-immediately as heavy arc i s
drawn between the contacts which will continue for some time . The resistance of this arc i s
high which causes large power loss in the process . Also the components of circuit breake r
are under heavy mechanical and electromagnetic stresses .

1 .2 Formation of an Ar c
Now let's see the formation of an arc . Under fault condition heav current flow s
through the contacts of the circuit breaker before they are o erred . As soon as the contact s
start separating, the area of contact decreases which will increase the current density and
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 3 Principles of Circuit Breaker s
VTU -Switchgear and Protection Principles of Circuit Breaker s

conse uentl T The medium between the contacts of circuit breake r
may be air or oil . The heat which is produced in the medium is sufficient - . . . to i .* . .-
air Or of which will act as conductor . Zus an arc is struck between the contacts The p .d .
ettween the contacts is su icient to maintain the arc. So long as the arc is remaining between,
the contacts the circuit is said to be uninterru .te .
The current flowing between t e contacts depends on the arc resistance . With increase in
arc resistance the current flowing will be smaller . The arc resistance depends on following
factors,
a) Degree of ionisation : If there are less number of ionised particles 'between the
contacts then the arc resistance increases .
b) Length of arc : The arc resistance is a function of length of arc which is nothin g
btdseparation between the contacts . More the length, more is the arc resistance .
*c)'Cross-section .of arc : If the area of cross-section of the arc is .less then arc
{ resistance is large .
1 .2.1 Initiation of Arc
There must be some electrons for initiation of an arc when fault occurs circuit breake r
contacts start separating from each other and the electrons are emitted which are produce d
by following méthods .
i) . : high voltage gradient at the catho . -, resulting in
ii) By increase oftemperature resultin
1 .1 .1 By High Voltage Gradien t
.2
As the moving contacts start separating form each other, the area of contact and pressur e
between the separating contacts decreases . A high fault current causes potential drop (of th e
order of 106 V/crri)between the contacts which will remove the electrons from cathod e
surface . This process is called field emission.
1,2 .1 .2 By Increase of Temperatur e
With :the separation of contacts there is decrease in contact area which will increase th e
current density and consequently the temperature of the surface as seen before, which wil l
cause emission of electrons which is called thermal electron emission .
In most of the circuit breakers the contacts are made up of copper which :is having les s
thermionic emission .
iii) The separation of contacts of circuit breaker increases the length of path which wil l
increase number of neutral molecules . This will decrease the density of gas whic h
will increase free path movement of the electrons .
1 .2 .3 Arc Extinctio n
It is essential that arc should be extinguished as early as possible . There are two method s
of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers which are namely ,
a) High resistance metho d
b) Low resistance or current zero metho d
1 .2.3.1 High Resistance Metho d
In high resistance method the arc resistance is increased with time . This will reduce th e
current to such a value which will be insufficient to maintain the arc . Thus the current is
interrupted and the arc is extinguished . This method is employed in only d .c. circuit
breakers . The resistance of the arc may be increased by lengthening the arc, cooling the arc ,
reducing the cross-section of the arc and splitting the arc . These methods will be discussed i n
detail later in .this chapter.
1 .2.3 .2 Low Resistance Metho d
The low resistance or current zero method is employed for arc extinction in a .c. circuits.
In this method arc resistance is kept low until current zero where extinction of arc take s
e
place naturally and is prevented from restriking . This method is employed in many of th
modern a .c . circuit breakers .
.3 D.C. Circuit Breakin g
The breaking in case of d .c . circuits can be explained as follows . For this, we will
consider a circuit which will consist of generator with voltageE, resistance R, inductor L
and the circuit breaker as shown in the Fig . 1 .1 (a) .

1 .2 .2 Maintenance of an Arc
In the previous section we have seen the initiation of the arc by field emission an d
thermionic emission . The electrons while travelling towards anode collide with anothe r
electrons to dislodge them and thus the arc is maintained . The ionizing is facilated by, Fig . 1 .1 (a )
i) High temperature of the medium around the contacts due to high current densities . The voltage-current relationship can be represented as shown in the Fig . 1 .1 (b) .
Thus the kinetic energy gained by moving electrons is increased.
From the Fig . 1 .1 (b), it could be seen that curve AB represents the voltage E - iR, i i s
ii) The increase in kinetic energy of moving electrons due to the voltage gradient which
nothing but current' at any instant . The curve XY represents the voltage-curren t
dislodge more electrons from neutral molecules .
characteristics of the arc for decreasing currents .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 4 Principles of Circuit Breaker s
Fig . 1 .1 (b) Voltage-current relationship
When the circuit breaker starts opening it carries the load current I =R In the grap h
shown the current is shown to be reduced to il , iZ and i3 respectively. Section pr represents
voltage drop i3R whereas qs represents arc voltage which is greater than available voltage .
The arc becomes unstable and the difference in voltage is supplied by inductance L acros s
which the voltage is eL = L 1 . For decreasing values of currents this voltage is negative an d
dt
according to Lenz's law it tries to maintain the arc .
The voltage across inductance L is seen to be positive in the region of currents i t and i 2
since the arc characteristics lies below the curve AB . The arc current in this region tries t o
increase so interruption of current is not possible in this region . Afterwards the arc i s
lengthened with increase in contact separation which will raise the arc voltage above th e
curve AB .
The operation in case of d .c . circuitbreakers is said to be ideal if the characteristics of th e
arc voltage are above the curve AB even in the region of currents i t and i 2 . This is shown in
the Fig. 1.2.
Fig . 1 .2 Arc voltage characteristics
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 5 Principles of Circuit Breakers
It can be seen that arc voltage is greater than E -iR and the balance between the voltage s
is supplied by the voltage across the inductance eL which is proportional to rate of change o f
di
current
dt
Thus .the function of the circuit breaker is to raise the arc characteristics without affectin g
its stability . This is done by reducing the arcing time which is the time from contac t
separation to final extinction of arc . But it will increase extinction voltage . Henc
e
compromise between arcing time and arc extinction voltage is made .
1 .4 A.C . Circuit Breakin g
There is . a difference between breaking in case of d .c. and a .c. circuits. In a.c . circuits the
current passes through zero twice in one complete cycle . When the currents are reduced to
zero the beakers are operated to cut-off the current . This will avoid the striking of the arc . But
this conditions is difficult to achieve and very much expensive .
The restriking of arc when current is interrupted is dependent on the voltage betwee n
the contact gap at that instant which will inturn depend on power factor . Higher the power
factor, lesser is the voltage appearing across the gap than its peak value .
Now before studying the actual current interruption in a .c. circuits we will see som e
theory which will help us in understanding this concept .
1y5''hort Circuit in R- L Series Circuit
Consider a series R-L circuit as shown in the Fig . 1 .3 in which switch S is suddenl y
closed at time t = O .
Fig . 1 .3 R-L series circui t
Applying KVL to above circuit,
di
L-+Ri = e
dt
Lâ +Ri = Ern sin (cot + 0)
This equation can be solved to get the expression for current i . This is a
non-homogeneous differential equation whose solution consists of two parts vi z
complementary solution and particular solution i .e. i = is + ip.
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 6 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 7 Principle s of Circui t Breakers

Complementary Solution : To get the complementary solution we will consider the wL

auxiliary equation which is obtained by equating right hand side of above equation to zero . JRZ +w 2 L 2
L d1 +Ri= 0 . . . (2) R
dt cos 4)
4R2 +w 2 L2
Separating the variables,
-E rn * sin (cos(wt+A) + Em
di - d = cos sin(wt+A)
R t
i L V R2+w2Ly *R2+w 2 L
Integrating and solving, Em
= [sin (wt+0) cos 1) -cos (wt+A)sin 4, ]
log i = - R t + K where K is constant of integration R2 +w 2 L2
Em
Considering K = loge A sin (wt+0-()
log e i = log e e (-R/L)t +los A
e R 2 +w 2 2
.\/
r

log e s = log e Ae (-RL) t E n,

I R z +w 2 L 2
sin (cot + 0 -1)) (6) . ..
Taking antilog on both sides,
i = Ae (-R/L) t The particular solution given solution given by above equation is sinusoidal and is called A .C.
This is complementary solution. This component of current is seen to be exponentially component.
decaying component and called D .C. component . The constant of :integration A depends on Complete Solution : The total current i is given by ,
initial conditions which may be zero, positive or negative .
i = is + ip
1c = Ae (-R/L) t (3)
i = Ae ( R/L ) t +
Em
2 +w2Lsin (cot +A-¢ ) (7)
Particular Solution : For particular solution we will take a trial solution as , VR
i = C cos (cot + A) + D sin (cot + 0 ) . . . (4)
di To find the value of A let us put the initial conditions . At t = 0, i = 0. If R is assumed t o
Taking and d 2i of above equation,
dt dt '-
di
be very small compared to co2 L2; R2 +w2 L2 ,wL and 1= tan-l
R
=90°

= -Cwsin(wt+A)+Dwcos(wt+A) Case (i) : If switch is closed at e = 0

dt
t = 0; e=0 A= 0
diz Also i = O at t = 0.
= -Cw cos (wt+0)-D w2 sin,(ot+0). .
dt 2
0 = A+ Em sin (-90°)
Putting this value in equation (1) and equating like coefficients , .\ I R2 +wzL2
c
C -Em ,R-+c , o L A= Em = Em
2 L2 V R2+w2L2 w L
R
D = Em
R 2 +w 2 L2 This is the maximum value of A . Thus the d.c. component is maximum when switch is
Substituting these values of C and D in the trial solution we get , closed at zero voltage.
wL Case (ii) : If switch is closed at e = E max
-Em cos (wt+0)+Em R2 R 2 L2 sin (cot + 0) (5)
R 2 +w2L2 +w t = 0; e = E. .' . 0 = 90° = zc / 2
If 4) is the impedance angle then, Em sin (90 °- 90°)
0=A+
coL 1* R2+w2L2
tangy
R A= 0

VTU -Switchgear and Protection 8 Principles of Circuit Breaker s
If switch is closed when e = E,,, aX then A = 0 i .e. d.c. component is zero .
Thus when the circuit consisting of R and L supplied with alternating voltage, is close d
aft = 0, the resulting current consists of two components viz a .c. and d .c. components which
are superimposed on each other . The d.c . component magnitude is decided by the voltage a t
the instant of switching. When switch is closed at voltage zero, the d .c. component i s
maximum whereas the d .c . component is zero when switch is closed at voltage maximum .
Fig . 1 .5 No D .C . componen t
The analysis of three phase short circuit of an alternator is done by similar way as w e
have done the analysis of short circuit of series R-L circuit . The current flowing through th e
phases of alternator during short circuit has similar waveform to that of R-L circuit as show n
previously if we neglect armature reaction and variation in the field current.
During the short circuit, the current flowing through alternator rises rapidly to a hig h
value during first quarter cycle . The flux which is crossing the air gap is large during firs t
couple of cycles .
The subtransient reactance denoted by Xd is defined as that reactance during first two o r
three cycles . This is very less and correspondingly short circuit current is large .
9 PrinciplesofCircuitBreaker s
VTUSwitchgear and Protection
.m.s. value of shor t
After .first few cycles which are coming under subtransient state the r
circuit current goes on reducing but the decrease in current is not fast as in subtransien t
t
state . This state is called transient state and the corresponding reactance is called transien
.
reactance denoted by X'd . The circuit breaker contacts separate in this state
Finally the transients vanish and current will reach to steady sinusoidal state calle d
d.
steady state . The reactance in this state is called steady state reactance denoted by X
The currents in the different phases are having different d .c . components . So their
g
waveforms will be different . In the Fig . 1 .6 the oscillogram of the current in the phase havin
zero d .c . component is shown .
.c . component
Fig . 1 .6 Oscillogram of current in the phase having zero d
Current Interruption in A.C . Circuit Breaker s
U?:6
Now we will see how the current interruption takes place in a .c. circuit breakers .
Generally the a .c. circuit beakers employ zero point interruption technique .
Let us consider an alternator on no load to which a circuit breaker is connected which i s
t
shown in the Fig. 1 .7 . The circuit breaker is in open position with its other side shor
circuited.
 VTU Switch ear and Protection 10 Principles of Circuit Breakers
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 11 Principles of Circuit Breakers

instantaneous value of current during short circuit . This instantaneous peak value of firs t
current loop is called making current which is expressed as kA peak .
Now the circuit breaker contacts will separate after few cycles which are taken by rela y
and other operating mechanism . At time say t = Tl the contacts of circuit breaker separate .
3 ph The r,m .s . value of short circuit current at that instant of contact separation is called breakin g
short current.
circuit
As seen earlier an arc is struck between the contact when they start separating . The ar c
IB current varies sinusoidally for few cycles . At t = T2 the arc is interrupted as the dielectri c
strength of arc space builds sufficiently . This will avoid the continuation of arc . Thus the ar c
will be extinguished .
The voltage waveform is shown in the Fig . 1.8 . Before the instant t = 0, the contacts ar e
closed so the voltage between them is zero . At the instant t = Tl , the contacts begin t o
Fig . 1 .7 Sudden 3 phase short circuit of an alternato r
separate and voltage across them starts increasing . This voltage is nothing but the dro p
When the voltage of phase B w .r .t neutral is zero, the circuit breaker is closed . Under this across the arc . The current and the voltage across arc are in phase as the arc is resistive . Due
condition the B phase current will have maximum d .c . component and its current waveform to increased arc resistance the voltage across contacts increases in the next cycles . Finally a t
will be uns ymmetrical about normal zero axis . This is shown in the Fig. 1 .8.
t = T2 the arc is extinguished . A high frequency transient voltage appears across the contacts
which is superimposed on power frequency voltage . This high frequency voltage tries t o
restrike the arc . Hence it is called Restriking Voltage or Transient Recovery Voltage . This i s
the voltage which appears across circuit breaker contact which is responsible'for restrikin g
of arc . The power frequency system voltage between the circuit breaker contacts after ar c
extinction is called Recovery Voltage . The prospective current shown in the waveform ma y
be defined as the current that would flow in the circuit if circuit breakers were replaced b y
solid conductor .

\;l .7 Transient Recovery Voltage

Fig . 1 .8 Current and voltage during fault clearin g
The current is zero before t = 0 as the alternator is on no load . The short circuit is applie d
at t = D and current increases to very high value ( nearly 10 to 25 times full load current )
,during first quarter cycle . The peak of first current loop is shown by OA which is maximum
The transient recovery voltage has effect on the behaviour of circuit breaker. Thi s
voltage appears between the contacts immediately after final arc interruption . This cause s
high dielectric stress between the contacts . If this dielectric strength of the medium betwee n
the contacts does not build up faster than the rate of rise of the transient recovery voltage
then the breakdown takes place which will cause restriking of arc . Thus it is very important
that the dielectric strength of the contact space must build very rapidly that rate of rise of
transient recovery voltage so that the interruption of current by the circuit breaker take s
_ place successfully . The rate of rise of this-transient voltage depends onthe circuit parameter s
.and the type of the switching duty involved . The rate of building up of the dielectric strengt h
depends on the effectivé .design of the interrupter and the circuit breaker .
If it is desired to break the capacitive currents while opening the capacitor banks, ther e
may appear a high voltage across the contacts which can cause reigintion of the arc afte r
initial arc extinction . Thus if contact space breaks down within a period of one fourth of a
cycle from initial arc extinction the phenomenon is called Reigintion . If moving contacts o f
circuit breakers move a very small distance frôm the fixed contacts then reigintion ma y
occur without overvoltage . But the arc gets extinguished in the next current zero by whic h
time moving contacts should be moved by sufficient distance from fixed contacts . Thus th e
reignition is in a way not harmful as it will not lead to any overvoltage beyond permissibl e
limits .
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 12 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 13 Principles of Circuit Breaker s

If the breakdown occurs after one fourth of a cycle, the phenomenon is called Restrike . I n = 1 Hz
restriking, high voltage appear across the circuit breaker contacts during capacitive curren t 2i.fL C
breaking. In successive restrikes, voltage will go on increasing which may lead to damage of
where f„ = Frequency of transient recovery voltage
circuit breaker . Thus the circuit breakers used for capacitors should be free from Restrike i .e .
they should have adequate rating . L = Equivalent inductanc e
C = Equivalent capacitanc e
1 .8 Effect of Different Parameters on Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV )
1 .8 .1 Effect of Natural Frequency on TRV
As seen from the previous section, after the final current, zero high frequency transien t With increase in the natural frequency the rate of rise of TRV at current zero increases .
voltage appears across the circuit breaker poles which is superimposed on power frequenc y This is shown in the Fig . 1 .11 . The rate of rise of transient recovery voltage is represented b y
system voltage and tries to restrike the arc . This voltage may last for a few tens or hundred s slopes of tangents to the three waveforms drawn at different frequencies .
of microseconds . If the shape of this TRV is seen on the oscilloscope then it can be seen that i t
may be oscillatory, non-oscillatory or a combination of two depending upon th e
characteristics of the circuit and the circuit breaker . The waveform is as shown in the Fig . 1.9 . A,B,C -► Tangents indicat e
slope of TRV at t = 0
Power frequenc y
Recovery voltag e
Arc
voltag e
10
t -► n

.-Transien t
voltage
wt -'*
Fig . 1 .9 Shape of transient recovery voltag e
This voltage has a power frequency component and an oscillatory transient component .
The oscillatory component is due to inductance and capacitance in the circuit . Thepowe r
frequency component is due to the system voltage . Thisis shown in the Fig . 1 .10 .
.,SWaveform s
showing TRV

Fig. 1 .11 Effect of frequency of TRV

Rate of rise of TRV causes voltage . stresson.the contact gap which will continue the arc . If
the frequency is increased then rel atively small time is available for building of dielectric
strength of contact gap . Hence increase in frequency causes greater stresses . The rate of ris e
of TRV is related with the breaking capacity of a circuit breaker . Thus it also means rate o f
rise of TRV is dependent on natural frequency of TRV . As frequency increases the breakin g
capacity reduces .

1 .8 .2 Effect of Power Factor on TR V

Fig. 1 .10 Voltages after final current zer o
The transient oscillatory component lasts for few microseconds after which powe r
frequency voltage remains . The transient component has frequency given by,
At the instant of final current zero the voltage appearing across the C .B . contacts is
affected by the pi of the current . At current zero the arc is extinguished . After this powe r
frequency voltage appears across the circuit breaker . The instantaneous value of the voltage
at current zero depends on phase angle between the current and voltage .
 /
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 14 Principles of Circuit Breaker s VTU -Switchgear;andProtection 15 Principles of Circuit Breakers
For unity p .f . load as shown in the Fig . 1 .12 both voltage and current are in phase and ar e 1 .9 .1 Effect of Reactance Drop on Recovery Voltag e
zero at the same instant . Before fault is taking place let us consider that the voltage appearing across circui t
Recovery voltag e breaker is V I . As the fault current increases, the voltage drop in reactance also increases .
After fault clearing the voltage appearing say V 2 is slightly less than V1 . The system take s
some time to regain the original value .
1 .9 .2 Effect of Armature Reaction on Recovery Voltag e
Arc The short circuit currents are at lagging power factor . These lagging p.f. currents have a
extinction
demagnetizing armature reaction in alternators . Thus the induced e .m.f. of alternator s

V V
decreases . To regain the original value this e .m.f. takes some time . Thus the power
frequency component of recovery voltage is less than the normal value of system voltage .
1 .10 Single Frequency Transient
Consider the circuit
shown in the Fig . 1 .14. This
circuit produces the single
Fig . 1 .12 Unity power facto r
frequency restriking voltag e
transient .
TRV
The natural frequency o f
Recovery
/ voltage oscillation is given by,
Arc 1
/curren t fn .=
1 ti 1
Fig . 1 .1 4
1 1
where L Inductance in henr y
i V#rjX/
f C = Capacitance in farads
Depending upon the values of L and C, the frequency ranges from 10 Hz to 10 kHz . The
circuit configuration in actual power system is complicated and it has distribute d
I capacitance and inductances . In such circuits the TRV has several components o f
1 Arc frequencies which is shown in the Fig : 1.15 .
voltage

Peak of the restriking voltage

Zero power facto r
Fig . 1 .13
If we consider zero power factor currents, the peak voltage En a), is impressed on th e
circuit breaker contacts at the current zero instant . This instantaneous voltage gives mor e
transient and provides high rate of rise of TRV . Hence if the p .f . is low then interrupting o f Restrikin g
such current is difficult . voltage
Current
1 .9 Recovery Voltag e
As seen previously it is the voltage having normal power frequency which appears after t
the transient voltage .

Fig . 1 .1 5
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 16 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU-Switchgear and Protection 17 Principlesof Circuit Breaker s

The transient shown in the Fig . 1 .15 is obtained by operating the terminal fault wher e With the given
reactance between the fault and circuit breaker is negligible . specifications of TRV the
circuit breaker must b e
1 .11 Double Frequency Transien t able to interrupt th e
short circuit breaking
In last section we have considered inductance L and capacitance C on only one side o f current . The peak valu e
circuit breaker . But it may be on both sides of circuit breaker . This is shown in the Fig . 1.16. of TRV, time to reach th e
peak frequency of TR V
L*
and initial rate of rise ar e
000 0
Circuit some of the importan t
breake r properties of TRV whic h
are significant .
e = Em sinwt Cl CZ `
Faul t Fig . 1 .1 8

T Consider a simplest form of an equivalent circuit shown in the Fig . 1 .18.

In this simplified case,
Fig . 1 .16 L = Total inductance between circuit breaker and sourc e
The points 1 and 2 are C = Capacitance to earth of the circuit .
equipotential points before clearing Circuit resistance is neglected .
the fault . But after the arc extinction
there will be two circuits which A short circuit is applied directly at the terminals of circuit breaker, remote from source .
may oscillate at their own natura l Initially cireuitbreaker is closed and at that time current flowing through it is 'i
frequencies and thus a composite E
double frequency transient appear s f = cos (wt-90° )
wL
across circuit breaker. This is
Fig . 1 .17 .shown in the Fig . 1 .17. i= Em Sinwt,
wL
The circuit configuration, th e
type of fault and the type of neutral earthing are the important factors which will decide th e If the applied source voltage is En, cos w t, since the effect of 'C' can be neglected as it i s
frequency, rate of rise and peak value of the TRV . short circuited by the breaker switch .
The TRV wave is defined by specifying the peak value and time required to reach th e When circuit breaker is opened, then if current is to be interrupted this can be simulate d
same or it can be specified by defining the segment .of lines which enclose the TRV by assuming a cancelling current equal and opposite to original current, being injected a t
waveform. circuit breaker .The,voltage ; :necessary to causè. this current is then voltage that appear s
across circuit breaker contacts immediately after interruption .
1 .12 Derivation of Rate of Rise of TRV
Looking at circuit from the breaker terminals L and C appear in parallel and th e
As seen previously the transient voltage'that appears across the circuit breaker contact s equation of cancelling current is,
at the instant of arc extinction is called Restrikine. The rate of rise of restriking de
i= fedt+C (1 )
voltage RRRV is nothing but rate which is expressed in volts per micro-second . This wil l L dt
represent the rate at which Transient Recovery Voltage is increasing . The rate of rise of TRV
is dependent on system parameters . where,
With e as the restriking voltage in volts the n e = voltage across breaker terminals nothing but restriking voltage
de Differentiating (1),
RRRV = - volts / Iasec
dt di - e +C dZe . . . (2)
dt L dt2
The maximum instantaneous value attained by the restriking voltage is called the pea k
restriking voltage .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 18 Principles of Circuit Breaker s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 19 Principles of Circuit Breakers

The solution of 'e' will thus depend on the current and if interruption takes place a t tm =n .,JL C
current zero i.e . when t = 0 then, And peak value of restrikin
i= E m sin co t
wL where Em is equal to active recovery voltage (i .e. instantaneous value of recovery voltag e
and after opening of circuit breaker , at current zero) .
di E m co cos w t 1 .12 .2 Expression for RRRV and Maximum RRRV
dt wL r
E cos co t Now RRRV = d ee = d E m cos t
= m att= 0 dt dt .J LC
L i_
Substituting this in (2),
z RRRV = E "' sin t
Em coswt = e+C d e .JLC ,JL C
L L dt 2
and maximum RRRV = E
This is standard equation and solution of this equation is, .,JL C
t . . . (A)
e=Em 1 - cos when sin t = 1
LC D
V LC
This is an expression fo r i.e. t E7
m restriking voltage in which, LC 2
ma x
Restrikin g E, = Peak value of recover y
e voltag e
voltage phase to neutral i n for maximum RRRV
volts.
t = time in sec . 1 .12 .3 Frequency of Oscillation of Restriking Voltage (Transient )
1
L = inductance in henries fn = 2rz•JL C
C = capacitance in farad s
t m H- tinpse c e = restriking voltag e JLC =
2rzf"
Fig . 1 .1 9
Maximum RRV = E", = 2 7c fn Em
1 .12 .1 Expression for Maximum Value of Restriking Voltage E m .JL C
and Corresponding Time t m Maximum RRV = 2 lt Em fn
Now
1 .12 .4 Restriking Voltage Under Various Condition s
t
e=Em 1 - co s The restriking voltage 'e' under various conditions will be,
LC D - -
t
if 'e' is to be maximum e = Var 1-COS
.JLC
tm
cos 1 where t = tm where Var active recovery voltage i .e . the instantaneous value of recovery voltage a t
.J LC i current zero and Var can be written a s
t m = Var = Kl K2 K3 Em
.J LC Here Em is the peak value of system voltage where ,
Time at which maximum restriking voltage occurs is, Kl is factor which takes into accounts effect of circuit p .f. and K1 = sin 4
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 20 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU - Switchgear and Protection 21 Principles of Circtiit Breaker s

So if ¢ = 90°, K1 = 1 fn = 1
21c,/ L C
K 2 is factor which accounts effect of armature reaction on recovery voltage .
1
K3 is phase factor or first pole to clear factor . = 21c fn
.J LC
1 .12 .5 First Pole to Clear Facto r
= 21cx16x10 3
The first pole to clear factor is given by ,
RMS voltage between healthy phas e = 1x105
and faulty phase Time to reach maximum restriking voltag e
Factor pole to clear factor =
Phase to neutral voltage with faul t Maximum tn, = lc .j L C =
1x105
remove d
Maximum restriking voltage,
In three phase systems if fault does not involve the earth, the voltage across the circui t = 2 Var
breaker pole first to clear is 1 .5 times the phase voltage . The arc .extinction in the three pole s
of three phase circuit breakers is not simultaneous as currents are 120° out of phase. I n = 2K1 K2 K3 E m
practical systems the recovery voltage of the pole first to extinguish the arc is of the order o f = 2 x 0 .9165 x 0 .9 x 1 .5 x 107 .77 x 10 3
1.2 to 1.5 times of the phase voltage . = 2.66682 x 10 5 V
If fault involves earth and the neutral is grounded through reactor, the recovery voltag e Average RRRV,
is influenced by the equivalent system reactances . Maximum restriking voltage 2 .66682 x 105
Thus in 3 phase circuits K3 = 1 if neutral is earthed and fault is also earthed. While Time to reach maximum restriking voltage lc / 1 x 10 5
K3 = 1 .5 if neutral is earthed and fault is insulated or neutral is insulated and fault is earthed . = 8.48 x 10 9 V/sec
Ex. 1.1 : In short circuit test on a 3 pole, 132 kV circuit breaker, the following observations ar e = 8 .48 x 10° kV/sec = 8 .48 kV/µsec
made pf of fault 0 .4, recovery voltage 0 .9 times full line value, the breaking curren t Ex. 1.2 : In a short circuit test on a 130 kV, 3 phase system, the breaker gave the following results :
symmetrical, frequency of oscillations of restriking voltage 16 kHz . Assume neutral i s pf of fault 0 .45, recovery voltage 0 .95 times full line voltage, breaker current
grounded and fault is iaot grounded. Determine average,R-RRV.
symmetrical, andrestriking transienr7f a natural frequency 16 kHz . Determin e
t average RRRV . Assume fault is grounded .
Sol. : e= V. 1- cos
,jLC _ (V.T.U. Aug .2002 )

where
Vac
= Kl K2 K3 Em Sol. : x130
= 106 .144 kV
Kl takes into account p .f. effect
= sin ck. K l K, K3 E m where K 1 = sin = 0.893 0
K2 = takes into account armature reaction effect 0 .9 Er/"= 0.8930 x 0 .95 x 1 x 106 .144 K2 = 0 .9 5
K3 = Phase factor or 1 St pole to clear factor = 90.047262 kV K3 = 1
1 for both neutral and fault grounded : Maximum e = 2 Var = 180:09452 kV
1 .5 for any one of the two not grounded . Maximum time 1
= 7t .\/ L C and f=
In the problem, n 27t .\/ L C
K l = sin = sin [cos-1 0 .4] = 0.9165 1
Maximum t = 1 =
K2 = 0.9 K3 =1 .5 2fn 2x16x10 3
Peak value of voltage i.e. line to ground
= 132 Average RRRV = Maximum e = 180 .0945 2
Em x.\/ =107 .77 kV Maximum t 1/2x16x10 3
3
= 5.76302 kV/µsec
 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 23 Principles of Circuit Breakers
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 22
Maximum voltag e
Ex. 1 .3 : Calculate the RRRV of 132 kV circuit breaker with neutral earthed . S .C . data as follows : Average RRRV =
Broken current is symmetrical, restriking voltage has frequency 20 kHz, p f 0.15. tm
Assume fault is also earthed. 21 .212
Sol. : K = sin= sin (cos 0 .15)
4 [1/(2x14 .1227x103 ) ]
= 0 .988 6 = 0 .599 kV/ µ sec
K, = 1 In a system having 220 kV, the line to ground capacitance 0 .015µF, inductance 3 .5 H.
Ex. 1.5 :
K3 = 1 both grounded Determine voltage appearing across pole of circuit breaker if a magnetising current o f
x132 6 .5 A instantaneous, is interrupted . Determine also the value of resistance to be use d
Em = = 107.77755 kV across the contacts to eliminate the restriking voltage .
,l 3 (
t
Var = K1 Kz K 3 Em Sol . : e = E. 1- cos
.JLC J
= 106.54889 kV
Maximum e = 2 Va r 1Li' = 1 CeZ
= 213.09778 kV 2 2
tm =it .JLC
Energy stored in 'L' = energy given to capacito r
e = i .J L / C where i = instantaneous valu e
and f„ = 1 Tti j LC = tm = 1sec
2n.JLC 2fr, 3 .5
= 6.5
(0 .015x10-6)
Maximum tm = 1 sec
2x20x10 3 = 99.3 kV
213 .09778
RRRV -= emax To eliminate restriking voltage and critical damping condition ,
t max [1 / (20 x 10 3 x 2)] R = 0.5,JL/ C
8 .52 kV/ µsec 3 .5
= 0.5 = 7 .635 kS2
Ex.1.4 : A50Hzgenerator hase•m f toneiitral7.5kV(r•m•s•)•Thereactance ofgenerator andthe ( 0 .015x10 -6 )
connected system is 4 St and distributed capacitance to neutral is 0 .01 µF with resistance
negligible . Find, Ex . 1.6 : A 50 Hz, 3 ph alternator, has rated voltage 13 .5 kV, connected to circuit breaker,
inductive reactance 4 S1/ph, C = 2 µF .
i) maximum voltage across the circuit breaker contact s
Determine maximum RRRV, peak restriking voltage, frequency of oscillations .
ii) frequency of oscillation s
J2x13 . 5
iii) RRRV average upto first peak of oscillations . Sol . : E. = = 11.0227 k V
Sol. : X=2TCfL=4S2
L = 4/2TCx50=0 .0127H. X = 27cfL .•L=0 .0127323 H and C=2µ F
Em = .,G x 7.5=10 .606k V fn = 1 = 0.997 kH z
1) Maximum voltage = 2 x Em 2 Tc.J L C
= 2x10 .606=21 .212 kV Maximum restriking voltage = 2 E m
_ 1 _ 1 = 22.0454 kV
2 fn
2 11,f LC 2tc*0 .0127x0 .01x10-6 t
e=Em 1-cos
= 14.1227 kHz j--'C )
3) Maximum time to reach maximum voltage is , de -
E1 sin t This is the expression of RRRV
tm = Tc . J LC = 1 = 1 sec dt m l/ Lc .JL C
2 fr , 2x14 .1227x10 3
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 24 Principles of Circuit Breakers 25 Principles of Circuit Breaker s
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
Em 1
Maximum RRRV = and fnn =
JLC 2n.\/ L C
Maximum RRRV = 2 nfn Em
= n x 0.997 x 10 3 x 22 .0454 kV/sec
= 0 .06907 kV/ pse c

1 .13 Interruption of Capacitive Current s

In power systems capacitor banks are used in the network which supplies reactiv e
power at leading power factor .
There are various conditions suc h
as opening a long transmissio n
line on no load or disconnecting a
capacitor bank etc ., in which it is
required to interrupt the
capacitive currents which is a
difficult task for the circui t
breakers . To understand this
Fig . 1 .20 Interruption of capacitive currents
difficulty let us consider a simpl e
circuit shown in the Fig . 1 .20.
The value of load capacitance CL is greater than C . The voltage across a capacitor canno t
change instantaneously . The currents supplied to the capacitor are generally small an d
interruption of such currents take place at first current zero . Also at the beginning, the rate o f
rise of recovery voltage is low and increases slowly . Whenever such circuit is opened a
charge is trapped in the capacitance CL. The voltage eL across the load capacitance will hol d
the same value when circuit was opened . This voltage is nothing but peak of supply voltage
as power factor angle is nearly 90°leading .
After opening the circuit the voltage Vc across the capacitance C oscillates an d
approaches a new steady value . But due to small value of capacitance C, the value attained i s of capacitive curren t
Fig . 1 .21 Waveform showing interruption
close to the supply voltage . The recovery voltage er is nothing but difference between ec and
eL . Its initial value is zero as the circuit breaker will be closed and increases slowly in th e This in the successive restrikes, the energy 2 CV2 is :to be dissipated which is quite larg e
beginning . When Vc reverses after half cycle, the recovery voltage is about twice the norma l
peak value . Therefore it is possible that at this instant arc may restrike as the electrica l and the circuit breaker may get damaged in the process of restriking . Hence the circui t
breakers those are to be used for capacitors must be free from restriking and should hav e
strength between the circuit breaker contacts is not sufficient . The circuit will be reclose d
and eL oscillates at a high frequency. adequate rating for capacitive current switching .so that severe voltage transients can b e
avoided .
The supply voltage at this instant will be at its negative peak; therefore a high frequenc y
If circuit breakers are closed while switching capacitor banks in parallel, the pre-arcin g
oscillation takes place .
that is arc is struck before contacts touch together, takes place . This may damage the contact s
At the instant of restrucking the arc, the -recovery voltage Vr is zero . The voltage acros s as the energy in the arc is converted into heat . Thus while switching, with capacitor bank s
the load capacitance reaches - 3 times the peak value of normal supply voltage . The recover y suitable reactor L must used in series to limit high frequency inrush current .
voltage then starts increasing . If again restriking of arc takes place, a high frequency o f
oscillation of eL takes place . Such several repetitions of the restriking cycle will increase th e 1 .14 Current Chopping (Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current)
voltage across load capacitance to a dangerously high value . In practice this voltage i s
limited to 4 times the normal peak of the voltage . This is represented in the Fig . 1.21 . There are certain circumstances like disconnecting transformers on no load in which it i s
necessary to interrupt small inductive currents . The no-load current of a transformer is
almost at zero power factor lagging . This current is normally smaller than the norma l
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 27 Principles of Circuit breakel s
VT:U - Switchgear and Protection 26 Principles of Circuit Breaker s

current rating of the breaker . Interrupting such current causes severe duty on the circui t While interrupting low inductive currents the rapid deionization of contact space an d
breaker. This phenomenon is called current chopping . blast effect may cause the current to reduce abru .tl to zerowell before tHe natura current
Consider the circuit shown in the Fig . 1 .22.(a) . zero. 't'his currén c sopping causes very serious volt e oscr ations .
L the arc current be i when it is chopped down to zero value . The stored energy in the
inductor which 1 L i 2 will be discharged in to the capacitanc that the capacitor is charge d
to a prospective voltage V such that ,
e = E m sinwt Load 1 Li2
= 1 CV2
✓2 2
-= i,f L / C volts
Fig . 1 .22 (a) Circuit diagram showing interruption of inductive currents This prospective voltage is extremely high as compared to the normal system voltage .
The frequency of natural oscillations is given by ,
1
Current finall y fn =
suppressed before - 27c.,JL C
natural zer o
To understand this point let us consider a small example of 220 kV circuit breake r
interrupting a magnetizing current of 10 A r .m.s . of transformer . Let the current be choppe d
at the instantaneous value of 7A . Let the value of inductance and capacitance be 35 H an d
0.0020µF
Assuming that all the inductive energy is transferred to capacitance and using the abov e
formula,
e=7

e = 926 kV
This voltage will appear across the circuit breaker contacts . Such a transient voltag e
having high RRRV appears across the contacts . There will be restriking of arc at some point .
If the arc restrikes further, chop may occur . Thus before final interruption of current ther e
will be many chops and the circuit breaker will fail to clear the fault . Alternately if th e
restrike does not occur, the severe voltage stress will appear across circuit breaker contacts .
The rise of voltage before restriking is an important factor . The lower is the rate of rise,
more is the time required for deionization and high voltage will be reached .
After first chopping the deionising force which is still in action acts and second chop o f
current takes place . But the arc current is now smaller than the previous one and arc curren t
collapses and restriking voltage is again build . Thus a sequence of chops will occur and ar c
will continuously decrease until a final chop brings arc current to zero . There will not be any
further restriking as the gap is almost deionise . This is represented in the Fig . 1 .22 (b) .

t15 Resistance Switchin g

It can be seen from previous sections that the interruption of low inductive currents ,
interruption of capacitive currents give rise to severe voltage oscillations . These excessiv e
voltage surges during circuit interruption can be prevented by the use of shunt resistance R
across the circuit breaker contacts . This process is known as Resistance Switching .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 28 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 29 Principles of Circui t Breaker s

Externa l When the resistance is Applying KVL to loop (II),

resistance connected across the ard, a part o f
the arc current flows through th e 0 = - 1 1 1 (s) + R+ 1
c® SC sC
resistance. This will lead to
A B decrease in arc current an d From equation (ii),
Isolato r
Fixed Move d switc h increase in rate of deionization of h (s) = (1 + sCR) 1 2 (s)
contact contact the arc path and resistance of arc .
This will increase current through Substituting this value in equation (i )
Fig . 1 .23 Typical resistor connectio n
shunt resistance . This process
continues until the current through
R= sL+- (1+sCR)I2 (s)- s I2 (s)
i
the arc is diverted through the V
resistance either completely or i n - = sL+s 2RLC+ 1+R- 1 1, (s)
major part. If the small value of th e s [ sC sC
current remains in the arc then th e V
- = (RLCs 2 +Ls+R)I 2 (s)
path becomes so unstable that it is s
easily extinguished. V VlRLC
I2 (s) =
The resistance may be 2
s(RLCs2 +Ls+R) s s' + - 1 I
automatically switched in and ar c ( RC LC
current can be transferred . The Using partial fractions ,
Fig . 1 .24 time required for this action is ver y
small . As shown in the Fig . 1 .23 the s
arc first appears across points A and B which is then transferred across A and C . V 1 + 2RC 2RC
12 (s) Rs 1 \
1*2 1 1 z
The shunt resistance also ensures the effective damping of the high frequency re-striking s+- 2 +--( 1 2 s+- +-- ' -
voltage transients . This is shown in the Fig . 1 .24. ( 2RC LC 2RC) C
2RC, LC \2RC
We will now derive a relation which will show how damping is achieved . Consider th e 1 1 1 2
circuit and Laplace transform equivalent as shown in the Fig . 1 .25. Put x = 2RC Y LC - ( 2RC )

I2(S) 2 2
R s (s + x)2 + ( 5) (s + x) 2 + 1/*)

Taking inverse Laplace transform,

2
i (t) = R[l-e -x *
cos .‘/-Tf t+ X sin
Y
* t
J_
The natural frequency of oscillation is given by,
.1
- 1 1 _ 1
In_
21c LC 4C 2R 2

Fig . 1 .2 5 It can be seen that with the value of the resistance R equal to or less than L / C, th e
2
Applying KVL to loop (I) oscillatory nature of the transient will not be there and RRRV will be within the permissibl e
V 1 limits of circuit breaker .
I1 (s) (s)
s sC 1 s C 12
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 30 Principles of Circuit Breakers VTU-Switchgear and Protection 31 Principles of Circuit Breaker s

For critical damping 6

= 10
0 .01 x 10 -6
R 2V C = 10 (24494 .89)
Considering different values of R, the oscillations observed are shown in the Fig . 1.26 . V = 245 kV
The value of resistance to be used across contact space is given by ,
1* L
R= -
2 C
1 6
2 0 .01 x10- 6
1
(24494.89)

R = 12 .24kS .
R> 2 1 .16 Arc Extinctio n

I The electric discharge which is taking place between the electrodes is nothing but th e
R< 2
Fig . 1 .2 6
In air blast circuit breakers it is observed that the rate at which dielectric strength of ga p
increases is lower than in oil breakers . Since air has a much lower dielectric strength than th e
gases at same temperature and pressure in oil circuit breaker . The dielectric strength of a ga s
increases with pressure . Thus the air blast circuit breaker is more sensetive to restrikin g
voltage transient . In low or medium voltage air blast circuit breaker the rate or rise o f
restriking voltage is higher . Thus shunt resistors are used for low and medium voltage ai r
blast circuit breakers . Also in case of oil circuit breakers the resistance switching is no t
employed as it is not sensitive to RRRV.
Ex .1.7 : In 132 kV transmission system, the phase to ground capacitance is 0 .01 µF. The
inductance being 6 H . Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of a circuit breake r
if a magnetizing current of 10 A is interrupted . Find the value of resistance to be use d
across contact space to eliminate the striking voltage transient .
Sol . . L=6 H
C = 0 .01µF=0 .01x10-6 F
i=10 A
Voltage appearing across poles of circuit breaker, is given by ,
L 1 .16 .3 Artificial Current Zero Interruptio n
V=i
C In HVDC systems this method is employed for breakin d .c. currents where current is
electric arc . We have seen that when contacts of circuit breakers are separated, an arc i s
established between the contacts which will last for some period . The circuit breaker shoul d
be capable of extinguishing this arc without damaging . The behavior of circuit breaker i s
greatly influènced by the arc .
Interrup ti on of arc in case of d .c . circuits is much more difficult than that in case of a .c,
circûits . In a .c. currents the natural current zero point is available where the arc vanishes an d
prevented from restriking .
The arc extinction in case of circuit breakers is not taking place frequently but still i t
produces 10t of stress on the breaker . The different methods adopted for the arc extinctio n
can be grouped into following three categories ,
1 .16 .1 High Resistance Interruptio n
In this technique the resistance of current path is increased rapidly so that voltage dro p
is increased . The arc gets 'Extinguished when the system voltage is insufficient to maintai n
1 arc ue to high voltage drop . This is normally used in d .c. circuit breakers and air brea k
type a .c circuit breakers having low capacity . The system inductance stores the energ y
which is dissipated in the arc .
1 .16 .2 Low Resistance or Current Zero Interruptio n
This method is used only in case of a .c . circuit breakers . At the natural current zero point
of a.c . wave the arc is interrupted and is prevented from restrikin g tho n
<mp*voltage by increasing the dielectric strength of the contact gap . This metho• i s
used in high power a .c. circuit breakers .
made zero artificially
 `Whir:- Switchgearand Protection 32
Principles of Circuit Breakers
1 .17 Ionization of Gase s
The non-ionized gas is generally a good dielectric medium . But the ionized gas is a
conductor as it contains free electrons . In circuit breakers the contact space is ionized b y
following ways ,
1 .17 .1 Thermal Ionizatio n
At normal temperatures, molecules of gas are moving at various velocities in variou s
directions and possess K.E . as mv2. With increase in temperature the molecules break up in
simpler form and then to atoms . At high temperature more and more collision takes plac e
which will produce free electrons thus produces the ionization by heat and called therma l
ionization.
1 .17 .2 Ionization by Collisio n
Any particle may be atom, molecule or electron at higher velocity may strike anothe r
particle so that the energy of moving particle is imparted to other one . This energy i s
sufficient to remove electrons from atoms . This is called ionization by collision .
1 .17.3 Thermal Emission from Surface of Contact s
Whenever contacts of a breaker are closed, they are pressed against each other at high
pressure . With the contacts separation the pressure between them reduces so true area o f
contact is decreased to a few spots on the surface . Due to this, high current density areas ar e
produced which will cause high local temperature . Due to this, thermal emission takes place
at contact surface .
1 .17 .4 Secondary Emission at Contact Surfac e
Under the influence of strong electric'field between the contacts the electrons move fro m
one contact to other producing emission from contact surfacé .
1 .17 .5 Field Emissio n
The voltage gradiant at the contact surface is high which is sufficient to remove electron s
from surface of electrodes since as contacts separate initially voltage gradiant is very hig h
which causes breakdown of gas . This is called field emission.
1 .17.6 Photoemissio n
The electron emission from contact surface due to incident of light energy is calle d
photoemission.
1 .18 Deionizatio n
In circuit breakers the deionization is an important process as it supports ai'c éxtinctiôn .
This can be discussed in short as follows,
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 33 Principlesof Circuit Breaker s
1 .18 .1 Recombination
If a gas contains positive ions and electrons then there is tendency between them t o
combine and form a neutral atom . This is called recombination . This will assist arc extinction
as combination of positive ions and negative charges takes place inside .
1 .18.2 Diffusio n
The electrons from highly ionized space diffuse to the surrounding weakly ionize d
space which is an important process in building up dielectric strength .
1 .18 .3 Conduction of Hea t
This will make the temperature to reduce and will help recombination . Particles at hig h
temperature travel to the space at lower temperature . Thus kinetic energy is removed fro m
the space which is ionized between the contacts .
1 .1'9 Arc F ormation
As seen earlier the separation of contacts of circuit breaker results in high loca l
temperature on the contact surface . The contact surface get ionized due to thermal emissio n
and the electrons are emitted . The space between the contacts is ionized and become s
conducting . Thus the arc is initiated between the contacts .
The Fig . 1 .27 shows general form of arc voltage and arc current . It can be seen that
voltage is nearly constant when current is nearly-at its maximum .
Fig . 1.2 7
The arc path is purely resistive and the arc voltage is in phase with an arc current . Whe n
the contacts are separated the arc voltage increases due to increase in arc length . The ar c
voltage is increased till it becomes more than system voltage across the contacts where ar c
gets extinguished .
1 .20 High Resistance Arc Interruption Method s
The various methods of high resistance and interruption are ,
1. Lengthening the ar c
2. Splitting of arc
3. Cooling of arc
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 35 Principles of Circuit Breakers
34 Principles of Circuit Breakers
VTU-- Switch ear and Protection
1 .21 Low Resistance or Zero Point Extinctio n
1 .20.1 Lengthening the Ar c
In this method the arc length is increase d This method is used in a .c . arc interruption . The current becomes zero two times in a
Final position of ar c by using arc runners which are horn lik e cycle . So at each current zero point the arc vanishes for small instant and again it appears .
blades of conducting material . The arc
But in a .c . circuit breakers the arc is interrupted at a current zero point . The space
ri Electromagne ti c runners are connected to arcing contacts an d
force in upward between the contacts is deionized quickly if there is fresh unionized medium such as oil o r
it is in the shape of letter 'V' . The arc i s
direction fresh air or SF 6 gas between the contacts at current zero point . This will make dielectri c
initiated at the bottom and blows upward s
strength of the contact space to increase such that arc will be interrupted and discontinue d
due 'to electromagnetic force . Due to this arc
Arc initiation after current zero . This action produces high voltage across the contacts which is sufficien t
length increases and .consequently .,arc i s
to reestablish the arc . Thus the dielectric strength must be build more than the restrikin g
extinguished .
Fig . 1 .28 Arc lengthenin g voltage for faithful interruption of arc . Then the arc is extinguished at next current zero .
While designing the circuit breakers the care is taken so as to remove the hot gases fro m
1 .20 .2 Splitting of Arc
In this method elongation of arc is done and the arc is split using arc splitters which ar e the contact space immediately after the arc . So that it can be filled by fresh dielectric mediu m
having high dielectric strength .
specially made plates of resin bonded fibre glass . These plates are placed in perpendicula r
path-to-arc so that it will be pulled towards it by . electromagneticforce, When the arc'is In summary we can say that the arc extinction process is divided in thee parts ,
pulled upwards it gets elongated then split and cooled . due to which,it gets extinguished . a) Arcing phas e
This is shown in the Fig .11 .29 . b) Current zero phas e
c) Post arc ; phas e
In arcing phase, the temperature of the contact space is increased due to the arc . The heat
produced must be removed quickly by providing radial and axial flow to g ases . The arc can
not be broken abruptly but its diameter can be reduced -by the passage of gas over the arc .
When a .c. current wave is near its zero, the diameter of'thé'arcis very less and consequentl y
arc is extinguished . This is nothing but current zero phase . Now in order to avoid the
reestablishment of arc, the contact space must be filled with dielectric medium having hig h
dielectric strength . This is post arc phase in which hot gases are removed and fresh dielectri c
medium is'introdûced ,

Arc moving upward s

1 Arc Interruption Theorie s
due to electromagnetic force
There are two main theories explaining current zero interruption of arc
/,I-) Recovery Rate Theory or .Slepian's Theory
-) Energy balance theory or Cassie's Theor y

1 .2 Slepian 's Theor y

Slepian described the process as rac between the dielectric stren gth and restrikin g
voltage . After every current zero, there is a column of resi ua ionised gas . T*his 'mny rus .
Fig . 1 .29 Arc splitting
arc to strike again by develo .in- necessar in v• tae and this voltage stress i s
1 .20.3 Cooling of Arc rfficrent to detach electrons out of t •' _ . . tomic orbits
As already seen, the recombinationf ionized particles can be done by cooling the arc S•-in this theory rate at w•'- osi i • • . e ectronsr .c h -to form neutra l
which removes heat from the arc . This is done by bringing the arc in contact with cooled air . *s . ecules is compared with rate of rise of restrike Tg ult ge Due t• - •' ric
Due to cooling the arc diameter reduces which will increase its resistance . This will help i n rength of gap gets recovered . So rate of recovery of dielectric strength is c o rn
' TJj
arc extinctidn . • ° . ' • o restriking voltage .
If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength, gap space-break s
down and arc strikes again and persists .
 36 Principles of Circuit Breaker s VTU-*Switchgear and Protection .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 37 Principles of C ircuit .Breaker s
In the Fig . 1 .30, contacts is infinitely high . In between these two extreme limits, power dissipated rises to
a) Rate of dielectric strength is mor e maximum . If the heat so generated exceeds the rate at which heat can be removed fro a
m
than restriking voltage . contact space, ionisation will persist and breakdown will occur, giving an arc for anothe r
half cycle .
b) Rate of dielectric strength is les s c..el .-az *8 -,--,
C7
than rate of rise of restriking voltage . Qo«- - ev1 e (cn

The assumption made whil e

developing this theory is that the Amax
restriking voltage and rise of dielectri c f2
V
strength are comparable quantities whic h n
is not quite correct . The second drawback
is that the theory does not consider the energy relations in the arc extinction . The arcing
phase is not covered by this theory so it is incomplete .
60, re.s.
1 .22 .2 Cassie's Theory 7
Alternative explanation of above process is afforded by Cassie's theory or also calle d
Energy balance theory . 'arc

Cas su„ested that the reestablishment of arc or interruption of an arc bot h Marc
alone roces _ If th ; - •• ' • - - - e■ u m r increase the arc re • . nn f
ot, ge s interru . Fig . 1 .31 Waveform of a .c . arc
The theor makes the following assumptions : Examples with Solution s
consists of a cylindrical column having uniform temperature at its cross section .
The energy distributed in the column is unifor m Ex . 1.8 : A 50 cycles, 3 phase alternator with grounded neutral has inductance of 1
.6 mH per phas e
temperature remains constant . and is connected to busbar through a circuit breaker . The capacitance to earth between th e
cross section of the arc adjusts itself to accomodate the arc current . alternator and circuit breaker is 0 .003 p*F per phase . The circuit breaker opens when rm
s
d wer dissipation is proportional to cross sectional area of arc colum n
value of c urrent is 7500 A . Determine the following :
The energy equation as expressed by Cassie is given by , i) Maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage .
ii) Time for maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage .
dQ = EI- N
dt iii) Frequency of oscillation s

where Q = Energy content / length of arc in c m Neglect first pole to clear factor . (V .T.U. Feb .2003, Aug .2003 )
E = volts / c m Sol. : i= 7500 A, L = 1 .6 mH, C = 0.003 }IF
I Total curren t XL = 27c f L = 2 7c x 50 x 1 .6 x 1 0-3 = 0.5026552
N = Total power loss / cm Peak value of active recovery voltage (Phase to neutral) i .e.
Breakdown occurs if power fed to the arc is more than power loss . The theory is true fo r Em = (i x XL) x = (7500 x 0.50265) x
high currents. = 5331.4083 V
Irnr rately after current zero, contact space contains ionised gas and therefore has a fn = frequency of oscillations = 1
fipost zero resistance . 27c-‘/LC
Now there is risin : restriking volta • e . This risin• restrikin• volta : e causes a current to 1
flow tween the contacts . Due to this current flow, over .• ets dissi p ated as heat in the 27E11 .6 x 10 -3 x 0 .003 x 10" 6
ntact space of circuit breaker. IE * *
•
Initially when restriking voltage is zero, automatically current and hence power is zero . = 72643 .96 Hz
It is again zero when the space has become fully deionise and resistance between th e Maximum RRRV = 27c fnEm = 27c x 72643 .96 x 5331 .4083
.ev\.`E-a-&.,h e/t
A '. t h AG .m H

P- ?I,.
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 38
= 2433443822 V/se c
= 2433 .4438 V/µsec
Time for maximum RRRV = = 3 .4414 sec
Principles of Circuit Breaker s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 39 Principle s o f Circui t Breaker s
-m
3 . In a short circuit test the breaking current is symmetrical and the restriking transient had a natura l
frequency of 16 kHz . Determine the rate of rise of restriking voltage, if the power factor is 0 .45 and th e
system is 132 kV, 3 phase grounded one . Recovery voltage is 0.95 of full line value.
(Aug.2002, 10 Marks )

Review Question s 4. Explain how current interruption takes place in an AC circuit breaker . (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks)
1 . Define a circuit breaker ? Describe its operation in brief. 5. What is resistance switching ? Derive an expression for 'R' critical. (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks)
2 . Discuss the arc phenomenon in a circuit breaker . 6. A 50 cycles 3 ph alternator with grounded natural has inductances of 1 .6 mH per phase and i s
3 . What are different arc interruption methods ? Explain any one. in detai l connected to bus bar through a circuit breaker . The capacitance to earth between the alternator an d
circuit breaker is 0.003 µF per phase . The circuit breaker opens when rms value of current is 7500 Amp.
4 . Explain the following terms related to circuit breaker.
Determine the following :
i) Arc voltag e
Frequency of oscillatio n
ii) Restriking voltage
Maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks)
iii) Recovery voltage
7. Write a short note on Slepian's theory of arc interruption (Feb : 2003, 5 Marks )
5 . Explain the fault clearing process by giving oscillographs of short circuit current .
8. Derive an expression for short circuit current in an R-L series circuit with an alternating current source .
6 . Discuss the effect of various parameters on TRV . Show that the current has a d .c . component and a .c. component. (Aug.2003, 10 Marks )
7. Obtain an expression for rate of rise of restriking voltage . 9. Explain in detail the theories which explain arc extinction phenomenon . (Aug .2003, 10 Marks )
8 . Explain resistance switching as applied to circuit breakers . 10. A 50-cycles, 3-phase alternator with grounded neutral has inductance of 1 .6 mH per phase and is
9 . Explain in detail the theories which explain the arc extinction phenomenon . connected to busbar through a circuit braker . The capacitance to earth between the alternator and th e
circuit-breaker is 0 .003 F per phase . The circuit breaker opens when r. m.s. value of current is 7500 A.
10 . Write a note on interruption of capacitive currents.
Determine analytically the followin g
11 . Write a note on current chopping phenomenon . i) Maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage . .
12 . Explain in detail d .c. current breakin g ii) Time for maximum rate of rise of restriking voltage .
13 . A 3 ph alternator has line voltage of 11 kV . The generator is connected to . a circuit breaker. Th e iii) Frequency of oscillations.
inductive reactance upto circuit breaker is 5 4 per phase . The distributed capacitance upto circuit
breaker between phase and neutral is 0 .01 .iF. Determin e Neglect first pole to clear factor . (Aug .2003, 10 Marks )
a) Peak restriking voltage across circuit breake r
b) Frequency of restriking voltage transien t
c) Average rate of restriking voltage upto peak restriking voltage
d) Maximum RRRV (Ans . : 18 kV; 12637 c/s ; 0.456 kV I µ seem 714 v / µsec)
14 . In a short circuit test on a 3 pole circuit breaker of fault was 0 .4, the recovery voltage was 0 .95 times full
line voltage . The breaking current was symmetrical . The frequency of oscillations of restriking voltage
was 15000 c/s. Estimate the average rate of rise of restriking voltage . The neutral is grounded and fau n
involves earth . Neglect first pole to clear factor. (Ans. 4.8 kV I µsec)
15. In a system of 132 kV the circuit phase to ground capacitance is 0 .01 mF, the series inductance is 6 H.
Calculate the voltage appearing across the pole of a circuit breakers if a current of 10 A (instantaneous ,
in interrupted. Calculate value of the resistance to be used across contact space to eliminate th e
restriking voltage transient . (Ans . : 245 kV ; 12.25 Ica

University Question s
1 . Explain the problems involved in interruption of low inductive currents and capacitive circuits .
Mark s
(Aug .2002, 10
2. Explain the arc interruption methods used in . high voltage circuit breakers . (Aug .2002, 10 Marks
 41 Circuit Breaker s
VTU - Switchgear and Protection

Tri p
coil
Circuit Breakers Automati c
mechanism fo r
opening and closin g
the circuit breake r
contacts

2.1 Introductio n

As already seen in the last chapter, whenever any fault occurs in the power system the n
that part of the system must be isolated from the remaining healthy part of the system . Thi s Fig . 2 .1 Basic action of circuit breake r
function is accomplished by circuit breakers . Thus a circuit breaker will make or break e
a Under normal working conditions the e .m .f . produced in the secondary winding of th
circuit either manually or automatically under different conditions such as no load, full loa d . Thus th e
or short circuit . Thus it proves to be an effective device for switching and protection o transformer is insufficient to energize the trip coil completely for its operation
e
different parts of a power system . f contacts remain in closed position carrying the normal working current . The contacts can b
opened manually also by the handle .
In earlier days fuse was included in the protective system . But due to some limitation
Under abnormal or faulty conditions high current in the primary winding of the curren t
they are not used in practice now a days . The main difference between a fuse and circuis s
t transformer induces sufficiently high e .m .f . in the secondary winding so that the trip coil i e
breaker is that under fault condition the fuse melts and it is to be replaced whereas the circui t . This action will not b
breaker can close or break the circuit without replacement . energized . This will start opening motion of the contacts
instantaneous as there is always a time lag between the energization of the trip circuit an d
d
2 .2 Requirements of Circuit Breake r the actual opening of the contacts . The contacts are moved towards right away from fixe
contact .
The power associated with the circuit breakers is large and it forms the link between th As we have seen already the separation of contacts will not lead to breaking o r
consumers and suppliers . The necessary requirements of circuit breakers are as follows e s
, interruption of circuit as an arc is struck between the contacts . The production of arc delay
1. The normal working current and the short circuit current must be safely interrupte y
the current interruption and in addition to this it produces large amount of heat which ma
by the circuit breaker . d y
damage the system or the breaker . Thus it becomes necessary to extinguish the arc as earl
as possible in minimum time, so that heat produced will lie within the allowable limit . Thi s
2. The faulty section of the system must be isolated by circuit breaker as quickly a
possible keeping minimum delay . s will also ensure that the mechanical stresses produced on the parts of circuit breaker are less .
3. It should not operate with flow of overcurrent during healthy conditions The time interval which is passed in between the energization of the trip coil to th e
. It is dependent on fault curren t
4. The faulty circuit only must be isolated without affecting the healthy one instant of contact separation is called the opening time .
. level .
\/ 2 .3 Basic Action of a Circuit Breake r The time interval from the contact separation to the extinction of arc is called arcin g
e
The Fig. 2 .1 shows the elementary diagram of a circuit breaker time . It depends not only on fault current but also on availability of voltage for maintenanc
. It consists of two contact s of arc and mechanism used for extinction of arc .
a fixed contact and a moving contact
. A handle is attached at the end of the moving contact .
It can be operated manually or automatically . The automatic operation needs a separat 2 .4 Classification of Circuit Breakers
mechanism which consists of a trip coil . The trip coil is energized by secondary of the currene
transformer . The terminals of circuit breaker are brought to power supply t v The circuit breakers are classified by various ways . The different criteria for
.
classification of circuit breakers are as follows ,
i) Interrupting mediu m
ii) According to servic e
iii) Way of operation
(40)
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 42 Circuit Breakers Circuit Breaker s
VTUSwitchgear and Protection 43
iv) Action
13
v) Method of contro l
vi) Way of mounting
L
A
vii) Tank constructio n
viii) Contacts p 111N!1 MID PIIIIIS
•'J)I L
According to the interrupting medium the circuit breakers-are classified as air circui t L
breaker, air blast circuit breaker, oil circuit breaker and magnetic blast circuit breaker . 12
According to service there are two types of circuit breakers viz indoor circuit breake r
and outdoor circuit breaker .
Depending on the operation, the types of circuit breakers are gravity opened, gravit y
closed and horizontal break circuit breaker . r 7
On the basis of action, the circuit breakers are classified as automatic and non-automati c
circuit breaker .
According to method of control, the circuit breaker may be controlled directly or it ma y
be operated remotely . The remote control may be manual, pneumatic or electrical .
END-VIEW
'ELEVATION
The way of mounting classifies the circuit breakers into panel mounted, rear of panel o r
remote from panel type . One pole of an extra high voltage air blast circuit-breake r
' Depending on the tank construction, the circuit breakers are classified as separate tan k
for each pole type or one tank for all poles type .
13
On the basis of contacts, the different types of circuit breakers are Butt, Wedge ,
Laminated flat contact, Explosion chamber etc .
Out of the various ways of classification of circuit breakers the general way o f
10 10
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction which is normally oil, air , 15
Sulphur Hexa Flouride (SF 6) or vacuum . I b b. % Er
Each type of circuit breaker is associated with its own advnatages and disadvantages .
We will now consider some types of circuit breakers in detail .

2.5 Air Blast Circuit Breakers I

IIiIiii1ii
I* :'g Kt%////*D////O✓
/O'4
CIE
s
11
.I 4 h
These type of circuit breakers were employed in earlier days for voltages ranging fro m 'r.
11 to 1100 kV . At high voltages this type of circuit breakers are most suitable . In this type o f 14 c --.Airflow
circuit breakers the compressed air is used for the arc extinction . Hence it is calle d 7
compressed air circuit breaker . 2
Details of double arc extinction chambe r
2.5.1 Construction of an Air Blast Circuit Breake r
The Fig . 2.2 shows the constructional details-of air blast-circuit breaker . Tank air reservior (receiver) 8 . Moving contact (in 3 )
1. 9 . Connection for curren t
Hollow insulator assembly
At the bottom there is a tank which is called air reservoir with the valves . On this 2. 10 . Compression spring s
3. Double arc extinction chamber
reservoir there are three hollow insulator columns . On the top of each insulator column Pneumatic operating mechanism 11 . Openings for air outle r
4.
there is double arc extinguishing chamber . The current carrying parts are connected to th e Operating rod 12 . Arcing horns Optiona l
5.
Pneumatic value 13 . Resistance switching uni t
arc extinction chambers in series . The assembly of entire arc extinction chamber is mounte d 6.
Fixed contact (in 3) 14 . Enclosur e
on insulators as there exists large voltage between the conductors and air reservoir . 7. 15 . Port

Fig . 2 .2 Construction of air blast circuit breake r

 d*2_ C*c***ckc+,t .s*rESrb*-L *
e
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 44 Circuit Breakers (' :L'
:Q
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
72* 45 Circuit Breakers

The double arc extinction chamber is shown separately in the Fig . 2.2 (b) . It can be seen
that for each circuit breaker pole there are six breaks as there are three double arc extinctio n
poles in series . Each arc extinction chamber consists of two fixed and two moving contacts .
These contacts can move axially so as to open or close . The position depends on air pressur e
and spring pressure . The opening rod is operated by the opening mechanism when it get s
control signal (may be electrical or pneumatic) . This will lead to flow of high pressure air by
opening the valve . The high pressure air enters the double arc extinction chamber rapidly .
Due to the flow of air the pressure on moving contacts increases than spring pressure an d
contacts open . The contacts travel through a small distance against the spring pressure . Due
to the motion of moving contacts the port for outgoing air is closed and the whole ar c
extinction chamber is filled with high pressure air . But during the arcing period the ai r
passes through the openings shown and takes away ionized air of arc . In case of makin g
operation the valve is turned which connects hollow column of insulator and the reservoir .
The air is passed to the atmosphere due to which pressure of air in the chamber is dropped t o
atmospheric pressure and closing of moving contacts is achieved against spring pressure .
The flow 'r is across the arc. The moving contact is near to the arc splitter assembly .
The a; ast forces the arc on to the arc splitterplates . These plates will lengthen the arc .
Depen itng upoh 'the breaking capacity of thé breaker, the size and number of plates ar e
decided. The fixed contact is mounted at the base between the two insulating blocks . It
consists of a number of silver surfaced spring loaded copper fingers . The arcing portion is
surfaced with a silver tungsten alloy. The moving contact consists of flat copper silver faced
blade . Resistancé switching is not required as sufficient resistance is automaticall y
not ced in the ,arc to control the restriking transient . The cross blast breakers are
y used -in indoor circuit breakers of medium high voltage class .
Axial Blast Typ e
this type the flow of 1 ast of air is along t his is sl-,Lown in the Fig . 2.4.

2 .5 .2 Workin g
An auxiliary compressed air system is required by this type of circuit breaker . This will
supply air to the air reservior of the breaker . During the opening operation, the air is allowe d
to enter in the extinction chamber which pushes away moving contacts . The contacts are
separated and the blast of air will take ionized gases with it and helps in extinguishing th e
arc . This will require only one or two cycles . There are two major types - cross blast and axia l
blast.
In cross blast type, the blast of air cuts across the arc . It is less frequently used in th e
prac ice . In axial blast type, the blast of air is along the arc . This type of design is common i n
u
.5 .2 .1 Cross Blast Typ e
The Fig. 2 .3 shows the schematic arrangement of a cross blast

Fig . 2 .4 Axial blast type circuit breaker 9-L‘x

Fig. 2 .3 Cross blast type circuit breaker
There are two subtypes which are shown in the Fig . 2.4 (a) and (b) viz single blast typ e
and double blast type . The double blast arrangement is also called radial blast type due t o
the fact that the blast flows radially into the space between the contacts .
In this type air flows from high pressure eservio to the atmosphere through a nozzle .
Whose design makes air tb expand in the lowp zone . It`will ttain high ve ocr
ty l - e
high speed air flowing axially along the arc will cause removal rom the periphery of
the arc . The diameter of arc reduces to a low value at current ze. t this instant of the ar c
interruption the contact space is filled with the fresh air . This will make possible to remove
the hot gases and fast building up of the dielectric strength of the medium .

VTU -Switchgear and Protection 46 -Circuit Breaker s
As already seen during the contact closing, the air from the extinction chamber i s
allowed to pass to the atmosphere . This will reduce the pressure on the moving contacts an d
will assist the closing operation . The total operation is represented in the Fig . 2.5 ..
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 47 Circuit Breaker s
After the arc extinction the pressure on either side of auxiliary contacts is adjusted i n
such away that auxiliary contacts open and resistor circuit is interrupted . Cerami c
resistances of non=linear characteristics are used for resistance switching .

2 .5 .3 Compressed Air System for Air Blast Circuit Breake r

The schematic arrangement shown in the Fig . 2 .6 represents compressed air system .

Compressed air fro m

air receiver

Fig . 2 .SModification in air blast circuit breake r

In air blast circuit breaker, the pressure generated in the extinction chamber i s
independent of arc current the circuit breaker is said to be of external energy source . The air
pressure in this type of breaker is constant which is sufficient enough to break the rate d
breaking current . In this type of circuit breakers the bréaking capacity is found by pressur e
of extinguishing medium:
For low values of-currents, the arcing time does not change appreaciably since ai r
pressure is independent of arc current . For breaking low current, high pressure air will be Fig . 2 .6 Diagram of compressed air syste m
required . Due to this the current gets chopped before reaching natural zero . This' will giv The air reservoir in the air blast circuit breaker contains air of pressure of the order o f
e
rise to high restriking voltage and the contact space is not likely to break down . Therefore 20-30 kg force/cm 2 . This air pressure is maintained by these reservoirs for 4 to 12 repeate d
these high voltages must be allowed to discharge to avoid breakdown of insulation of circui t operations .
breaker . Thus resistance switching is commonly employed in these breakers . When the pressure in the air reservoir of the circuit breaker reduces below a certai n
The Fig . 2 .5 shows the modified arrangement for double arc=extinguishing chamber value say 20 kgf/c m2 , the pneumatic valve opens automatically and air is allowed to enter i n
a
When the contacts are opened the airflows in the arc extinguishing chamber . The separatin g. the air reservoir from compressed air system at high pressure . The pressure in the ai r
of main contacts lead to closing of auxiliary contacts which will connect resistance across th e reservoir is then maintained at a desired value .
arc for a short time . The auxiliary contacts are mounted in inclined \T shaped insulators .
 VTU. -Switchgear and Protection 49 Circuit Breaker s
VTU-Switchgear and Protection 48 Circuit Breakers

The size of compressor depends upon the number of circuit breakers, the number o f This type of circuit breaker is employed in both a .c . and d.c . type of circuits upto 12 kV .
makes and breaks expected and amount of air to be used in each make and break . The These are normally indoor type and installed on vertical panels . The lengthening of arc is
compressor feeds the air at high pressure into the main receiver through oilfiltérs and wate r done with the help of mangetic fields . Some typical ratings of this type of circuit breaker ar e
460V - 3 .3 kV with current range 400 - 3500 A or 6 .6 kV with current range 400-2400 A etc .
filters.
2.6.1 Constructiô n
2.5.4 Advantage s
The various advantages of air blast circuit breakers are, The Fig. 2 .7 shows the constructional details of air break circuit breaker .
o fire hazards are possible with this type of circuit breaker .
ze high speed operation is achieved .
r
he time for which arc persists is short . Thus the arc gets extinguished early . tit *P1
sarc duration is short and consistent, the amount of heat released is less and th e r f)
contact points are burnt to a less extent . So life of circuit breaker is increased .
v) The extinguishing medium in this type of circuit breaker is compressed air which i s
supplied :fresh at each operation . The arc energy at each operation is less than tha t
compared with oil circuit breaker . So air blast circuit breaker is most suitable where
frequent operation is required .
is type of circuit breaker is almost maintenance free .
provides facility of high speed reclosure .
',The stability of the system can be well maintained .

2 .5.5 Disadvantage s
The various disadvantages of air blast circuit breakers are,
air blast circuit breaker is to be used for frequent operation it-is necessary to have a
scompressor with sufficient capacity of high pressure air .
he maintenance of compressor and other related equipments is required .
There'is possibility of air leakages at the pipe fittings .
(I) Contact closed (II) Contacts ope n
is-very sensitive to restriking voltage . Thus current chopping may occur which
may be avoided by employing resistance switching . Principle of air-break circuit-breake r
1. Main contacts 5 . Arc splitter plate s
2.5.6 Application s 2.Arcing contacts 6 . Current carrying terminal s
The air blast circuit breakers are preferred for arc furnace duty and traction syste m 3. Arc rising in the direction of the arrow 7 . Arc runner s
4.Arc getting spli t
because they are suitable for repeated-duty. Thesetypeof circuit=breakers .arefinding their
best application stems operating in range of 132kV~to 400 kV with breaking capacitie s
Fig . 2.7 Construction of air break circuit breaker
upto 7000M
It consists of two sets of contacts .
1)Main contacts
In air circuit breaker the ressure air is used as an arc extinguishing 2) Arcing contacts
medium. The principle o f employed for such type ofbreakers . During the normal operation the main contacts are . closed . They are having lo w
The length of the arc is increase . usm runner hich will increase its resistance in s uc h resistance with silver plating . The arcing contacts are very hard, heat resistant . They are
a way that the voltage drop across the d o comes more than the supply vo lta g e and the arc made up of copper alloy . Arc runners are provided at the one end of arcing contact . On the
will be extinguished . upper side arc splitter plates are provided .
 Circuit Breakers
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 50
2.6 .2 Workin g .
As seen from the Fig . 2 .8 the contacts remain in closed position during normal condition
. The
Whenever fault occurs, the tripping signal makes the circuit breaker contacts to open
arc is drawn in between the contacts
Contact
Current
(a) Contact close d
Current
L in y t e care o e to en is that some by-products are produced due t o
(b)Contacts separate d
Fig . 2.8 Working of air break circuit breake r
Whenever the arc is struck between the contacts, the surrounding air gets ionised . The
arc is then cooled to reduce the diameter of arc core . While separating, the main contacts ar e
. Later on the arcing contact s
separated first. The current is then shifted to arcing contains
also start separating and arc between them is forced upwards by the electromagnetic force s
. Further it moves upwards an d
and thermal action . The arc travels through the arc runners
plit by arc splitter plates . Due to all this finally the arc gets extinguished as the resistance o
the arc is increased .
Due to lengthening and . cooling, arc resistance increases which will reduce the faul t
.c. wave will
current and will not allow to reach at' high value . The current zero points in the a
help the arc extinction. With increase in arc resistance the drop across it will go o
increasing .
Whenever arc leaves the contacts it is passed through arc runners with the help of blo w
out coils which provide a .magnetic field due to which it will experience a force as given
. Th e
electromagnetic theory (F = BI1) . This force will assist in moving the arc upwards
magnetic field produced is insufficient to extinguish the arc . For systems having lo g
inductances arc gets extinguished before reaching extremity of runners because lengthenin
of arc will increase the voltage drop which is insufficient to maintain the arc .
For high inductance circuits if it is not extinguished while travelling through arc runner s
then it is passed through arc splitters where it is cooled . This will make the effectiv
deionization by removing the heat from arc .
2.6 .3 Application s
This type of circuit breakers are commonly employed for industrialswitchgea r,
auxiliary swithgear in generating stations .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 51
Circuit Breaker s
27Iphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breake r
Pure sulphur hexafluoride gas is inert and thermally stable. It is having good dielectri
and arc extin uishin ro erties . It is ô an electronegativegas and has strông tendency t c
absor ree electrons . SF6 gas remains in gaseous state upto â temperature of 9°C o
. Its density
is a out five times that of air and the free heat convection is 1 .6 times as much as that of air .
Also being inert it is non-inflamable, non-piisonous and odourless .
The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF, gas and an arc i
struck between them The conducting electrons from the arc are captu - . 0 . he as to forms
r$ unmo Ile neative ions . The loss of this conducting electrons developes enou
strength of insulation which--wrl extinguish tl ° a,'c. Thus SF6 circuit breakers are found toghen
very effective for high power and high voltage service and widely used inelectrica l
e•'••
b ea down of gas which are hazard to the health of the personnel and it should be properl y
disposed .
Several types of S F6 circuit breakers are designed by various manufacturers in the worl
d
during the recent years which are rated for voltages from 3 .6 to 760 kV.
The property of this gas is that the gas liquifies at certain low temperatures . The
liquification temperature can be increased with pressure This gas is commerciall y
manufactured in many countries and now used extensively in electrical industry .
The gas is prepared by burning coarsely crushed roll sulphur in fluorine gas in a stee
box. . The box must be provided with staggered horizontal shelves each containing about l
kg of sulphur . The steel box is gas tight . After the chemical reaction taking place in the box4
,
f the.SF6 ,gas obtained contains impurities in the form of fluorides such as S, Fio F4
, S etc. Thus it
must be,purified before it is supplied . The manufacturing of this gas at large scale reduces it s
.cost.
The dielectric strength of S F6 gas at any pressure is more than that of air . When the ga s
n comes in contact with the electric arc for long period, the decomposition effects are smal l
and dielectric strength is not considerably reduced and the metallic fluorides that ar e
formed are good insulators and are not harmful to the breaker.
2 .7 .1 Properties of SF 6 Gas
by
The properties of SF6 gas are divided as,
w
1. Physical propertie s
2. Chemical propertie s
3.Dielectric propertie s
e
2.7.1 .1 Physical Propertie s
i) The gas is colourless, odourless, non-toxic and nonharmful to health .
ii) The gas is non-inflammable .
iii)It is heavy gas having high density .
iv)Liquification starts at low temperatures which depends on pressure .
v) The heat transferability is high as compared to air at same pressure .
 VTU -SwitchgearandProtection 53 Circuit Breaker s
Circuit Breaker s
52 After 2 .5 kgf/c m 2, the voltage starts reducing and then again increases . This pressure is
Protectio n r current called critical pressure . The dielectric strength at pressure between 2-3 kgf/c m 2 is high so i t
Switch ear and
VTU is much more which will assist cooling of arc afte is preferred in this type of circuit breakers . However pressure of 5 kgf/cm 2 may also b e
vi) The heat content proper ty selected for arc quenching purpose .
zero . v) With rough electrode surface, breakdown voltage reduces as ionisation starts earlie r
vii)The gas is electroneg ative . metallic part, contacts is near the sharp points . Hence the surface must be smooth .
Chemical Properti es . The life o . Hence the mainten anc e vi) The breakdown can occur at low values provided that the insulator supports ar e
2.7 .1 .2 The inert stable upto 500 C covered by moisture and conducting dust, as flashover may take place along th e
i)
6g The
gas is chemically components do not get deteriorated
flongeriSF of decom p ositio
n surface of support insulators . Hence insulators must be extremely clean .
requirements are reduced : decomposed to S F 4, SF2 . The products vii) The breakdown is initiated at sharp edges of conducting parts having maximu m
6i p os
al. stress concentration.Good dielectric stress distribution is important.
ii) During
are arc extinction, SF s are toxic and hence proper care mus t
l
C e ar e safe for electrica
al.
viii) The breakdown value depends on the wave shape charac t e ris ed by peak value,
. di electri c materials1He wave front, polarity in case of impulse wave etc . The breakdown voltages reduce s
iii)The metallic fluorides are good
times that of air and with increase in steepness and increase in duration of wave .
equip ment.
Properti e s as at atmospheric pressure is 2 ix) Even with dilution of SF 6 with air, its dielectric strength is not much affected . As
2 ;7,1 .3 Dielectric already seen the gas is electronegative so arc time constant is lower which is nothin g
dielectric strenght ofSFb,g the
30% less than that of dielectric oil .
he ii) At higher pressure, gas but the time required to regain dielectric strength by medium after final curren t
s strength o
dielec tric f ,very ma uch zero . This time is of the order of few microseconds in this type of circuit breaker .
Increases. This as smalle Thi r
advantage ou s Construction of Non-puffer Type SF 6 Breaker
clearances and small size o f
components are required for hows the constructional details of SF6 circu reaker . It consists o )
The variation i s herein fixed and moving contacts are nclose• . The chamber is filled
same kV-: - e c amber is connecte• to a reservoir containing 6 gas.
shown in the Fig . 2 .9
The breakdown voltage i n
iii) gas is a 'function of
SF6 e
pressure :The gas follows th
paschen`slaw Which giv eend
Insulated rods 1
for operatin g
' *
t co-
;,,-c?
ct.
°r, ,-
a
SF 6 Ga s
Inle t
as " In uniformly distribut isi moving member ,2 y1
Ni.
the breakdow n a\
electric
voltage in a gas ers
Fig 2.9 Qa . The
pressure and ,electrode, distribution gap" paramet c
of electri Arcin g
are normally consta nt .
proportional to the product of gas ation
prop e
support electro de configur horn
breakdown voltag curve doe s
field, vic sm oe against pressure*
o f sn voltage
t field, obey i Pfield
iv) If electric fie isnnit
Them thee breakdown
isasshown in the Fi
b• r
Fixe d
no aschen s o law . n membe r

Movin g
member

Fig . 2 .11 Construction of SF 6 breake r

re
.10 The breakdown voltage increases with pressu
Fig . 2
 55 Circuit Breaker s
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
reaker s
(pc** Co c 0 }p' f ,ê PC tr y S(--6CircuitB
The single flow pattern has limited quenching ability and is used for breaking currents .
547 I a,....*.
* Switch ear and Protectio n high The four stages of puffer action explains a trenching process in single flow puffer typ e
* -

c" nism allows fix

VTU - ieservioi breakers are opened, the valve mecha .The e circuit breaker .
fromts fe circui
ts * to flow towards the arc interruption chamber . echanism The moving that of outsi e
Wheenn t he contac h
e contac fitted wfromtinwit c ga
c n
gh When breaker is fully closed, the pressure i i uffer c ' nder P is e ual to
contac SF 6 gas
pressure c ylin al current carrying t sides to permit S ar g a s horn passt throu ro ug h the cylinder . But during osenino- o eratio p Cy m er and movi e contact tube start
in th g ga s to p ar se ng pu er c m I er (P > P) . hen contacts mov
contact is a hollow, Y finder containi ng. The tips of fixed and movin
Q
y suitabl e mov m Gas gets c m
thesectos as a hollowennflowing across the arc . The gas is reconditioned and reused b ûrt air, arc is drawn . Th press e a ows rom i; aer pressure P to lower •ressur e
hole s tun arc resistant material z ' g 1 e nozz e.
twith capper ton g st ar c r.
auxiliary system after each operation of the breake After further advanoeifieiit the flow pattern was improved . The gas from puffer cylinde r
e was allowed to flow in forward direction through nozzle and also in reverse directio n
d osition which ar
2 .7 .2 .1 Workin g n
conditions the contacts2 are in close through hollow contact tube .
Duran : the normal workr
SF as at a ressure of abou t
8k The movement o f Double flow removes the heat from the arc efficiently and causes lengthening of arc . It
en them . lts .high gives the breaking capacity one and half times more than that of single flow type . So now a
rrounded b 7
crated then arc is struck *e ethe r hick er**- as days double flow pattern is used in SF circuit breakers . i
When the contacts are s Pr th ya , P ar synchronized to g ------ he high
-r 11 as also remove s prey
pening
moving con act n the` e eir--to°t1ae 7
Ilg,aeRnea DOEOIbAa4Fe 6
ram o for immobile neôative n âall Burin current
arc io
2 .7 . Ingle Pressure . offer Typ SF6 Circuit Breake r
:
absorbs free electron
th rc diameter reduces andsebt It employs offer e explained earlier . The Fig . 2 .13 shows principle of operatio n
. Du e to e current zero , m -le ar c build s of single press u er type SF 6 circuit beraker . The operating mechanism (1) is installed a f
t
e heat from the arc
f S 6 h e contacts immediately
zero with the turbulent
flown
gas th
betwee n th
e the valv is closed by a set o f base of the insulator and is linked with movable contact in the interrupter by means o
. After the breaker rea r n atio insulating operating rod (4) and a link mechanism (5) .The circuit breaker is filled with SF 6s
*Due electronegativity tion
iono of arc
c*•-
gas at a pressure of about 5 kgf/c m2 . The breaking time obtained with puffer type breaker i
•andcusexti ,pressure
pre zon e
uY
the gas is made to flow from high pressure zoneunctio to low n n sure zone nearly 3 cycles .
springs . *11e arc len• tha t In this case, gas is compressed b the movin• cylinder system and is released through a
a breakers , leTlze flow oedivrgnt as flow alai g : . of
throu ggh h a converg ent no*0 ow . Th edu nozzle while extin o an arc . r
frestore awa hea from the arc causi ished. The
diameter, the epressu small at current zero and arc is extingu t
fih
eed which will take • c t space is rapidly buil
t
arc Finallysth i f l h SF
SF°6g
as and dielectric strength of conta
w.■ ■ 4
contact space illedbyfil edby
f res t ‘.v.■■\■
%T 8 v‘n.
6 gas . . In earlier days poffer type circui
due to electronegativity of SF . 2 .12 ■
attern shown in the FigQ• I
Consider the flow p attern . *///*/////
breakers were used with single flow p Enclos ure
3 ■
M Fixed piston
P \
\\
\O\
O\\7.\
O \\
\
ARC

7
Fixe d
contact Eg. j/%////U//
(a) Breaker fully closed (b) Contacts separated

Insulatin g 1. Moveable Cylinder ( Puffer Cylinder) 5. Fixed Pisto n

* Gas trapped in before compressio n
nozzle .'****** 2. Moving Contact 6.
i 7. Compressed gas between 1 and 5
3. Fixed Contact
8. The arc being extinguished by puffer action
Puffe r 4. Insulating Nozzle
cylind er
Fig . 2 .13 Single pressure puffer type SF 6 breake r
r
.12 Arc extinction in single pressure puffer type circuit breake
Fig . 2
 57 Circuit Breaker s
VTU - Switchgear and Protection
Circuit Breake rs t
ion 56 s aébreaker is silent in operation and does not make sound like air blast circui
VTU - Switch ear and Protect . Moving cylinde r 1 i b aker due to its closed gas circuit .
illustrates fully closed position of interrupter Sealed construction avoids contamination by moisture, dust etc .There are no carbo n
piston 5 . As a resultThis there is eael gasV aX
The Fig . 2 .13 (a) rllu t a v i t y 6 . traPP
s eposites . d
mupoed with Mov en
motion throug nozzle
g 1 1 andc5nc
idt
negassistcompressed in th e ees cavi Y . T e s trap oe
arc ex 'aaet' s ar c becomesdiameter b y an
d axial bg . Minimum maintenance required for this breaker . It requires light foundation an
minimum auxiliary equipment .
contact through a cylinder 1 gas puff over the arc an re to o smal 8 . Ability to interrupt low and high fault currents, magnetising currents, capacitiv e
2 and movabl e currents without excessive overvoltages with small arcing time .
contact dissipation . At curren ct
ial r the arc extinction until the conta
lconvertiad' g, yri* s connected with current chopping are minimum .
gets eh ie puffing action continues for sometimeeven aft e . Contact corrosion is very small hence contacts do
10 . o contact replacement required
The gas . not suffer oxidation .
space is filled with cool and f
Circuit Breake r gh
s Typ e p6 2 .7 .6 Disadvantage s
2 .7 Double Pressure
m m high pressure system is released into low pressure system throu advantages of this type of circuit breaker are ,
The
ga frfro
In this type, gas ealing problem arises due to the type of constructio n
a nozzle during arc extinction process .
mperfect joint lead to leakage of ga s
*,. The presence of moisture in the system is very dangerous . n
Double pressure SF 6 circuit breaker are relatively costly due to type of constructio
ô and complex gas system .
5 . Internal parts should be cleaned thoroughly during periodic maintenance unde r
9 clean and dry environment . .
.6 . Special facilities are needed for transporting the gas, which is very costly
6 gas .
to 5*l Y5`Fb breakers are costly as there is high cost of SF. operation, additional equipment i s
r.Y .8 . Since the gas is to be reconditioned after every
required for the same .
ced SF6 gas is poisonous and should not be inhaled .

2 .7.7 Application s
. Each unit is capable o f
circuit breake r A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units . A number of units ar e
.14 Double pressure type SF
I P2 .through
6
a converg ents interrupting currents upto 60 kA and voltages in the range 50-80 kV
Fig . •2
made to flow from zon covers the a . Gas flow attain t connected in series according to system voltage . SF6 breakers are developed for voltag e
gas is e as P g
In this circuit breaker is located such tha oflow thereby
gas takes away the hea ranges from 115 to 500 kV and power of 10 MVA to 20 MVA ratings an d, with interruptin
.
es
divergent nozzle, The nozlne divergent portion gFinally arc diameter becom
h
time of 3 cycles and less .
aalmos o ersonicarc ca*ngreduction in diameter of the arc . is filled with fresh SF s
s ee d 6 ga
r gcurrent zero and arc gets extinguished . Arc spac
m at tspa
fro ce .8 Vacuum Circuit Breaker s
almost tlmostzero
rr e t .
ao ewhicnrasdlteghofcna acuum type of circuit breake , vacuum s used as the arc quenching medium. It is
Circuit Breake r edium than any other arc quenc rig medium as vacuum off erg ug e
.5 Advantages of SF 6 .
2 .7 r ucircuit breakerthan are, conventional circuit breaker of same rating t
The advantages SF
smaller
ake products are no If we consider that the contacts of circuit breakers are opened in vacuum, th e
`*u11 he sizeo f ni6 n fl ker
breake
; 66 gas is noninflammable and chemically stable, decompositio interruption occurs at first current zero . The dielectric strength of the contact space builds up
very rapidly at a rate which is very much higher than that with other circuit breakers .
Say 2 e fire . isn f $assmall is small .
✓ ve d ce no dan m carrying .plosi ability o f When the contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuurr*, n arc roduced between th e
curren
f a
Same as is : ger Fo r of.5th times same size of conductors, t S a m e i s r
t breaker because o
c u l d n t h e f contacts due to ionisation of metal va ours of contacts, which can be explained b f* ield
la r overloa i than that of air blast tree i
ht. 4 breake r s is about 1 1
F 6ci rcc u ci r c ui t t
more heat transfera bility .
 59 Circuit Breakers
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
s
CircuitB reaker
58
VTU - Switch ear and Protection contact rationbecaus e
hot spot is created at the instanl °e epa electrons an d
pours, o
emission theory n intensely quickly extinuished a of the breaker*cu** lead t
igh odue d Burin the arc are condensed on tl
surfacesButhearci as an to
t f teat ure • of
i
ions y overy Bunn . This is an importan , tfea r
re
re c over of dielectric
w is wi
strength
assist arc extinction + •' t s inter up ter e units e pole .
f brem vacuu dielectr ic
quen b u tle upbreake hon
yconsite e e sever al merits such a eh rate per ppl
prise mechani sm,
vacuum eav e oP of
The vacuum switching device e y for epeated operations, simpl
reration, suitabi lit d to b e
t silent o . mstrengh,ciu contacts are require
free from explosion and long life
. Many repeated operatio ns
The unique qualit of vacuum of breker interrupters of moving is that th ts
contac
d
travelled by small distances typ e
can be performed with thi m lvacu Th e
Electrical Breakdown in nigh of Vacuu
mercury are considered to be high vwaacc re unot m. caus e
2 8,1 '5 mm o towards other at such a pressu pparticles is les s
The pressure below about 10 de smogin g. Henceionizationby collision of
chargedpai*tict from one electro ga
e s molecules of residual the vacuum and voltage is.
collision with th .
in vacuum as compared to in theis gas e between th n electrodes i s nrapidly
1 (say 0.5 m m) kept th gap e breaks dow n andec raining emainin g nessta eaco the
If a smal gap at, a certain voltage With pressu r atai al r
increasned called vacuum breakdo wn . Fig . 2 .15 Construction of vacuum circuit breake r
Thduheyomeno d materi des. The possibility of leak is eliminated due to permanent sealing of vacuum chamber . The
The phenomenon is
breakdown chracener are
ec
influenced by surface, condition
emission takes p
an
lace from surface of the electrohigh
Few spots having hig outer insulator is made up of glass or ceramics
Due to high arci arced an
l ll be
a be at very high temperature
takes . plac ewfrom surfa ce
d,
an d core wil o n 2.8.3 Workin g
. Thus thermal emissi rs eHighatproduc e
rausefor arc formation in case of these breake When the contacts are separated due to some abnormal conditions, an arc is struc k
ent denies ac between the contacts . The arc is produced due to ionisation of metal ions and depends ver y
e leectrodes
uc which f much on material of contacts .
showsn the schematic representation showing the constructional details o The arc interruption process in vacuum interrupters is different from other types o f
2.8 .2 C onstructio
The Fig. 2 .15 : contact bn'stainless stee l
field a circuit breakers . The separation of contacts causes release of vapour which is filled in th e
fixed contact movie . nis rvacumitbek• contact space . It contains positive ions liberated from contact material . The vapour density
as .er • w11 'the contro l
by ar vas stee l depends on the current in the arc . When current decreases, the rate of vapour releas e
If to d a1 sin e a b l m r i s c o n t e c decreases and after current zero, the medium regains its dielectric strength if vapour densit y
•T The v cotonstruction of the interrupter disc sho m shaped
p faces .The dis g
belpowsTh e
The below s permit the r l sealed of large stem with f ea . contacts are not alon is reduced .
bellows . . The
T y mnricas are made eves -such that segments ô two eal of ra is are stable at When current to be interrupted is very small (of the order of few hundred amps) i n
s
d hie w wi i mef ac li gro w
protective
same
llo s remains ciinatf therapidemovement
tth . The o oarc in u ump ermeable vacuum, the arc has several parallel paths . The total current is divided into many paralle l
is .rovided. Thisgeo p enclosure sm e capabili
one line in diffused state re i s anodde p o f should hav e arcs which repel each other and spreads over contact surface . This is called diffused arc
same p agnetic metal .
one point and rr remains lass . . The material she . should gouge
p o f non m
the hey
which can be interrupted easily.
end flanges are made u
to retain materialt vacuum like glass At high values of currents, the arc gets concentrated on a small region . It causes rapid
.The s The supportin g shields are supported on insulating housing suchgthatt t t g y
to in high contact surface sur durin vapourisation of the contact surface . The interruption of arc is possible if arc remains i n
or vapour i enclosure .
The arc ct region . The metal vapour released from nsing the on t h e face diffused state . If it is quickly removed from the contact surface, the arc will be restriked .
cover the contac d on these shields and is prevented from conde
condense
 VTU-'Switchgear and Protection 61 Circuit Breaker s
Circuit Breaker s
60
VTU - Switch a ear and
Protection The gases are liberated from the electrode material in the following ways ,
c material i) Evolution of gas from metal evaporated by anode and the cathode spots which ar e
vacuum breakers is greatly influenc edob ty he ar is kept shape moving soof
Arc e nd te c h in omet l 1 ' T he pa formed when arcing takes place .
contacts and technique of llontswill n a t be high . s ii)From the surface exposed to radiations from the arc, the gases are released .
that temperature at any p of dielectric str e1,rg th which ie iii)The gases are also released from the inactive portion of the electrodes due to the hea t
c upken. They
therey rapid
are suitable for capacitor switching ascurren it willt will givzero conduction from the portion of the electrodes which are arcing .
After final arc
vacuum breaker p t before naturaal Experiments are carried out on copper and oxygen free high conductivity copper . But it
e . releases more amount of gas . In contrast to that single crystal of copper was grown fro m
restrike
w a e of performa nce . Th
fre level depends on material contact
of
which may caus e molten metal which releases small quantity of gas . But, the process is very slow, costly and
the commercially not feasible . The another possible solution to this problem is to us e
The The
chopping
vapour levels are affected
pressure by, material with increase in vapour pressure
of cathode zone-refined copper which is gas free .
a) , leve
chopping level is lowered . 1 The metals like aluminium, copper, silver, tin etc were tested for electrode erosion . A t
The thermal conductivity, if thermal conductivity is low and the
some materials is given in the Table 2choppin . high currents the cathode spots formed shows a high vapour pressure that is supplied by
b) la
. Current chopping level for son galsow vapourisation . The loss from cathode, causes gain in weight for anode due to th e
condensation of cathode vapour on the anode when it is cold .
Another important thing that must be considered is that the electrodes should not wel d
with each other and dielectric strength of the gap must be recovered very rapidly .
Thus the requirements to be satisfied by a vacuum circuit breakers are complicated .
Hence no single metal is suitable for the electrodes . Thus the compromise is made and i t
shows that use of dicopper magnesium (Cu2Mg), dicesium copper (CuCe2 ), copper bismuth
(CuBi) gives the satisfactory performance .
2.8 .6 Recovery Strength Characteristic s
The satisfactory working of vacuum circuit breaker is possible if the electrical strengt h
after arcing is properly recovered . In this type of the breaker, the conducting medium of th e
arc is supplied by contact erosion and recovery of electric strength mostly depends o n
2 .8 .4 Advantag e s condensation of electrode vapour .
The advantages of vacuu A reduction in number of vapour ions lead to improvement in recovery strength .
t in m sze and have longer life . When pressure is reduced to such a value that the breakdown voltage is independent o f
i) They are compac
. pressure then under this case, the factors affecting breakdown voltage are the type o f
ii) There are no fire hazards aafter ult operation . contacts, contact surface etc . Highly polished electrodes has good breakdown strength .
iii) There is no generation of gas during of f .
cu
iv) There is no restriction on interruption 2 .8.7 Application s
This is outstanding quality of vacuum circuit In countries like India, the installation of such breakers proves to be effective as i t
nce operation . requires little maintenance . They are employed for outdoor installations ranging from 22 k V
v) They require less maintena
lly lightning surges . to 66 kV . With limited rating ranging from 60 to 100 MVA they are suitable in man y
vi) They can successfu applications .
vii) They have low arc energy . m.
have low inertia and hence smaller power is required for control mechamis Recently installed capacitor of such breakers are 11 kV, 25 kV and 33 kV .
viii)They Thus for voltages upto 36 kV, vacuum circuit breakers with single interrupter i s
t . erosio becoming extremely popular for metal enclosed switchgear, arc furnace installations ,
A major problem that occurs with this type of circuit breaker s electrode s isduring
tha arcing n iorr f auxiliary switchgear in generating stations and other industrial applications .
m .
material
actorfrom electrodes
materials and evolution
may result of current
into severe gases fro chopping because of low pressure
refi y
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 62 CircuitBreakers VTU-Switchgear and Protection 63 Circuit Breaker s

2 .9 Oil Circuit Breaker s

These are one of the oldest type of circuit breakers which employs oil as arc quenchin g
medium . The contacts of the circuit breakers are separated in the oil . The bubbles of gas ar e
formed which prevent restriking of the arc after the current reaches zero point of the cycle .
There are two types of oil circuit breakers ,
1) Circuit breakers using large quantity of oil or the bulk oil circuit breakers .
2) Circuit breakers using minimum quantity of oil called minimum oil circuit breakers .
After the current zero, the oil moves in the arc space which is an important part of th e
action of an oil circuit breaker which may be effected by ,
1) the pressure developed due to natural head of oil above contacts .
2) the pressure generated by the action of arc current itself .
3) the pressure developed by external parameters .
Thus the oil circuit breakers are further grouped into following categories ,
1) Plain break oil circuit breakers .
2) Self generated pressure oil circuit breakers (also called self blast oil circuit breakers .)
3) Externally generated pressure oil circuit breakers (also called force blast oil circui t
breakers .)

2 .9 .1 Plain Break Oil Circuit Breake r

It consists of a strong, weather tight earthed tank containing oil upto certain level and air Fig . 2 .16 Single break oil circuit breake r
above the oil level . Both the fixed and moving contacts are immersed in oil. 2;9 ;1 :2 Double Break Oil-Circuit Breake r
When the contacts are separated, an arc is struck between the contacts with productio n
The principle of this type of circuit breaker is shown in the Fig . 2.17. There are two fixed
of large amount of heat. This will increase the temperature to near about 5000°K which wil l contacts associated with terminal bushing which makes contacts with the moving contact s
vapourize the oil into gases such as hydrogen with small percentage of methane, ethylen e
and acetylene . With the withdrawl of moving contact, arc length increases and gas
formation rate decreases as temperature lowers .
When distance between fixed contact and moving contact reaches at critical value, th e
arc gets extinguished at some current zero .
There are two types of plain-break oil circuit breakers ,
a) Single break oil circuit breake r
b) Double break oil circuit breaker .
2 .9.1 .1 Single Break Oil Circuit Breake r
The single break oil circuit breaker principle is represented in the Fig . 2.16 . The in an d
out of the current is through the terminal bushings . There is only one arc which is struc k
between the fixed and moving contact . The current breaks at one bushing and the moving
contact is supported by the other bushing through sliding contact .

Fig . 2 .17 Double break circuit breaker

 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 64 CircuitBreakers , aVTU-'Switchgear and Protection 65 Circuit Breaker s

during normal operating condition . The lever containing the moving contacts can b Let a capacitor of 50 pF be connected as shown in the Fig . 2.19 .
operated with the help of crank .
When the contacts are separated, two arcs are drawn . Thus there are two breaks in . '
series . This can achieve rapid arc lengthening which eliminates the need for a specially fas t
moving contact speed . But this introduces unequal voltage distribution across the break s C I =10pp F
with uneven sharing of total interrupting duty . One break may take 70 to 80 percent of th e
interrupting duty .
When such a breaker interrupts an earth fault, the recovery voltage is not equall y c3 ± cl 1 C2= 40pp F
divided between the two breaks . This statement can be very well understood by considerin 50pp F
. 2 .18, where C1 represents capacitancegthequivalncr tshowineFg :
between fixed and moving contacts whereas C 2 represents capacitance between movin
. gcontaderh

Fig. 2 .19 Capacitive voltage gradin g

V 1 = C 1 +C, +C 3 10+40+5 0
Now ,
V2 C 1 +C 3 10+5 0
100
60
= 1.6 6
V l = 1 .66 V2
Thus V 1 becomes equal to 1 .66 times that of V2. If value of C 3 is chosen to be high then the
difference between V1 and V, can be further reduced . If instead of capacitors high values o f
resistors are used it will also cause damping . The resistance values are generally of the orde r
.of 10,000 to 100,000 ohms . The resistor selected maybe non-linear one .
(a) Fig . 2 .18 (b) Equivalent circui t
Let I be the fault current 2 .9 .1 .3 Factors Affecting Performance of Plane Break Oil Circuit Breake r
The factors which influence the performance of plain break oil circuit breakers are a s
From the Fig . 2.18 (b),
follows ,
V1 = I volt s { ) The critical length of the brea k
co C 1
ii) The speed of the contact movement . In order to extinguish the arc earlier, the spee d
should be high therefore double break circuit breakers are preferred .
V2 = I volts
w(C 1 +C 2 ) iii) The head of oil above the contacts .
Let C I = 10 pF and C 2 = 40 pF being typical values in practice . iv) The clearance betweenthelive contacts and the earthed pressurized tank .
The factors which influence on increased breaking capacity are considerable head of oi l
Now , V1 = co (C I +C 2 ) = C I +C 2
.and large clearances . Thus for large breaking capacity, the circuit breaker will be large .
V2 co C 1 C1
10+405 0 12 .9 .1 .4 Advantages of Plain Break Oil Circuit Breake r
V1
V, 10 10 The various advantages of plain oil circuit breaker are ,
i) The arc energy is easily absorbed by the oil due to its decomposition .
= 5
ii) The gases formed due to oil decomposition has good cooling properties .
V1 =5V2 iii) The cooling surfaces formed by surrounding oil is close to the arc .
It can be seen from the above expression that about 83% of the system voltage appear s iv) After current zero a flow of cool oil flows in the contact space which is havin g
across gap and only 17% appears across gap . In order to equalize the voltage across the gaps , dielectric strength .
high resistances or capacitors are connected across them .
v) The oil used acts as an insulator .
 VTUSwitchgear and Protection 66 Circuit BreakerTU.Switchgear and Protection 67 Circuit Breakers

2.9 .1 .5 Disadvantages of Plain Break Oil Circuit Breaker The major drawback with this type is that it cannot be used for very high or very lo w
-'aultcurrents . At low fault current values, the pressure developed is small thus arcing time
The various disadvantages of plain break oil circuit breaker are, . On the other hand at high fault currents due to very high pressure develope d
i) There is no special control over the arc other than the increase in length by separatins increased
the moving contacts . Hence large arc length is required for faithful interruption the explosion pot or chamber . Therefore it is suitable fo r
. here erate short circuit ur sting only.
ii)These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times .
iii)These breakers do not permit high speed interruption . ;.9.2 .2 Cross Jet Explosion Po t
2.9 .1 .6 Applications It is the modification of plain explosion pot which is shown in the Fig . 2 .21 . The Fig. 2.21
Such types of circuit breakers are suitable upto 150 MVA capacity and hence installed ows the four stages of operation . It consists of cylinder made up of insulating material .
there are channels on one side which act as arc splitters . The use of arc splitters is to increase
low capacity applications having voltages not more than 11 kV. he arc length which will assist arc extinction by -lengthening the arc.
2 .9.2 Self Generated Pressure Oil Circuit Breaker In stage 1 shown in Fig . 2 .21 the moving contact has separated from the fixed contact an d
This type of circuit breakers are also called self blast oil circuit breakers where arfarc is formed while in stage 4 final arc extinction is shown where the moving contact i s
control is provided by internal means . The pressure developed by the arc is used in speeding t of the throat.
up the movement of oil in the contact space at the instant after the current zero . This ii,
achieved by surrounding the contact by a pressure chamber . This will make it possible tc
increase the breaking capacity of such circuit breaker while the arcing time is reduced .
The action of arc will itself set up pressure which is dependent on magnitude o f
currents . Thus proper design of pressure chamber must be done in order to ensure th a Oil
pressure developed is sufficient to extinguish the arc at low currents, while it should not br .
excessive which may break the chamber at heavy currents . Thus a wide variety of design ;,
are possible . Some of them are discussed below .
2.9.2.1 Plain Explosion Pot
This is shown in the Fig. 2 .20. Ij
consists of a rigid cylinder made up of ti Throat Movin g
contact
insulating material . The cylinder contain;:
the fixed and moving contacts . Tht (a) (b) (c) (d)
moving contact is a cylindrical rod which:
can pass through a small opening called
throat. The motion of moving contact i Fig. 2.21 Cross jet explosion po t
vertical . When an fault occurs, the moving contacts begin to separate . An arc is struck initially a t
e
Whenever fault occurs in the systerd top of pot. The gas formed exerts pressure on the oil when the moving contact move s
the contacts will start separating with thayfrom the arc splitter ducts, fresh oil is forced across the path of arc . The arc , is then
formation of arc in between them . Thelssedthrough the arc splitters due to which its length increases which causes the arc
heat contained in the arc causes thé tincti on.
Fig. 2 .20 Plain explosion pot decomposition of the oil into a gas at very This type of circuit breaker gives satisfactory performance at heavy fault currents .
high pressure in the pot . This high pressure forces the oil and gas around the arc t âowever for small fault current, pressure developed by gas which is function of faul t
extinguish it . arrent is less and the performance is not satisfactory.
It can be seen that if the final arc interruption does not take place while the moving9 .2 .3 Self Compensated Explosion Pot
contact is inside the pressure chamber then it occurs immediately after the moving contact This type is essentially a combination of plain explosion and cross jet explosion type
leaves the pot as emergence of moving contact from the pot allows a high velocity axial blast .
of gas to release through the throat producing rapid arc extinction . As the arc extinction ence it can interrupt low as well as heavy short circuit currents effectively . It is represente d
; the Fig . 2.22.
takes place axially of the arc, it is also called axial explosion type .

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 VTU -SwitchgearandProtection 68 CircuitBreak; ,, TU Switchgear and Protection 69 Circuit Breaker s
It consists of two chambers, the upl This- can be achieved by piston cylinder arrangement . The movement of piston is
chamber is the cross jet explosion pot ticoupled mechanically to moving contacts or spring released by tripping mechanism . This
Fixed contact arc splitter ducts, while the loa'rrangement enables high speed interruption .
rlw#i chamber is the plain explosion pot . When a fault occurs, the contacts get separated and an arc is struck . The piston forces a
When fault current is heavy, the let of oil towards the contact gap which will extinguish the arc . The typical scheme is show n
of generation of gas is very high and itthe Fig. 2.24 .
riAlreA Lateral act similar to cross jet explosion I :
®2 orifices When the moving contact moves av
from the arc splitter duct, th e
Cross je t extinction takes place .
explosion po t
When fault current is low the rat( '
gas generation is low and the tip
.wA' moving contact takes some time to r è
lower chamber . By this time the gas bû`
Moving contac t up sufficient pressure as there is no n i
leakage . When the moving contact cor
out of throat the arc is extinguished Fig. 2 .24 Externally generated pressure breake r
Fig. 2 .22 Self compensated explosion pot plain pot action . The performance of the breaker is constant even at low currents as pressure developed i s
With increase in fault current level, the operation will tend more and more similandependent of fault current to be interrupted . This can be seen from follownlg grap h
cross jet explosion pot . Thus interruption of fault current is possible in the wide rangepresented in the Fig . 2.25 .
2 .9.2 .4 Oil Blast Explosion Pot
It is shown schematical l 6
the Fig. 2 .23 . It consists oi-
intermediate contact alon g i N Self pressure
moving contact . Initially 4
intermediate contact and k
moving contact move down ' Externa l
together . An arc is struck bets ô 2 pressure
1 and 2 . The arc causes oil in u
chamber to be subjected t o
pressure . When the interme ( o
Breaking current
contact has reached its maxia.
travel, the lower contact s
Fig. 2.25 Operating time-breaking current characteristic s
moving away from it and a's
Fig . 2.23 Oil blast explosion pot struck between 2 and 3 . Since Another advantage is that quantity of oil required is reduced considerably. If curren t
lower contact is hollow rod it is shut down by pressure which was developed by first arcopping is there while interrupting small inductive currents then damping by resistanc e
this type has a disadvantage of long arcing time . witching is required .

2.9.3 Forced Blast Oil Circuit Breaker s

;.10 COil or Minimum Oil Circuit Breake r
In the self blast oil circuit breakers, the pressure was developed due to the arc to fork With the increase in system voltage the quantity of oil in bulk oil circuit breakers als o
oil across the arc path . The major disadvantage with this type is long arcing timescreases . It gives additional expenses, increases the risk of fire and causes maintenanc e
inconsistancy at lower currents as pressure developed is insufficient to force the oil problem . This will make necessary the design of a type of circuit breakers which requires a
path. This difficulty is overcome in force blast oil circuit breakers which will not relay volume of oil . It is observed that oil serves two purposes . Firstly it acts as arc quenchin g
arc to generate the pressure but it is supplied from some external source . tedium and secondly it insulates live parts from earth . It is found that only a smal l

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 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 70 Circuit Breaker; VTU -Switchgear and Protection 71 Circuit Breakers

percentage (about 10%) of oil is used for arc extinction process and major part is used f( .
insulation purposes .
A low or minimum oil circuit breaker uses a small container having oil which is jur
enough for arc extinction. The container of oil is supported on porcelain insulators, so t h
required insulation can be obtained for live parts from earth . Thus low oil circuit breaker h
added advantage that it requires less space than the bulk oil type . This is an importa i
consideration in large installations .
With respect to quenching of arc, the oil behaves identically in bulk as well as low (
circuit breaker. By using suitable arc control devices the arc extinction can be furth i
facilitated in low oil circuit breaker.

2.10.1 Constructio n
The Fig . 2 .26 shows the constructional details of a singlé phase minimum oil circ a
breaker.
It consists of two separate compartments which are separated from each other . B6f
these compartments are filled with the oil . The upper chamber is called the circuit breakir l
chamber while the lower chamber is called the supporting chamber . The two chambers a'1
separated by a partition and oil from both the chambers are prevented from mixing w i,
each other . This type of arrangement has two advantages . Firstly the circuit breaki''
chamber requires a small volume of oil which is just sufficient for arc extinction . Second
small amount of oil is to be replaced as the oil in the supporting chamber does not g
contaminated by the arc .
1) Supporting Chamber : This is a bottom chamber which is made up of procel a
and mounted on metal chamber . It is filled with oil which is physically separated fr o
the oil in circuit breaking chamber . The oil inside the supporting chamber and t l
annular space formed between the porcelain insulation and backelised pape r
employed for insulation.
2) Circuit Breaking Chamber : It is a porcelain enclosure which is mounted on fl';
top of the supporting compartment . It is also filled with oil and consists of follow i
parts
i) Upper and lower fixed contact s
ii) Moving contact
iii) Turbulato r
The moving contact is hollow . It consists of a cylinder which moves down over a fix +
pistion . The turbulator forms an arc control device and it has both axial and radial vents . T
axial venting ensures the interruption of low currents whereas radial venting ensur ;4
interruption of heavy currents .
3) Top Chamber : It is a metal chamber mounted on the top of circuit breaki i
chamber . It provides expansion space for the oil present . in circuit breaking chamber .
also contains a separator which avoids loss of oil by centrifugal action caused ,1
circuit breaker operation during fault conditions .

Fig . 2 .26 Construction of minimum oil circuit breake r

 ;-9-'L v, ere )
c
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 72 - Switchgear and Protection 73\r* bye Circuit Breaker s

2.10 .2 Operatio n
2 .11=HVDC Circuit Breaker
Under normal operating conditions, the moving contact and fixed contacts are i n
engaged position . During abnormal conditions the moving contact is pulled down by th e In a .c . circuit breakers, arc extinction is achieved at the natural current zero of the a .c.t
tripping springs . With the separation of contacts, an arc is struck between them . The energ y waveform used . But in d .c, circuit b ers, natural zero of voltage and current is no
in the arc causes vapourisation of oil . This will produce gases at high pressure . This action ! ' available as both are contil s • able . Thus for extinction of an arc, artificial r„rren t
zero is required to be introduced . Such an artificial current zero is • ossible b connecting L C
prevents the oil to pass through central hole in the moving contact and results in forcin
Circuit in s arallel with the circuit •reaker . The C circuit is resp onsib e to pro. ucet
. The process-of turbulation is one i gserioflthupasgeoftrbul
nwhicsetofarucsivelyqnhd,btfcosepar mlfi oscillatory arc currents having many art icia current zeros . At one of the artificial curren
moving across each section . zero arc gets extinguished .
em Th e Fi . 2 .2 showstllYprinciple of HVDC circuit breaker . The HVDC circuit breaker i s
2 .10.3 Maintenance of Oil Circuit Breaker s nothing but a vacuum circuit breake r The(4LC circuit along with a switc h 's connected in
The maintenance of oil circuit breakers consists of checking of contacts and dielectric " parallel with this circuit Brea
strength of the oil . After fault has been interrupted by circuit breaker, fault current flows fo r The capacito used is
short time or load currents for several times, its contacts may be burnt due to arcing . Also Circuit breake r
precharged capacito ith th e
there may be some loss of dielectric strength of oil due to carbonisation . This will reduce High To polarities asshown in the Fig . 2.27 .
rupturing capacity of the breaker . Thus periodic checking of circuit breakers is essential after voDIt e / load When the circuit breaker start s
. r e g u
. Following points should be kept in mind while checking , l a i n t v o f 3 6 m h s C opening, the switch in the L C
i) Check the current carrying parts . It they are burnt replace them circuit ets closed . Due to the
, J e re arged ca âci , the dischargin g
ii) Check the dielectric strength of oil. If its colour is changed then it should be changed ,
or reconditioned . The oil in good condition withstands 30 kV for one minute with oooo--of f current starts flowing i it e *2
,° L Switc h direction to that of load current
4mm gap between electrodes .
iii) Check the insulation for any damage . Clean the surface with removal of carbon bl(a carr* cie*vthe circuit brea er. ue
*\l Parallel LC circuit to this, arcing current starts
deposites with strong and dry fibric to introduce artificia l oscillating - producing many
. .iv)Theolsudbcke current zer o
ri fIi l zeros . Thus artific a
v) The closing and tripping mechanism should be checked . commutation results and ar c
Fig . 2 .27 HVDC circuit breake r inctton is achi e yed . T
2.10.4 Advantage s
The advantages of minimum oil circuit breaker are , The large transient recovery voltage is the main constraint in .HVDC circuit breaker and
i) The quantity of oil required is small . circuit breaker must able to withstand it . For successful operation of such a circuit breaker ,
the switch in LC circuit must be a high speed switch with a very fast response . Such system s
ii) The space requirement is reduced . are complex and very costly as they require costly protection and control systems .
iii) The risk of fire is reduced .
2 Selection of Circuit Breake r
2.10 .5 Disadvantage s
The following parameters are required to be known for selecting proper rating circuit
The disadvantages of minimum oil circuit breaker are , breaker at a given location on a power syste m
i) Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonisation is increased . e maximum fault current which is to be interrupted by the breaker .
ii) The gases are difficult to remove from the contact space in time .
iii)The dielectric strength of the oil deterorates rapidly as degree of carbonisation i he maximum current to be carried momentaril y
high. s As it is discussed previously the fault current consists of both a .c. and d .c . components
and its correct calculation is very complex . A simplified method is recommended by IEE E
2.10 .6 Application s committee is given below :
Minimum oil circuit breakers are now available for all voltages and for the highes t 1 . To determine firstl the re• uired interrupting capacity of circuit breaker the highes t
; of fa lt . It can bé
breaking capacity hence preferred in most-of the protection schemes . value of initial rms alternating current , or an t ,.:e and lo-ca-ti-c
considere • as t ree p' ase au t as it carries maximum fault current except in som e

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 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 74 Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 75 Circuit Breaker s

cases . This current can be obtained b using su ..-transient reactance fore-Tie-1779. .13 Circuit Breaker Rating s
and transient reactance for sync ono_us motor while nduction motors are
nt lected . ollowing multiplying factors can be applied to to e mto account t e •c . , A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying an d
components of currents and decrements of botl .(a.c• a=. com onénts breaking current under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for specifie d
1fycle or slow breaker 1 .0 time and breaking current under specified abnormal conditions .
5ycle breaker 1 .1 The circuit breaker is also required to perform some additional functions as th e
)-cycle breaker 1 .2 application demands such as ,
-ycle breaker 1 .4 i) to provide selectivity with breakers
Before applying multiplying factor, all the given factors are increased by 0 .1 for the ii) to provide facility for remote closing and trippin g
breakers on the generator bus where 3 phase short circuit kVA exceed 500,000 . iii) to provide facility for interlocking '
2. To determine the required .ted momentar curr e * . - 1 sec or less of a ' iv) to provide facility for indicatio n
breaker . The calculation of hest value of in' -- lao done a s Some of the important characteristics or ratings that must be possessed by every hig h
given in the step (1) except using-sub-transient reactances of of all the machines voltage a .c. circuit breaker arc as follows ,
including induction motors . Multiply
V 1.Rated voltage
Momentary rated rms current of a circuit breaker = 1 .5 x
✓ X'â 2. Rated insulation leve l
Ex. 2.1 : A generator connected through 5 cycle CB to a transformer is rated 8000 kVA with the ; 3.Rated normal curren t
reactances of X d = 10 %, X d = 16 % and X d = 100 %. It'is operating at no load an d 4. Rated frequency
rated voltage when 3 phase short circuit occurs between breaker and transformer . Find : 5. Rated duration of short circuit
i) sustained short circuit in breake r 6. Rated short circuit breaking curren t
ii) the initial symmetrical rms current in breake r 7.Rated short circuit making curren t
iii) maximum possible d .c• component of short circuit in breaker 8. Rated peak withstand curren t
iv) the momentary current rating of the breake r 9. Rated TRV for terminal fault
v) current to be interrupted by breaker vi) the interrupting kVA
10.Rated operating sequenc e
Sol. : Let the base be 8000 kVA .
11.'Rated supply voltage for opening and closing devices and auxiliary circuits
Sustained short circuit kVA = 8000 x 100 = 8000 1KVA• as X d =100 %
100 12.Rated pressure of compressed gas for interruption
kVA
Sustained short circuit current 2.13 .1 Rated Voltag e
x VL
u
It is a voltage of a circuit breaker which refers to higher system voltage for which it i s
Let VL = 13.8 kV designed . It is expressed in kV and the value is r•m,s . value. In case of three phase circuits it i s
Sustained short circuit current = 8000 = 334 .70 A nothing but phase to phase voltage . A circuit breaker must be assigned two voltage ratings
*x 13 . 8 one corresponding to maximum nominal system voltage and other maximum desig n
8000 x voltage which indicated the maximum operating voltage which should not be exceeded .
Sub-transient short circuit kVA = 100 = 8000 0
10
8000x100 2/13.2 Rated Insulation Level
Sub-transient or initial symmetrical curren t .8 = 3347 .05 A
10x/x 13 The different circuit breakers connected in power system are subjected to powe r
Maximum possible d .c. component = Jx 3347.05 = 4732 .73 A frequency over voltages due to various effects such as regulation, Ferranti effect etc . The
circuit breaker must withstand this overvoltage . This can be tested by carrying out differen t
Momentary current ratin g = 1.6 x 3347.05 = 5355 .28 A 4 tests . During some single phase to ground faults voltage of healthy line to earth increases . So
Current to be interrupte d = 1 .1 x 3347.05 = 3681 .75 A higher values of insulation are suggested . The insulation is provided for each pole externa l
Interrupting kVA = -I§ x 3681.75 x 13.8 = 87999 .836 kVA
 Circuit Breakers VTU - Switchgear and Protection 77 Circuit Breakers
VTU - Switchgearand Protection 76

and internal between live parts and earth . It is also provided between poles and betwee n
terminals of same pole internal and external .

2.13 .3 Rated Curren t

It is defined as r .m.s . value of the current that can be carried by the circuit breake r
continuously with temperature rise within the specified limits . Some of the preferred value s
of rated currents are 400, 630, 800, 1250, 1600, 2000 A r .m.s. etc . The rated current of a circui t
breaker can be checked by carrying out temperature rise tests . The current carrying part s
along with the contacts are designed based on temperature rise . For given cross section of a
conductor and certain value of current, the temperature rise is dependent on conductivity o f
material . Hence while designing high conductivity material must be used . If material i s
having low conductivity then cross-section of the conductor is increase d

2.13 .4 Rated Frequenc y

T,he performance of circuit breaker is greatly influenced by frequency . The different
characteristics like breaking capacity are based on rated frequency . With increase i n
frequency, eddy currents in the metallic parts will increase which will cause more heating
and rise the temperature of current carrying parts . Hence if a circuit breaker designed fo r
one particular frequency is used at some another frequency then temperature will no t
remain in specified limits . So the rating is to be changed accordingly .
The breaking time is also affected by the frequency as it is associated with time for hal f
cycles during arc extinction . The breaking time decreases with increase in frequency .
The frequency has a pronounced effect on TRV and rate of rise if TRV . So a circui t
breaker designed for one particular frequency can not used for other frequency unless th e
results are faithful for that frequency .
2 .13.5 Rated Duration of Short Circui t
The shortrfime current of a circuit breaker is r .m.s . current that it can carry in a close d
position during specified time under given conditions . It is expressed in kA for a period o f
one second . The rated duration of short circuit is commonly 1 second . The circuit breake r
must carry the current equal to its breaking capacity for this duration . This can be tested b y
carrying out short time current test and checked that the poles are not getting damaged o r
welded . The insulation should not be damaged . The poles must be able to withstand th e
mechanical force developed . The design for normal current rating is sufficient to carry shor t
circuit current for 1 sec .
2.13 .6 Rated Short. Circuit Breaking Current
It is r.m.s. value .f highest short circuit current which the circuit breaker is capable of
breaking under specified conditions of TRV and power frequency voltage and expressed i n
kA r.m.s. at contact separation .
The voltage appearing across circuit breaker after arc interruption is nothing bu t
Transient Recovery voltage . The limit on breaking current is governed by specifie d
conditions of TRV and power frequency recovery voltage . This limit is determined b y
carrying short circuit test . The current waveform is shown in the Fig . 2 .28.
Fig . 2 .2 8
The breaking current is expressed by two value s
i) The r.m.s . value of a .c. component at the instant of contact separation given by I A C
IDCx 100
ii)The percentage d .c . component at the instant of contact separation given by
'AC
The standard values of r .m .s . currents are °8,10,123,16, 20, 25, 31, 5, 40 kA etc .
In earlier days the breaking capacity is expressed in MVA so that fault levels can also b e
determined . But now it is expressed in kA for specified conditions of TRV .
2.13 .7 Rated Short Circuit Making Current
This is defined as the peak value of first current loop of short circuit current which th e
cir uit breaker is capable of making at its rated voltage . There are certain cases under whic h
the circuit breaker may close when fault is existing. Under such cases current reaches to
maximum value at peak of first current loop . The circuit breaker should be able to clos e
without difficulty and withstand the mechanical forces developed during a closure . This is
checked by carrying out making current test .
Rated making current = 1 .8 x .\rf x Rated short circuit breakin g
= 2 .5 x Rated short circuit breaking current
in above expression converts r .ms. value to peak value while factor 1 .8 is considered
for doubling effect of short circuit current
2.138 Rated Peak Withstand Curren t
It is defined as the instantaneous value of short circuit current which circuit breaker ca n
withstand safely in closed position. It is expressed in terms of kA instantaneous . The value
suggested for this current is equal to rated short circuit making current . To test this peak
withstand current short circuit with maximum asymmetry is applied to circuit breaker i n
 Circuit Breaker s
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 78
. The
one phase . The peak withstand current test is combined with short time current test
stresses produced due to high current must be sustained by the circuit breaker .
2.13 .9 Rated TRV for rminal Faults
The TRV waveform can b e
specified by various methods such a s
specifying the peak value and time t o
reach it or specifying parameters whic h
will decide the line segment which wil l
represent TRV wave. The methods ar e
respectively called two parameter an d
four parameter method . The tw o
parameter method is represented in the
Fig. 2.29 .
The circuit breakers must b e
provided with Rated TRV . The
breaking current test is carried out o n
Fig . 2.29 circuit breaker with specified TRV .
The standards provide different parameters such as voltage, and time to plot the lin e
. The circuit breaker must b e
segments . The TRV wave can be drawn within the segment
.
tested for S .C . breaking current test with TRV waveform above standard waveform
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 79
Circuit Breaker s
2 .13 .12 Rated Pressur of Compressed Ga s
The air blast cir 't breaker and some of the SF 6 breakers use pneumatic while som
other SF 6 breakers use hydraulic operating mechanisms where minimum and maximu e
m
values of pressures are specified certain tests like no load test are carried out with condition s
of the pressures . The pressure switches are also fitted in the auxiliary systems of th
e
operating mechanism .
Some additional rated characteristics are to be specified in certain cases like d
rate
characteristics for short-line faults for circuit breakers controlling overhead lines rated 52 kV
and above, Rated line charging current for circuit breakers controlling overhead lines rate d
72 .5 kV and above.
There are certain special switching duties like capacitor switching, reactor switching ,
DC switching, inductive current switching . The stress produced is usual and severe .
Different circuit breakers behaves differently . The interruption of low inductive currents i s
achieved by S F6 while capacitor current switching is done excellently by VCB
. Dependin g
upon the type of application the following characteristics are specified ,
i) Rated out of phase breaking curren t
ii) Rated cable charging breaking curren t
iii) Rated single capacitor bank breaking curren t
iv) Permissible switching overvoltage s
v) Rated capacitor bank in rush overvoltage s

2.13 .10 Rated Operating Sequenc e vi) Rated small inductive breaking curren t
It represents the sequ ce of opening and closing operations which circuit breaker ca n vii) Rated time quantitie s
e
perform under specified onditions . As per specifications the circuit breaker should be abl viii) Repeated operating duty .In actual design of circuit breakers following parameters ar
to perform the operating sequence as per one of the way s e
considered :
i) O-t-CO-T-CO ii) CO-t'-CO 1 Current rating
where 0 = Operation of openin g
2 Breaking capacit y
t = 3 minutes for circuit breaker not to be used for rapi d
3 Making capacity
auto-reclosure
CO = Closing followed by openin g 4 Type of protective mechanis m
T = 3 minute s 5 Short time ratin g
t' = 15 sec for circuit breaker not to be used for rapi d 6 Type of mechanis m
auto-reclosur e 7 Accessorie s
8 Indication s
2.13.11 Rated Supply Voltage for Clo 'ng and Opening Device s 9 Locks and interlocks
The performance of auxilary supply ci cuits and operating mechanisms is important i n
y 10 Operational lif e
addition to ratings of or main circuit and oles . The supply voltage is provided by auxiliar
circuits to the trip coil and closing coil which are having certain minimum voltage belo w 11 Ease of maintenanc e
. The
which it will not operate . For correct operation the frequency must be properly chosen 12 Volume / weigh t
rated supply voltage and supply frequency of closing and opening devices and auxiliar y
13 Control voltage
circuits is important .

1
 80 Circuit Breakers VTU - Switchgear and Protection 81
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
c) Power frequency voltage test s
14 Availability of spare s
d) Voltage tests on auxiliary circuits, control circuits ,
15 Cos t The quality of the circuit breaker can be very well checked by these tests . Also any
Depending upon the above parameters the different circuit breakers are designed, fo r defects in the materials and construction is detected .
their efficient operation . In the next chapter we will study different types of circuit breaker s
in detail. 2 .16 Development Tests

2 .14 Type Tests These tests, are very much essential to observe the effect of different parameters on th e
circuit breakers performance . Variety of tests are performed on individual items as well a s
As mentioned earlier these tests are carried out on first few circuit breakers to prove th e on complete assemblies .
rated characteristics of the breakers . The necessary information which includes assigne d
ratings, drawings, reference standards, rated operating pressure and voltage, suppor t If a circuit breaker is tested frequently with-change in its contact speed, then we can se e
the effect of contact speed on breaking capacity . The different parameters and their effect s
structure etc must be supplied to the testing authorities before conductingthese tests . These
are theoretically predicted . Full scale prototypes are manufactured after testing an d
details are included in the type tests report . After certifying the breaker by carrying out thes e measurement. The data available in the company is used by the designers for example fo r
tests, there should not be any change in design . the design of contacts, the configuratio n canoe derived from available designs of contac t
Type tests are classified as follows , assemblies .
a) Mechanical tests Each subassembly has certain functional requirement e .g . the contacts should give lo w
b) Tests of temperature rise, millivolt drop tes t resistance in closed position . Therefore to verify the capability of contact configurations,
c) High voltage tes t development tests are conducted, depending on functional requirements . The modifications
d) Basic short circuit test are done on the basis of these test results .
i) Making tes t 2 .17 Reliability Test s
ii) Breaking test
The newly manufactured circuit breakers are tested by type tests and routine tests . Bu t
iii) Operating sequence tests at 10%, 30%, 60%, 100% of rated breaking current wit h
the conditions during these tests are not the conditions that exist at the field . At site the
specified TRV conditions .
circuit breaker is subjected to various stresses due to ,
e) Critical current test s a) Variation in ambient temperature s
f) Single phase short circuit tes t b) Extremely low and high temperature s
g) Short time current tes t c) Rain moisture
In addition to above tests some more tests are recommended on circuit breakers to b e d) Vibrations on account of earthquakes.
used in specific applications, which are , e) Dust and chemical fume s
a) Short line fault tests f) Overloads and over v6ltage s
b) Out of phase switching tests Also the maintainance-of the ;breakermay :notbe done by skilled persons . Thus the
c) Cable charging current switching tes t performance of the breaker is tested under these adverse conditions by reliability tests . The
d) Capacitive current switching test s circuit breaker is subjected to extremely high temperature created in test chambers . The
various parts are critically examined after testing .
e) Small inductive current breaking test s
f) Reactor current switching test s 2.18 Commissioning Tests
2.15 Routine Test s These test are performed after the proper installation of the breaker at the site . The
operational readiness and proper assembly is verified . High accuracy is not generally
Before dispatch of circuit breakers, these tests are performed . Routine test is defined as a expected in such tests . The test facilities available at site is also important factor .
test of every circuit breaker made to the same specifications . They include the followin g
tests. These include following tests ,
a) Mechanical operation test s a) Mechanical operation tests
b) Millivolt drop test, Measurement of resistance b) Measurement of travel, simultaneous touching of contacts
 82 Circuit Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 83
VTU -Switchgear and Protection Circuit Breaker s

c) Measurement of insulation resistance and DC resistanc e

d) Checking the operation by energising of relay s
e) Checking the operation by energising the manual operating signa l

2 .19 Sh ircuit Test Layou t Impulse

exciter
The short circuit testing is an experimental method for proving the ratings of the breaker
and checking its performance for further developments . Many of these tests come unde r
Driv e
moto r

type tests . By carrying out experimentation and problems r lated to circuit breaking,ih e
modern EHV (Extra High Voltage) breakers are developed .
Due to short circuits, e stresses:'re produced on circuit breakers . The circui t
breake ust be capable ' mg the stresses . The short circuit current duration is
b 1 sec or 3 sec . The short time current test verify the capability of breaker .
Due sort circu i re produced on contacts and current carrying
:s he stress is also pr o aced on insulation . The poles and terminals experienc e
fro-dynamic forces .
The making . .acit checks th. 0 • n close on short circuit . The breaker
should be capable of closin; e fectrv e w:tn contact welding . The breaking capac i
verifv the a . - tm mechanism and e m err . shoul d
able to perform these functio n
The stresses developed during short circuit depend on magnitu It current and
design of breaker . After current zero, the contact space is subject : d to TRV. herefore fo r 1 ° Links

reliable o eration and performance of circuit breaker on short circuit, short circuit testing
MM. shor t
circuit
a
plants are specially built . transforme r
r== =
'-- Z* U== =
2.19 .1 Short Circuit Testing Plant s I.I
There are three types of testing stations which are as follows, 2 i t
a) Field type testing station where power required for testing is taken directly fro m I I u
II
I
large power system and the breaker under tests is connected . II
I II i

b) Laboratory type testing station where the short circuit generators provide the powe r
for testing . The breaker may be tested directly or indirectly .
c) Composite testing station which is a combination of field type testing station an d
laboratory type testing station .
2 .19 .2 Layout of a Short Circuit Testing Statio n
It is represented in the Fig . 2.30. The short circuit generators provide the power required .
There may be two or more generators though in the figure shown it is only one . Three phas e
induction motor drives the generator and impulse excitation is provided .
For adjusting magnitude of short circuit current, variable series resistors and reactor s
are provided . The master circuit breaker has higher capacity than the breaker under test . If
breaker under test fails to operate, then master breaker operates to protect the circuit .
Making switch is a closing device specially designed which can close at desired moment an d
carries the making currents .
Fig . 2 .30 Layout of short circuit tes t
The test voltages are obtained by transformers . These single phase units are connected i
n
various ways to get different test voltages . This also includes some equipments necessar
y
for measurement, record and control, and auxiliary equipments with a sequence switch t o
obtain sequential operation .
2 .19 .3 Short Circuit Generator and Drive Moto
r
The circuit breakers under test are supplied power with this generator . The generator
must withstand high reactive power surges for short duration . Their design is therefor e
somewhat different from conventional alternators .
The generator is driven by a three phase induction motor mounted on same shaft . The
impulse excitation is provided by separate d .c . converter . The short circuit current at laggin
g
power factor have a demagnetizing effect which reduces e .m.f . So the voltage before th
short circuit will be less . Thus the generator field current is boosted by impulse excitation e
.
 VTU-Switchgear and Protection 85 Circuit Breaker s
Circuit Breaker s
VTU -Switchgear and Protectio n
2 .19 .7 Making Device
.imes its normal value at the time of short circuit .
c)Measurement of ins u The short circuit currents are applied correctly at desired moment by this switch. It
d) Checking iithe o r le Fig . 2 .31 . should have high making capacity while breaking capacity is negligible . It must be air blas t
e)Checking making switch with air pressure 14-16 kgf/cm 2.
2 .19 .8 Capacito r
Capacitor banks provide leading current for verifying the performance of breaker fo r
interruption of charging currents . The frequency of the transient recovery voltag e
(f = Z 1LC is regulated. In synthetic testing it is an important element .
n J
2 .19.9 Resistors
The short circuit p .f. varied by using resistors in series with reactors . It can be increase d
from 0.1 to 0 .3 .
2.19.10 Test Cubicle s
These are constructions of reinforced cement concrete or strong brick work . In,the
cubicles the breakers are tested . Separate cubicles are provided for testing L.V., H.V . and
EHV equipments .
2 .19.11 Sequence Switc h
During short circuit testing, many operations are performed in a sequence and total tim e
X* Y l Z* 1 Part 1 of generator windin g is very less to perform manual operation . A sequence switch performs the sequentia l
Ul VI WI f operations as it is a drum switch with several contacts which is rotated by a motor . Due to
rotation of drum, control circuits are opened or closed as per specific sequence . The
X 2 Y 2 Z2 Part 2 of generator windin g
sequences for breaking capacity test in one test are as follows which takes nearly 0 .2 seconds,
U 2 V 2 W2 i)Drive motor of short circuit generator .made off
t ii)Impulse excitation switched o n
.31 Circuit arrangement in short circuit test layou
Fig, 2
iii)Master circuit breaker close d
Transformers than r
2 .19 .4 Short Circuit v volt iv)Oscillogram circuit connecte d
The transformers are used for testing the breaker the a ltageswhereas single phas e . v) Make switch close d
withs
voltage . Three phase transformer is used to. step d
The transformer vi)Circuit breaker under test opene d
s r a rs ds es to Extra transfomeiudpthvtur olage d vii)Master circuit breaker opene d
. The leakage reactance of these . Coolin g severs
repeated short circuit viii)Excitor switched off and its field supresse d
phasaaee uniteinsulatoprvdhemcanilystrogwd proob l em
. single tes
as transformer is not there in a circuit for a long time 2 .19 .12 Different Measurement s
big it is not normally used . Since the test events takes very short time, all measurements must be recorded by
e are ai d oscillographs . Light beam oscillograph which are easily operated are used for slow varyin g
2 .19 .5 Reactors .
r c o n e t d i r o l h e s t c i u n
e T three
e s phase core quantities like current, voltage, contact travel or trip signal etc . TRV phenomenon require s
Reactors ar e only 1 msec . For recording such fast quantities, CR0 is used .
and air cooled . Iron of withstanding tstresses, be single phas
The reactors must be capable The following quantities are recorded during the test ,
r i) Short circuit current in each phas e
test. It
2 .19 .6 Master Circuit Breake ii)Voltage across each pole before, after and during short circuit
This is a air blast type of breaker having capacitynafter every test itksolatesspecime 1 iii)Fluid pressur e
operates if breakers under . In additio
. Ittest
mustfailbetoable
operate
to carry full short circuit current .
under test from supply
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 86 Circuit Breakers VTU- :SwitchgearandProtection 87 Circuit Breaker s

iv) Contact travel spee d In unit testing,

v) Generator voltag e
fn =
vi) TRV C 2* LC
aL x
vii) Current in trip circuit a
2.20 Indirect Testin g The natural frequency of TRV remains unchanged . Time scale also remains unchanged .
If voltage distribution across the pole is uneven then some units will be stressed mor e
It is possible that the short circuit power that can be obtained from the testing statio n while other will be stressed less . The unit that is undergoing highest stress must be tested .
may be insufficient to test a breaker of high capacity . Even a single pole of a EHV breaker ca n This is reliable method of testing .
not be tested by direct means .
The EHV circuit breaker consists of many arc interrupter units which are separatel y 2 .20 .2 Synthet estin g
tested called unit testing . If one unit is tested, the capacity of complete pole and breaker is It consists of current source and voltage source with relatively low voltage and lo w
determined . This method of Unit Testing is adopted internationally . current respectively . The principle of synthetic testing can be explained from the Fig . 2 .32.
Synthetic testing is another popular method which permits testing of breaker .

2 .20.1 Unit Testin g

modern EHV circuit breakers contains two or more similar interrupters per .pgle.
These interrupters operate simultaneously and share the voltage across the pole equally .
The breaking capacity is also equally shared . The results obtained on one unit can b e
extended further for total .capacity of breaker. This is known as unit testing or element
testing. It is internationally accepted method .
During the application of unit test, the voltage must be reduced by a factor b so th e
Fig . 2 .3 2
corresponding impedances are also reduced by b to get test voltage across the unit b y
following expression . The current source provides short ci itru Trent. The voltage source provides restriking

1 voltage and recovery voltage . The test conditions are given by L, r, C . The short circuit
a where m = number of units per pole and one unit is teste d current Io is supplied by closing switch Sr . At final current zero, switch S2 is closed an d
m
voltage contains transient as it contains L and C .
a = n where n units are teste d The advantages of this method are as follows ,
m
i) The breaker can be tested for desired TRV and RRR V
Let us consider the examples of a 3 pole, 220 kV breaker with 3 units per pol e
ii) The short circuit generator has to supply currents at less voltag e
Voltage across one pole = 220 =127 k V
*l 3 iii) The flexibility can be obtained by independent control of test current and tes t
voltage
1 1
a =- ; m=3 a= - iv) As method is simple it can be applied to unit testing als o
m 3
v) A breaker having capacity five times that of plant can be tested .
Voltage required for testing one unit = a x voltage per pole = 127 x 1= 42.33 kV
3
2.21 Types of Synthetic Test Circuits
L and C of the test circuit is also reduced to get same natural frequency as that of direc t
testing. There are two types of synthetic test circuit s
In direct test , i) Parallel current injectio n
1 ii) Series current injectio n
Natural frequency, fn
2n -"LC 2 .21 .1 Parallel Current Injection Metho d
This method is used for testing breakers as it gives high frequency transient voltages a s
required by standards . It is shown in the Fig . 2.33 .

l
 VTU Switchgear and Protection 88 Circuit Breakers VTU - Switchgear and Protection 89 Circuit Breakers

Make Aux .
2 .21 .2 Series Current Injection Metho d
Master
breaker switch breaker The Fig. 2 .34 represents series current injection method . The voltage circuit (2) i s
o LH
f 6000 L O S 2 0 - connected to current circuit in series before main current zero . Due to this IC and Ili are in
LG St +

IG IH Triggere d Make Test

Master breaker,,_, g
spark gap breaker LG switch LH S2
ô `0000 1--d o f 00001--o
st
c
VG CH Triggere d
CG spark ga p
Tes t
breake r

Gen CH e
Aux .
breake r

Curren t Voltag e
circuit circui t

Fig . 2 .33 (a) Parallel current injection metho d

Fig . 2 .34 (a) Series current injection metho d

Fig . 2 .33 (b) Parallel current injection method waveform s

In this method the voltage circuit (2) is effectively connected in parallel with curren t
circuit (1) and test breaker before main current IC in test breaker current is properl y
simulated .

Fig . 2.34 (b) Series injection method waveform s

VTU - Switchgear and Protection 90 Circuit :Breakers VTU -Switchgear and Protection 91 Circuit Breakers

opposition . The stresses produced in the synthetic test and those in actual network must b e
same but it is not the actual case because of several factors like high current, high voltage ,
instant of applying voltage etc .
2 .21 .3 Brown Boveri's Synthetic Testing Circuit
This circuit is shown in the Fig . 2.35 . The short circuit current is supplied from lo w
voltage circuit. The restriking and recovery voltage is supplied by different high voltag e
circuit .
10. Explain the construction and working of SF6 circuit breaker.
.11 . What are advantages and disadvantages of SF6 breaker.
12. Explain the construction, working, advantages and the disadvantages of vacuum circuit breakers .
13. Explain the arc interruption taking place in vacuum .
14. What are the possible applications of vacuum circuit breakers .
15. Explain the process of arc extinction in vacuum .
16. Write a note o n
i) Unit testing ii) Synthetic testin g
17. Describe short circuit test layout for a circuit breaker .
18. What are the different ratings of circuit breakers . Explain any one in detail .
19. Wrie a note on HVDC circuit breaker .

University Question s
1. Define 'circuit breaker as applied to. electrical power circuits . With a neat sketch explain the working of a
vacuum circuit breaker. (Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )
2. Describe the short circuit tests to be carried out on circuit breaker . (Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )

3. Enumerate the properties of SF6 gas which render its use in high voltage circuit breakers . With the help
of a neat sketch explain briefly . working of any one type of SF6 breaker. (Aug.-2002, 10 Marks)
Fig . 2 .35 Brown-Boveri's synthetic testing circuit
4. Write a short note on arc quenching in air blast circuit breakers . (Aug.-2002, 5 Marks)
The high current circuit on left side consists of short circuit generator G, short circuit
5. Write a short-note on minimum oil .circuit breaker. . (Aug: 2002, 5 Marks )
transformer with resistor Ro and capacitor C 0 -which controls natural frequency of current .
The short circuit power is supplied at voltages Vs which corresponds to about 30 kV which i s 6. Explain the working of air blast circuit breaker with-reference to i) Axial blast ii) Cross blast .
smaller than recovery voltage required for testing . The recovery voltage is supplied by hig h (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks )
voltage circuit on right side . 7. Explain the construction and working of a Vacuum circuit breaker . Mention two advantages .
The test breaker and auxiliary breaker Sr are opened together . Before the curren t (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks )
interruption takes place in breaker B, the spark gap is triggered by control S t and voltage V is
8. Discuss the properties and advantages of SF 6 gas as a dielectric over air medium .
applied to breaker B . During final current zero-onlycurrent iH flows through breaker B .
Previously is = io + iH which is interrupted by S i and breaker B . But now breaker B has t o (Feb .-2003,10 Marks )
interrupt only iH . Hence restriking voltage across breaker B is given by HV circuit. 9. Write a short note on testing of circuit breaker s (Feb .-2003, 5 Marks)
10. Explain the working of airblast circuit breaker with .relevance to
Review Question s
i) Axial.blast ii) Cross blast . (Aug .-2003, 10 Marks )
1. State the requirements of a circuit breaker and explain the basic action of circuit breaker . 11, Explain the construction, working, advantages and the disadvantages of vacuum circuit breakers .
2. State the classification of circuit breaker based on different factors. (Aug .-2003, 10 Marks)
3. Explain the construction and working of air break circuit breaker .
12. With the help of .a neat layout diagram of a short circuit testing laboratory explain the procedure of
4. Write a note on air blast circuit breaker . testing of circuit breakers (Aug .-2003, 10 Marks)
5. Explain plain break oil circuit breaker. 13. Write a short note on SFb circuit breaker (Aug .-2003, 5 Marks)
6. Explain with the help of neat sketch the construction and working of minimum oil circuit breaker. 14 . Write a short note on synthetic testing (Aug .-2003, 5 .Marks)
What are its advantages and disadvantages . compared to bulk oil circuit breaker .
❑❑ ❑
7. Explain in brief cross jet and plain jet explosion pot.
8. Why SF6 gas is preferred in circuit breakers.
9. Write a note on dielectric properties of SF6 gas.
 VTU -SwitchgearandProtection 93 Fuse s

equipment from excessive current. The fusing element melts due to the heat produced b y
the excessive .current . So the melting point of the fusing element plays an important role i n
the design of the fuse .
The Table 3 .1 gives various metals which can be used as fusing elements, with th e
corresponding melting point and specific resistance values.
Fuses
Metal Melting point in Specific resistance i n
S2-cm
°F °C

Aluminium 240 658 .7 2 .8 6

3 .1 Introductio n
Copper 2000 1084 1 .72
The importance of electric supply is well known. It is very much necessary to protect th e
power systems, equipments, motors, generators etc . from the dangerous fault conditions in Lead 624 327 21 . 0
an electric supply . Hence it is necessary to have the arrangements with which all thes e
equipments can be switched on or off under no load or load conditions or even under faul t Zinc 787 419 6.1
conditions . The collection of various equipments used for the switching and protectin g
purposes in a power system is called switchgear . The various components of aswitchgea r Tin 463 231 .85 11 .3
are switches, fuses, relays, circuit breakers etc . The switchgear protects the system from faul t Silver 1830 960 .5 1 .64
and- abnormal conditions and assures continuity of an electric supply .
The fuse is a protecting device-of simplest form . It consists of a small piece of metal . Table 3 . 1
When excessive current flows through it, the metal element melts and . the current is The copper or lead-tin alloy is :mostly used as fusing element .
interrupted and circuit gets disconnected . from the supply. Thus it protects the circuit fro m
dangerous excessive current . So fuse is used to interrupt a fault current . 3 .3 Types of Fuses
The switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a
conventional way . The switch can be used on full load or no load conditions . But it cannot be The various types of fuses are ,
used to interrupt the fault currents . This is the basic difference between a switch and a fuse . 1.Expulsion fuse
2. Rewirable fuse or Semienclôsed fus e
In this chapter, we are going to discuss various types of fuses, fuse 'law, selection of fus e
elements, applications, advantages and disadvantages of fuse and various types of switches . 3.Cartridge fuse
4.Drop-out fuse
3 .2 Introduction of Fus e 5.Liquid fuse
6. Open fuse
The fuse was invented by the'scientist Edison in the year 1880 . It is a simple protectiv e
device which works on the principle of current interruption, if current through it become s 7.Striker fuse
excessive . Hence it protects the equipment from the effects of excessive high currents such a s 8.Switch fus e
overheating, short circuiting, firing, damage etc . Its working and construction is very simpl e 9.HRC fuse V -
and can be designed very easily. It is used for overload and short circuit protection i n 1. E Sion fuse : The expulsion fuse consist of modern cut-outs . In such fuse th e
medium voltage range upto 66 kV . arc occurring during- the current interruption is extinguished by the expulsion
A fuse is basically a small piece of metal connected between the two terminals mounte d produced b the arc.
on the insulated base . The fuse is always connected in series with the circuit or appliance t o 2, ewirable fuse or Semienclosed fuse : In such a fuse, the fuse element is place d
be protected . A small piece of metal used in a fuse is called fusing element . in a semiclosed carrier . The fuse carrier can be pulled out and the fuse element can b e
replaced, after the fuse operation . The carrier can then be placed in a fuse base . Such
The fusing element carries the normal working current safely but melts due to excessiv e fuses are very commonly used in our houses .
current under abnormal conditions like overload and short circuit . As it is in series, meltin g
of fusing element causes current interruption and breaking of the circuit, protecting th e
(92)
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 94 Fuses VTU - Switchgear and Protection 95 "Fuses
The semienclosed fuses suffer from the following disadvantages , 3 .4 Definition s
a) When the fuse melts, then it is possible to rewire the fuse with improper fuse element .
b) The protective capacity is not certain . This means, for a particular fusing current of In the study of fuse, it is necessary to know the definitions of some commonly use d
this fuse, practically fuse may melt at some lower or higher than this current value . terms, related to a fuse . These terms can be defined as,
c) The fuse wire is subjected to the deterioration due to oxidation through th e
continuous heating up of the element . Due to this, the current rating of the fuse is
decreased and it starts operating at lower current . The fuse is a device which consists of small piece of metal, which is connected in serie s
d) Accurate calibration of the fuse wire is impossible. This is because the fusing current circuit. When current through it increases beyond some predetermined value, the meta l
depends on the length of the fusing element . melts to interrupt the circuit current, which protects the circuit from excessive high current .
e) It has low breaking capacity and hence cannot be used for high fault level circuits .
f) Slow speed The part of the fuse w ich melts.when excessive current flows through it is called fus e
g)Risk of external flame and fire . element or use-wire .
These fuses are made upto about 500A rated current . The only advantages of such fuse s 1'4- c-
are, very simple, cheap and easily replaceable. rent Rating of Fuse 1 * *
3. artridge fuse : This fuse is totally enclosed fuse . The fuse element is placed in It is that maximum current which fusing èlemént can normally carry without any undu e
a totally enclosed carrier with two metal contacts provided on the two sides of a overheating or melting .:It depends on,
carrier. The entire cartridge is required to be replaced once fuse operates . 1.Temperature'rise of fuse contacts of fuse holde r
4 rop-out fuse In such a fuse, the fuse carrier drops out, once the fus e 2.Fusing element material
operates. The dropping out of fuse carrier provides the necessary isolation between th e 3.Deterioration of fuse due to oxidation
terminals,
squid fuse : When fuse operates in case of high currents, there exists an arc . 3 .4 .4 sing Current --° ` Cam``
The arc must be extinguished properly . The fuse in which the arc is extinguishe d The minimum value of the current at which the fuse element melts to interrupt th e
usin• a liquid medium is called liquid fuse . e iqui me rum use. r • • i .' . circuit current is called fusing current . Its value is always more than the current rating of th e
he various types of a liqui• use are , fuse. -
i)Oil break circuit breaker fuse The fusing current depends on the various factors such as,
ii)Oil-expulsion fuse 1.Fuse element material
iii)Oil-blast fuse 2.Shorter the fuse i .e lesser is the fuse length, greater is the current . This is because shor t
6.Open fuse : This fuse consists of a plain fuse wire and the . fuse operates fuse can easily conduct away the heat generated. So short fuse can carry more
without any provision for extinguishing the arc . current.
7.Striker fuse : In this fuse, there exists a combination of a fuse and a mechanica l 3.Diameter of the element . More the diameter more is the current .
device . When the fuse operates, striker gets released under. pressure which gives the 4.Size of the terminal used . Bigger size can dissipate more heat and can carry current .
tripping indication.
5.Location of the terminals .
8.Switch fuse : This fuse is a combination of a switch and a fuse . Th e combine d
unit is c switch fuse . 6.The state of the-surface i .e. the standard fuse will carry less current.
RC fuse : It is high rupturing capacity fuse . It is also called breaking capacit y 7.The surroundnlgs in which fuse is to be used.
cartridge fuse. In such a fuse, thearcis extinguished with a helpof arc uart'sand 8. The previous history .
tprw*der,
'` Such a powder provides very high resistance which helps to extinguish the 9.The type of enclosure used whether semiclosed or totally enclosed .
ar c. It is basically a low voltage fuse which is used for various distribution purposes .
After discussing the classification of fuses, let us study definitions of some common 3 .4 using Facto r
terms related to thefuse . The ratio of the minimum fusing current and the current rating of the fuse is called th e
fusin factor . As minimum fusing current is more than the current rating, the fusing factor i s
a ways greater than one .
VTU -Switchgear 'and Protection 96 .Fuse s VTU - SwitchgearandProtection 97 Fuse s
Minimum fusing current
The cut-off curves for a typical cartridge type fuse are shown in the Fig . 3.2.
Fusing factor = Current rating of fuse
25
The small the value of fusing factor, greater it is difficult to avoid the deterioration o n 80 0
due to oxidation and overheating at the rated current . For a household fuse which i s 24 _
semiclosed type using copper wire, this factor is generally 2 . 23
22 -

Fp
3 .4,6'Prospective Current 21
The Fig. 3 .1 shows how the a .c . current is cut off using a fuse . This is called cut-of f
characteristics of a fuse . 20
19
" 60 0
18
Current
r\ IAGLt.A-*b m 6Q ( pct 17
au c c)A Ce
l
K t
c
Asy mmetncal 16
15
Cut-offcurrent a . *,
current . Cho CJlcQ
0
occurs ' lb
Final
current zero
(Arc finishes)
o - emp`m *{ ,2

tim e
\Cl*f
t Q
Y
14
13
12
0 â

Y
11
10
AA i d 300
m
m

9
,*' I**,. *.
8 i* ,.*
200
Fig . 3.1 Cut-off characteristics 7
When the fault occurs, the current starts increasing . This fault current is asymmetrica l
and very large first loop. But before achieving maximum value, it generates sufficien t
energy to melt the fuse element . The-r .m .s . va l
B
5
4 . ► MI
e.iÔ
*" *.
IN
..
10 0

prospective current. So it is define . as,

The r.m .s value of the first loop of the fault current calculated if fuse is assumed to b e
3 '
*** .. :' **. .• 60
replaced by - ' of negligible resistance is called the prospective current .

ut-off Current
2
1 ® ***•*
3 .4
e current value at which the-fuse me s, before fault current achieves its peak value is 1 1 .5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 30 50 6 0
called cut-offcurrent . It can also be defined asp the maximum value attained by the faul t Prospective current kA (r.m .s .)
cu ren )us when the fuse melts .
It is the current corresponding to the point 'a' shown in the Fig . 3.1 . The cut-off valu e Fig . 3 .2 Typical cut-off characteristics for a cartridge fuse
depends on, 3 .4 .8-•-Pre-arcing . Time -
1. Current rating of fus e The time between the commencement Of the fault current and the instant when the fus e
2. Value of prospective current melts and the arc starts is called pre-arcing time .
3. Asymmetry of the fault current waveform In the Fig . 3.1, the pre-arcing time is in between the point o and a . The point o i
The cut-off value is very important as it does not allow prospective current to reach its s
corresponding to start of fault current while the point a is when fuse melts and arc starts .
peak . So it avoids the circuit, to get subjected to electrodynamic stresses . This is also called melting time . The pre-arcing time is generally very small and its typica l
value is 0 .001 sec .
 98 ., .fuses VTU -Switchgear and Protection 99 Fuses
VTU - Switchgea ahd Protection
No metal can posses all these characteristics .
3.4 .9 A,rc`ing Tim e
le time between the end of the prearcing time and the instant when the arc get s It is seen earlier that the various metals which are used as fuse elements are lead, zinc
tin, copper, aluminium and sliver. The melting points and specific resistance values of thes e,
completed extinguished is called arcing time . metals are given in the Table . 3.1 . Low melting point is available with high specifi
In the Fig. 3 .1, it is the time between the points a and point b . resistance metal . c

3 .4 .10 T Operating Tim e For small value of currents lead-tin alloy is used for making the fuse element . The most
ne sum of the pre-arcing time and the arcing time is called total operating time of th e preferred lead-tin alloy consists of 37 percent of lead and 63 percent of tin . Such an alloy i s
called eutectic alloy . It is preferred because ,
fuse . 1 . It has less tendency to spread over . 2 . It is quite homogeneous
In the Fig. 3 .1, it is time between the points o and b . In rupturing small values of currents such an alloy is used because the fusing current for
The operating time of a fuse is generally very small as compared to the .circuit breaker . such a type of fuse wire is about 50 percent over load . Such an alloy is used upto curren t
So a fuse in series with a circuit breaker gives a useful, simple and economical way t o capacity of 10 A .
provide sufficient short circuit protection . This is because fuse melts when there is a:fault For large values of current copper or silver is used for making fuse element . The lead-ti n
before the circuit breaker has time to operate . It must be noted that the circuit breaker in alloy is not used because after fusing there is excessive metal released in case of alloys a s
series with fuse should have low breaking capacity . diameters of such wires are large .
âking Capacit y The zinc in a strip form is also a good choice when a considerable time lag is required i n
he breaking capacity is the fuse rating corresponding to the r .m.s . value of the a .c. the operation. This is because zinc has tendency to sustain small overloads for long time an d
component of maximum prospective current at its rated service voltage . not to melt very quickly.
The present trend is to use silver though it is costly because of following reasons ,
3 .4.12 Pre-arcing 1 2t 1. The silver has low coefficient of expansion such that no critical fatigue occurs . The ful l
It is the time integral of the square of the current passing through the fuse during th e capacity of normal rated ,current` can be passed through silver continuously, for a
pre-arcing time . It gives the heating effect in the pre-arcing time . long time.
2. The conductivity of silver is-very high and not affected by the continuous operatio n
3 .4.13 Arcin g 1 2t and surges of current .
It is the time integral of the square of the current through the fuse during the arcing time . 3. Due to high conductivity, the mass of silver required for a given rating of fuse is les s
than other materials . So the problems of clearing after the fusion are less whic h
3.4 .14 Clearing 1 2 t increases the operating speed .
The sum of the pre- -arcing fit and the arcing 12t is called clearing 12 t or total 1 2t. 4. The conductivity of silver does not deteriorate with oxidation.
5. Because of its low specific heat, silver elements can be raised from normal operatin g
3.4 .15 Voltage Rating of Fus e
temperature to vapourization much quicker than other elements .
The voltage rating of the fuse is specified by the manufacturer . The rated voltage of th e 6. Silver resistance increases abruptly as melting temperature is achieved . Due to this ,
fuse must be equal or greater than , transition from melting to vapourization is almost instantaneous . Hence the
1.Voltage of a single..phase circuit operation of silver fuse element becomes very fast at higher currents .
2.Line voltage is case of three phase circuit 7. Vapourization temperature of silver is low than that at which vapour readily ionises .
Hence when an arc is formed through the vapourized portion of silver then arc pat h
3. Voltage between two outer wires in three wire d .c. circuits. has much higher resistance . Hence short circuit current gets interrupted very fast .
3 .5 F e Element Material 3 .6 e - Current Characteristic of Fus e
The desirable characteristics of any fuse element are,
The fuse ha . inverse time - current' characteristics-This means as the magnitude of faul t
1. Low melting poin t current is higher, smal er is t e time taken by the fuse to melt . When fault current is low, the
2. High conductivity time taken by the fuse is more .
3. Free from deterioration due to oxidatio n The time - current characteristic of a fuse is shown in the Fig . 3 .3. Such characteristic is
4. Low cost generally shown on the logarithmic scale .
 VTU - Switchgearand Protection 101 Fuses

3 .7 Fuse La w

When the fuse achieves the steady state condition then we can write ,
Heat generated = Heat lost due to conduction, convection and radiatio n
Now Heat generated = I2R watts
where I = Current through fuse element = fusing curren t
R = resistance of fuse elemen t
Assuming circular shape of fuse element, .
pI pl
R = -= (3)
a d2
4
where p = specific resistance of fuse elemen t
1 = length of fuse elemen t
d = diameter of fuse element
Now for a fuse wire of diameter d, the heat lost can be obtained as ,
Heat lost = effective surface area x constan t
= dl x constan t . . . (4)
Substituting (2), (3), (4) in (1) we get ,
I2 x p1 = dl x constant
"4 d
I2 p 1 d3 1 x constant
=4
I2 =K'd3
where K' =constant = another constan t
P
I = K*d3 =Kd 312 (5)
This equation (5) is called fuse law and K is called fuse constant . The value of fus e
constant depends on the fuse element material. ,Sir W. H . Preec has given the values of
constant K for various fuse element materials . The Table 3 .2 shows the values of K fo r
various materials
Material Value of K
dincm d in mm
Aluminium 1873 59
Copper 2530 80
Lead 340 .5 10.8
Tin 405 .5 12.8
Iron 777 24.6
Table 3 .2
 10 2 Fuses
VTU -Switchgear and Protection

Russell has shown that the most probable fuse law is ,

I cc d 514
For the rectangular strips the following rules are suggested by Schwartz and James : The advantages of using fuse as a protecting device are ,
1 . ' simplest and cheapest form of protecting device .
For copper strip of 5 inches long : 7 . equires no maintenance .
2 3 Tt% operation of fuse is automatic while circuit breaker needs a tripping circuit t o
Fusing current I = 36500 x b x (t + 0.00355) A v o ate for its operation .
where b = breadth of strip in inches . he minimum operating time can be made much smaller than that of circuit breaker .
t = thickness of strip in inche s verse time-current characteristic enables it to use for the overload protection .
When the copper strip is used horizontally , 6. the help of a fuse, heavy currents can be interrupted without noise, smoke, ga s
I = 2060 x (b + 0 .016) x tali A and flame.
For Zinc : fuse can produce a current limiting effect under short circuit conditions .
I = K(b+0 .04)x(t+0 .004) A 3 .9 Disadvantages of Fus e
The constant K depends on length and is,
K = 1000 for 3 inch length The various disadvantages of a fuse are ,
K = 9500 for 4 inch lengt h e fuse is required to be replaced or rewired after its operation .
2 e replacement or rewiring of•fuse takes a lot of time .
When the fuse is used horizontally the value of K can be increased by 300 . 3. iscrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained unless there is muc h
For Aluminium : difference in relative sizes of the fuses .
I = Kx (b+ 0 .035) x (t + 0 .0024) A e current=time characteristics cannot be always corelated with that of the protecte d
K = 2000 for 4 inch length euipment.
is not sible to provide secondary protection to fuses .
= 24000 for 3 inch length
= 30000 for 2 inch length
These values of K are when fuse is used horizontally . When the fuse is used verticall y This is High Rupturing Capacity cartridge type of fuse. It is one of the simplest form o f
then the fusing current value can be reduced by 10% . fuse w . . '• . i es. The low and uncertain brea in• ca aci
II

f
Ex. 3 .1 : A current of 6 A fuses a lead fuse of diameter 0,0195 inch . What current will fuse a wire o semienclosed fuses is overcome in HRC fuses .
0.0392 inch ?
3 .10.1 Construction
Sol. : According to Fuse law,
I a d312
(d 1) 31 2

(d 2J-
Now I 6A
dl = 0 .0195 inch
d2 = 0 .0392 inch
3/ 2
6 ( 0 .0195
I2 0 .0392 j
12 = 6x2.8502
= 17.101 A
Fig . 3 .4 Construction of HRC fuse
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 1 04 Fuses VTU -Switchgear and Protection 105 Fuses

The bod of this fuse is of h-at resistin_ cerami . with metal endcaps . The metal used fo r 3 .10 .3 .1 Cut - off Characteristic s
end caps is generallybrass . Between the end caps, the fixedelementsare mounted, vihic h When excessive current flows through the fuse, fuse element starts melting at one o r
are welded to the endcaps. The fuse element whi ;- ►- . • , ► - r . • en
more points, depending upon the design . When the fuse melts the arc is struck . The fault
the fixed elements . ' 1'he construction of HRC fuse is shown in the Fig . 3 .4. current has a large positive peak but before reaching to its peak, the fuse blows . This current
The body of the fuse is cylindrical in shape . The bodysurK _ :*:y *=r=ang the fus e is called prospective current which is actually r .m.s. value of the first loop of*the faul t
element is completely filled with a filling powder . The filling powder is generally auartz current . The current at which fuse melts and arc starts is called cut - off current .
sand` plastter of oari or marble dust. The filling powdè"r material is selected such that it s When the fault occurs the voltage momentarily reduces and when fuse n Its with ar c
chemical reac ' . ► . ' ► . ourforms ver hi_ h re i . ► This helps in arc formation, the arc voltage reaches to a value which is several times more th n the suppl y
quen and acts as cooling medium., The filling powder can absorb the heat at very hig h voltage . This depends on the fuse length and the cross-section . When arc completel y
rate and it does not evolve appreciable gas . . vanishes, recovery voltage becomes normal .
3.1 peratio n The Fig . 3 .5 shows the HRC fuse cut - off characteristics showing the waveforms o f
Under normal condition! the n,rre i flowinng-through the-fuse Plenae t is rated or below current as well as voltage . As mentioned earlier; the cut-off value depends n the norma l
rated. Hence the temperature of the element is well belowits rmeltng point Hence fus e current rating of the fuse, the value of prospective current and the asymmetr of the curren t
continues t rr€nt saf ithn ,t overheating . When a t drc "waveform . The breaking capacity of the HRC fuse is represented by its ormal servic e
current increases . ver hi . , e increasing the temperature ofIhe "element upto it s voltage and the r .m.s. value of the prospective current .
melting si . - u • , e . Hence r - •• melts before fault c-**rrentreachesto its
eak v lue• The silver vapourises after melting . The chemical reaction between silver
p•* Current
vapour and the filling powder forms a high resistance substance which helpsinuenchin
fhe arc very q-- uickLy_
The various steps; in the operation of the HRC fuse can bEy,ummarized as , Arc starts Prospective current

`Occurrence of fault or-short circuit . Ar c

Faul t
Increase in current through fuse element to high value . occurs t. t, finishe s
, .= tim e
elting of silver element
,4< Vapourization of the . silver. element
a-Fusion of the silver vapour and formation of high resistance substanc e Peak arc
Extinction of ar c voltage
`,The electrical phenomena associated with the operation of the HRC fuse are , Supply voltage -* ,
1 . Formation of high resistance substance due to chemical reaction of silver . . vapour with
filling powder Fault
occurs Recovery voltage
2. As current is cut-off, the high resistance gets converted to an insulator like glass beads .
3. Creation of transient voltage at the instant of breaking fault current . ► - tim e
The physical phenomena.. include the rise in temperature and generation of hig h
internal pressure on the interruption of fault current . To obtain the satisfactory operation of
the fuse, the effective control of both electrical as well as physicaiphenomena is necessary .
Prearcin g Arcing tim e
3 .10 .3 Characteristics of HRC Fus e time
The various characteristics of HRC fuse are ,
1, Cut - off characteristics
2. Time - current characteristics Fig. 3 .5 Cut-off characteristic of HRC fus e
3. ft characteristics 3 .10 .3 .2 Time - Current Characteristic s
The HRC fuse shows inverse time-current characteristics . As fault current valu e
becomes high, the operating time becomes less .
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 06 107 Fuse s
Fuses VTU -Switchgear and Protection

The Fig. 3 .6 shows the typical time-current characteristic of a HRC fuse . 3 .10 .4 Fuse Element of HRC Fus e
The fuse element of the HRC fuse is enclosed in a fuse link . The fuse link is replaced
when it blows out .
Curren t
The fuse element is of silver or copper with a special shape . Generally the fuse elemen t
-has two or more sections joined by means of tin joint . The various .shapes . of fuse elements
1000 -
which are used in HRC fuse are shown in the Fig . 3.8.

Fuse elemen t
100 Minimu m
fusing current

10 - Silver fuse element (strip type )

I I I - tim e
0 .01 0.1 1 10 100 o
o
o o
o o

Fig . 3 .6 Time-current characteristics of HRC fus e Tin bridge of narrow cross-sectio n

3.10.3.3 1 2 t Characteristic s
The information about heating effect due to the pre-arcing current and at the time of ar c
quenching can be obtained from 12t characteristics . The Fig. 3 .7 shows 12t characteristic s
showing curves of pre-arcing 1 2t and total I2t against fusing current. Time delay center insert

2
I tin `Fig . 3 .8 Various types of fuse elements of HRC fus e
Amp-S
2 The fuse element governs the various characteristics of a HRC fuse .
10 6 Total I 2t . f .5 Advantages of a HRC Fus e
5
10 The rious advantages of a•HRC fuse are ,
. It can clear high values of short circuit current .
104
2 . It does not deteriorate with-high speed .
10 3 Pre-ar mg I 2t
2
t,3!'5 e operation is very fast . -
10 4. It has inverse current - time characteristics .
10 5. Thy performance is very much consistent .
provides reliable discrimination .
4 60 100 150 300 400 50 0 cost is less as compared to other protecting device of same breaking capacity .
Fusin g maintenance is required .
current
The j peration is reliable.
Fig . 3 .7 1 2t characteristics
.6 Disadvantages of a HRC fus e
The ft characteristics indicate the amount of energy released which will be passed to th e The jsadvantages of a HRC fuse are,
equipment being protected, at the time of fault current interruption .
must be replaced after each operation .
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 109 Fuses
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 1 08 .:Fuses
e replacement of fuse takes time . The fuse body is made up of ceramic having a cap rigidly fixed at both ends . Through th e
3 u .jected to high temperature rises and hence heat produced can affect the adjacen t cap at one end, the plunger is inserted which acts as a tripping device for the associate d
contacts, associated switches etc . circuit breaker . Between the caps at two ends, number of silver fuse elements are connected .
The plunger is electrically connected to a tungsten shunt wire with a weak link, connected t o
4. er-locking is not possible .
the cap at other end . Behind the plunger, a small chemical charge is placed .
3 .10 .7 Selection of HRC Fus e Operation : When a fault occur, the silver fuse elements melt first . Due to this th e
The following points must be considered while selecting the HRC fuse for a particula r current gets transferred to the tungsten shunt-wire due to which the weak link get s
application, .. fused . The chemical charge gets detonated . This forces the plunger upwards . The
1. The level of the overcurrent protection required. upward movement of the plunger is controlled so that it should not eject ou t
2. The normal current of the circuit . completely from the body of the fuse and at the same time it gets trapped so that i t
3. The voltage appearing across the fuse after its operation which should not be greate r can not be reset . This operates the trip circuit of the breaker to open it .
than its rating .
3 .11 .1 Advantage s
4. The rupturing capacity must not be less than the current to be interrupted .
The HRC fuse with a tripping device has the following advantages over the normal HR C
5. The discrimination needed when used with other fuses .
fuse without tripping device ,
3.10.8 Applications of HRC Fus e 1. In a three phase system if one phase fuse blows off then .the supply to the moto r
The main applications of HRC fuse are , continues but single phasing occurs . This causes overheating of the motor windin g
1 . To protect the low voltage distribution'system against the overload and short circui t due to tremendous overloading . The HRC fuse with a tripping device operates the
conditions . circuit breaker disconnecting all the three phases . So it is ensured that one fuse blow s
off, the entire three phase supply gets disconnected due to the operation of circui t
2. For the backup protection to circuit breakers . breaker .
3 . Protection of meshed feeders with the steady load. The plunger gives the visual indication when a fuse blows .
2.
.11 HRC Fuse With Tripping Device 3. The effects of full short circuit .current are not required to be considered for th e
selection of the circuit breaker . Hence inexpensive circuit breaker can be used .
When the fuse is used along with the circuit breaker then fuse must blow first and the n 4. Low voltage HRC fuses may be built with breaking capacity of 16500 to 33000 A a t
circuit breaker should operate . This is ensured by using the HRC fuse with a tripping device . 440 V.
The construction of HRC fuse with a tripping device is shown in the Fig 3 .9. So it is always advantageous to use a fuse with a tripping device .

Plunge r
}12 Liquid Fuse
n
A_ fuse which uses a li uid instead of a powder for the ar extinction is called a liquid
Cap
fuse. The oil is enerally use as a iquid to extinguish the arc . The 'qui us 's very
popularlused in:iigh voltage sys e iqur• use aving breaking capacity of th e
Chemical charg e order of 6000 A is used for the systems upto 132 kV .
Weak link . , , The Fig. 3 .10 shows the constructional details liquid fuse .
Silve r The fuse basical>sr consists of a glass tube . The glass tube is filled with carbo n
d
fus e tetr iae sQlut ^n . The glass tube is sealed with the caps at both the ends . The caps use
elements are made , up of brass, ._. .

Tungsten shunt "

The fuse element is fixed at one end of'the'tubé while it is connected to a strong bronz e
spiral spring . The spring is fixed at the other end of the glass tube .
When fault occurs, the fuse,element melts. As the element melts, the part of the sprin g
Ceramic body enters into a liquid through a liquid director also called baffle . The ga s, generated at the time
of mélting of fuse element is responsible to push some part of liquid into the passag e
through the liquid director . Due to this, liquid entered into the passage, the arc get s
extinguished completely and effectively .
Fig . 3 .9 HRC fuse with tripping device
 VTU-Switchgear and Protection VTU Switchgear and Protection 111 Fuses
1 10 Fuses
Consider a simple case of two fuses A and B in series as shown in the Fig . 3.11.

A B

Feeder
*o Majo r Minor Fault F
fuse fus e

Fig . 3 .11 Discrimination between fuse and fus e

In such case fuse A is called major fuse while the fuse B is called minor fuse .
When the fault takes place beyond the fuse B then only fuse B should operate and A
should remain inoperative . To achieve this, while selecting the fuses, it is checked tha t
pre-arcing time of fuse A is more than the total operating time of fuse B .
This is called proper discrimination between fuse and fuse .
In case of discrimination between fuse and circuit breaker, the time curren t
characteristic should be such that it should clear the breaker overload trippin g
characteristic . The breaker should be able to pass the cut off current of fuse without an y
deterioration .

3 .14 Di rence Between Fuse and Circuit Breake r

Fuse Circuit Breake r

,I-Kit detects and interrupts the faul t 1 . It only interrupts the fault current . The
current . detection is done by relay system .

he operation is inherently automatic . 2. It is not automatic . The relay system is

required to 'operate it.

The breaking capacity is less . 3 . Having large breaking capacity .

rc interruption is simple . 4. Arc interruption is complicated .

*5 The operating time is small . The 5 . The operating time is large . Th e

operating speed is high . operating speed is comparitively less .

'Fig . 3 .10 Construction A:A liquid fus e fter every operation, the replacemen t 6 . No need of replacement afte r
is necessary . operation.
3 .13 Discrimination
i
s
J/. Replacement takes time . 7. No question of replacement.
When there are two or more than two protective devices used for the protection of th e
same circuit then there must be co-ordination between the two . This co-ordination wit h . Simple to design hence cheap . 8 . Complicated to design henc e
which the correct operation of correct device takes place, the others remaining . unaffected is expensive .
called discrimination .
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 12 Fuses
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 113 Fuses
Review Question s
University Questions
1 . What is switch gear ? What is its function ?
1. With a neat sketch explain the time current and 'cut-off' characteristics of HRC fuse . Explain the use of these
2 . What is fuse ? State and explain the various types offuses . characteristics in electrical power system . (Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )
3 . What are the disadvantages of semienclosed fuse ? 2 . What is a liquid fuse ? Explain the time current and cut off characteristics of HRC fuse .
4. Define and explain the following terms related to a fuse,
(Feb .-2003, 10 Marks )
i) Current rating offus e
3 ._ Explain with a neat sketch the construction and working of a HRC fuse. Also explain its properties and
ii) Fusing curren t characteristics . (Aug.-2003, 10 Marks )
iii) Fusing factor
iv) Prospective curren t ❑❑❑

v) Cut-off curren t
vi) Pre-arcing tim e
vii) Arcing tim e
viii) Total operating time
ix) Breaking capacity
5 . Write a note on fuse element material .
6 . Why in modern days silver is preferred as a fuse element ?
7. Draw and explain the typical time - current characteristics of a fuse .
8 . State and derive the fuse law for a circular fuse element .
9 . How fusing current is calculated for strip type fuse element made up of,
i) Coppe r
ii) Zinc
iii) Aluminiu m
1
1 .0. State advantages and disadvantages offuse .
1.1 . Explain the construction and working principle of HRC fuse.
12 . Explain the various . characteristics of HRC fuse .
13 . Write a note on shapes offuse elements used for HRC fuse .
14 . State the advantages, disadvantages and applications of HRC fuse .
15 . Draw and explain the working of HRC fuse with tripping device .
16 . State the advantages of HRC fuse with tripping device.
17 . Draw and explain the working of a-liquid fuse .
18. What is discrimination ? Explain the discrimination between,
i) Fuse and fus e
ii) Fuse and circuit breaker
19. What is the difference between fuse and a circuit breaker ?
20. A current of 4 amperes fuses a lead fuse wire of diameter 0 .0203 inches . What current will fuse a wire of
diameter 0 .0491 inch ? (Ans . ;15 .04 A)
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 115 Protective Relayin g
4. To disconnect the faulty part as quickly as possible so as to minimise the damage t
the faulty part itself . For example, if there is a winding fault in a machine and if i o
t
persists for a long time then there is a possibility of the damage of the entire winding .
As against this, if it is disconnected quickly then only few coils may get damage d
instead of the entire winding .
Protective Relayin g 5. To restrict the spreading of the effect of fault causing least interference to the rest o
the healthy system. Thus by disconnecting the faulty part, the fault effects ge f
t
localised.
6. To improve the system performance, system reliability, system stability and servic
e
continuity .
The faults can not be completely avoided but can be minimised . Thus the protectiv e
4.1 Introductio n relaying plays an important role in sensing the faults, minimizing the effects of fault s
and minimizing the damage due to the faults .
Protective relaying is one of the several features of the power system design . Every part
of the power system is protected . The factors affecting the choice of protection are type an d 4 .3 P tective Zone s
rating of equipment, location of the equipment, types of faults, abnormal conditions an d
In a protective relaying scheme, the circuit breakers are placed at the
cost . appropriate points
such that anylement of the entire power system can be disconnected
The protective relaying is used to give an alarm or to cause prompt removal of an y repairing wor -,
element of power system from service when that element behaves abnormally . . The
abnormal `behaviour of an element might cause damage or interference within effectiv e
operation of rest of the system . The protéctive relaying minimises the damage to th e
equipment and interruptions to the service when electrical failure occurs . Along with som e Generator protectiv e
zon e
other equipments the relays help to minimise damage and improve the service .
The relays are compact and self contained devices which can sense the abnorma l Generator transforme r
conditions . Whenever an abnormal condition exists, the relay contacts get closed . Thi s protective zone
inturn closes the trip circuit of a circuit breaker . The circuit breakers are capable o f
disconnecting a faulty element, when they are called upon to do so by the relays . Thus entir e
process includes the operations like occurrence of fault, operation of relay, opening of a
circuit breaker and removal of faulty element . This entire process is automatic and fast ,
which is possible due to effective protective relaying scheme . Bus bar protective zon e

The protective relaying scheme includes protective current transformers, voltag e Circuit
breaker
transformers, protective relays, time delay relays, auxiliary relays, secondary circuits, tri p
circuits etc . Each component plays its own role, which is very important in the overall
operation of the scheme . The protective relaying is the team work of all these components .
The pr ective relaying also provides the indication of location and type of the fault .

4. Functions of Protective Relayin g

I
The various functions of protective relaying are : L
e
1 . The prompt removal of the component which is behaving abnormally by closing th e
trip circuit of circuit breaker or to sound an alarm . 11 B .l I II
1
'' xN.y,2 . To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to avoid the damage or interferenc e I 1- 1
within effective operation of the rest of system .
e 3 . To prevent the subsequent faults by disconnecting the abnormally operating part .

(114)
Fig . 4.1 Protective zones

*! V
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 117 Protective Relayin g
11 6
ear and Protectio n It can be seen from the Fig. 4.2 that the circuit breakers are located in the connections to
VTU - Switch .
and maintenance requirements and also under e al c n di ion emike each power system element . This provision makes it possible to disconnect only the fault y
usual element from the system . Ocassionally for economy in the number of circuit breakers, a
a protective covering is provided around
ea ch element en . breaker between the two adjacent sections may be omitted but in that case both the powe r
shor t t circuits . Thusa
shhus ate zone which is blishe
establis h ed g aroundeac
as given zone will
A protective zone is the se ag d occurrin n system sections are required to be disconnected for the failure in either of the two .
ificance of such a rotective zone is that any e circus * • Each protective zone has certain protective scheme and each scheme has number o f
The si ; of relays which causes opening o alca , with ctNo
iv pones ar
cause the tri• in protective syste
, les thei rsote evariouscmpntwhareos part
c . ecap
that zone . The transformers, transmission lines, bus bars d
beors, .1 shows the various protective zones, use 4.4 P ary and Backup Protectio n
. The Fig .4 s of t a system
system is left unprotected The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorised int o
The boundaries of protective zones are decided by the location
e two types as :
transformers. . - - . . - . The overla in of rotectiv e zone 1.Primary protection
In practice, va_rous.: . . - of each and ever elemen ed and hence there is n o 2.Backup protection 3
zones is done to ensure complete saf e ot . The zones are overla The primary protection is the first line of defence and is responsible to protect all th e
. ec e . is ca es dea CC
d n e•
,. *' ro . For the failures withi ` pe e . power system elements from all the types of faults . The backup protection comes into play
chance o existence of a dead sot in, s stem ' n spot may only when the primary protection fails .
e rotective zones area -
. If there are no overlaps , then an dead mithe faultt
faul
, acent s e f s t clam t t even thoughh The backup protection is providèd as the main protection can fail due to many reason s
scary to sec ircwt breaker within the zone may not trip eventhoug
. The exten like,
exist p means th cy cause
e damag
dammage eeytoing the healthy system regrol s
o overlap ed region ; -1 a lure in circuit breaker
occurs .. Thisones
occuurs may ir
is relatively small
. The probability of the failure s in willn be als infrequents.
s breaker
protective z consequently y g. 'ilurein protective relay
is very low, the tripping of too man
.2 shows the overlapping of protective zones in the primary relayin .lure in tripping circuit
T Fig . 4
The Tlure in d .c. tripping voltag e
s of voltage or current supply to the rela y
Thus if the backup protection is absent and the main protection _ fails then there is a
possibility of severe damage to the system . `
When the primary protection is made inoperative for the maintenance purpose, th e
backup protection acts like a main protection . The arrangement of backup protectiv e
scheme should be such that the failure in main protection should not cause the failure i n
back up protection as well . This is satisfied if back up relaying and primary relaying do not
have-anything common . Hence generally backup protection is located at different stations
from the primary protection. From the cost and economy point . of view, the backup
protection is employed only for the protection against short circuit and not for any othe r
abnormal conditions .
4 .4 .1 Co pt of Backup Relayin g
seder the backup relaying employed for the transmission line section EF as shown i n
the Fig. 4.3.
The relays C,-D, G and H are primary relays while A, B, I and J are the backup relays .
Normally backup relays are tripped if primary relay fails . So if the primary relay E fails
to trip, then backup relays A and B get tripped . The backup relays and associated backup
relaying equipments are physically apart from the faulty equipment .

in primary relaying
Fig . 4 .2 Overlapping zones
 Protective Relaying VTU -Switchgear and Protection 119
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 118 Protective Relayin g
4.5 Ess 'al Qualities of Protective Relayin g
Station K

protective relaying scheme should have certain important qualities . Such an essential
qualities of protective relaying are ,
f1, Reliability
✓2'Selectivity and Discriminatio n
2. Speed and Tim e
C Sensitivity
Transmissio n . Stability
lin e
v,-6, Adequatenes s
Fig . 4 .3 Backup relaying . \„,,.7, Simplicity and Econom y
e
The backup relays A and B provide backup protection for fault at station K . Also th
backup relays at A and F provide the backup protection for the faults in line DB . 54Reliability
The backup relaying often provides primary protection when the primary relays are ou t A protective relaying should be reliable is its basic quality . It indicates the ability
of the
relay system to operate under the predétemdconditions . There are various component s
of service for repairs . w i icl1 go into the o a eration before a rel .
s e . - rate . Therefore every component and circui t
It is obvious that when the backup relay operates, the larger part of the system i w i is involved in the operation of a relay
plays ah important role . The reliability of a
disconnected . p5 Etion system depends on the reliability of various components like circuit brew cers,
The important requirement of backup relaying is that it must operate with sufficien t relays, current trans. ,• • _ . .' , ,, - fs - f .
h rcuitsetc.
time delay so that the primary relaying is given a chance to operate . When fault occurs, bot The proper maintenance also plays an important role in improving the reliable operation f
p o
the type of relays starts relaying operation but primary is expected to trip first and backu the system . The reliability can not be expressed in the mathematical
expression s but can be
will then reset without having had time to complete its relaying operation . judged from the statistical data . The statistical survey and-records-give good idea about th
e
When the given set of relays provides the backup protection for several adjacent syste m reliability of the protective system . The inherent reliability is based on the de
i gn which is
s
elements then the slowest primary relaying of any of those will determine the necessar y based on the long experience . This can be achieved by the factors like ,
time delay of the given backup relays . i) Simplicity ii) Robustnes s
iii) High contact pressure iv) Dust free enclosur e
4.4 .2 Methods of Backup Protec tio n iv) Good contact material vi) Good workmanship an d
protection ate classified as ,
The various . methods used for the backup , vii) Careful maintenanc e
In this scheme, a single breaker is used by both primary a s
1 e ay Backup Protection ;
well as backup protection but the two protective systems are different . 4. Selectivity and Discriminatio n
In this method, separate breakers are provided fo r
eaker Backup Protection : .
The selective is the a i ' 've s stem to identif the faulty part correctl y
primary and backup protection. Both the types of,breakers are at the same station and to disconnect that part without affecting the rest
of the healthy part of system. The
r
ote Backup Protection : In this method, separate breakers are provided fo t discrimination me ans to distinguis The discrimination ' . e .
primary and backup protection . . The two types of breakers are at the, differen sys e ne a ity to • istin• uish between norma condition and
abnormal condition an d
stations and are completely isolated and independent of each other . so •e ween a .norma condition within protective zone and elsewhere
In this method, primary protection is a t . Theprotectiv e
4 . entratly Co-ordinated Backup Protection : e
system should o erate - *, . .
various stations . There is a central control room and backup protection for all`th con . i ion . ence it must clearly discriminate between normal and abnormal condition
e loa d .
stations is at central control room . Central control continuously inspects th : d T Zul tfe protective
- system should select the faulty part and disconnect only the faulty par t
flow and frequency in the system . If any element of any part of the system fails, loa f without disturbing the healthy part of the system .
flow gets affected which is sensed by the control room . The control sourèe consists o
o
a digital computers which decides the proper switching action . The method is als The protective system should not operate for the faults beyond its protective zone . For
example, consider the portion of a typical power system shown in the Fig . 4.4.
called centrally controlled backup protection .
 1 20 Protective Relaying VTU -Switchgear and Protection 121
VTU - Switchgear and Protection Protective Relayin g

4.5 ensitivity
Therotective system should be sufficiently sensitive so that it can o erate reliabl y
when required . The sensitivity of the system is the ability of the relay system to operate w t h
low value of actuatfn
` antity .
It indicates the smallest value of the actuating quantity at which the protection start s
operating in relation with the minimum value of the fault current in the protected zone .
The relay sensitivity is the function of the volt-amperes input to the relay coil necessar y
to cause its operation . Smaller the value of volt-ampere input, more sensitive is the relay .
Thus 1VA input relay is more sensitive than the 5VA input relay .
Mathematically the sensitivity is expressed by a factor called sensitivity factor K s. It is
Fig . 4 .4
t the ratio of minimum short circuit current in the protected zone to the minimum operatin g
It is clear from the Fig . 4 .4 that if fault F 2 occurs on transmission line then the circui
. The current required for the protection to start .
breakers 2 and 3 should operate and disconnect the line from the remaining system
protective system should be selective in selecting faulty transmission line only for the faul t
and it should isolate it without tripping the adjacent transmission line breakers or th e
F2
transformer. where sensitivity facto r
If the protective system is not selective then it operates for the faults beyond it s Is = minimum short circuit current in the zone t
protective zones and unnecessary the large part of the system gets isolated . This causes a lo t Io = minimum operating current for the protection r -
'of inconvenience to the supplier and users . 4.5.5 ability
4.5 .3 peed and Tim e The stability is the quality of the protective system due to which the system remains
A protective system must disconnect the fault s stem a nscible .1f thefaulty inoperative and stable under certain s•ecified conditions such as transients, disturbance ,
isconnected for a long time then, t ou au s etc . For providing the stability, certain mo i ications are require . n the
evices carrying a t currents may get damaged . system design . In most of the cases time delays, filter circuits, mechanical and electrical bia s
. Such low voltage may affect th e are provided to achieve stable operation during the disturbances .
2 . The failure leads to the reduction in system voltage .
motors and generators running on the consumer side
. 4.5 .6 dequateness
,f fault persists for long time, then subsequently other faults may get generated
The high speed protective system avoids the • ossibility of such undesirable effects. ✓✓There are variety of faults and disturbances those may practically exists in a powe r
system . It is impossible to provide protection against each and every abnormal conditio n
The total time required which may exist in practice, due to economical reasons . But the protective system mus t
i'hter- tô*?in in the circuit breaker is calle e . It is the sum of rela*time*an d
aril provide adequate protection for any element of the system . The adequateness of the syste m
circus •reaker time . The relay time is the time ewe r. he instant of aunt occurrence can be assessed by considering following factors ,
byeth
the instant :o closure ofrela contacts . The circuit breaker time is tha time±akanThe faul t 1. Ratings of various equipment s
circuit reak • • o • . • walk- e 2. Cost of the equipment s
operation of the protectiv e
clearing time should be as---small as possible to have high-speed - 3. Locations of the equipment s
system. 4. Probability of abnormal condition due to internal and external causes .
Though the small fault clearing time is preferred, in practice certain time lag is provided .
5. Discontinuity of supply due to the failure of the equipmen t
This is because ,
1.To have clear discrimination between primary and backup protection 4.5 .7iiplicity and .Econom y
,
2. To prevent unnecessary operation of relays under the conditions such as transients n addition to .all the important qualities it is necessary that the cost of the system shoul d
starting inrush of current etc . be well within limits . In practice sometimes it is not necessary to use ideal protection schem e
Thus fast protective system is an important quality which minimises the damage and i t which is economically unjustified . In such cases compromise is done . As a rule, th e
improves the overall stabilit of the sower s stem . protection cost should not be more than 5% of the total cost . But if the equipments to b e
protected are very important, the economic constraints can be relaxed .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 22 Protective Relaying
The protective system should be as simple as possible so that it can be easily maintained .
The complex system are difficult from the maintenance point of view . The simplicity and -
reliability are closely related to each other . The simpler systems are always more reliable .
4 .6 Classification of Protective Relay s
All the relays consist of one or more elements which get energised and actuated by th e
electrical quantities of the circuit . Most of the relays used now a days are electro-mechanica l
type which work on the principles of electromagnetic attraction and electromagneti c
induction .
4.6 .1 Electromagnetic Attraction Type Relay s
The electromagnetic attraction type relays operate on the principle of attraction of a n
armature by the magnetic force produced by undesirable current or movement of plunger i n
a solenoid . These relays can be actuated by a .c . or d .c. quantities . The various types of thes e
relays are,
1. Solenoid Type : In this relay, the plunger or iron core moves into a solenoid and th e
operation of the relay depends on the movement of the plunger .
2.Attracted Armature Type : This relay operates on the current setting . When current i n
the circuit exceeds beyond the limit, the armature gets attracted by the magnetic forc e
produced by the undesirable current . The current rating of the circuit in which rela y
is connected plays an important role in the operation of the relay.
3.Balanced Beam Type : In this relay, the armature is fastened to a balanced beam . For
normal current, the beam remains horizontal but when current exceeds, the armatur e
gets attracted and beam gets tilted causing the required operation .
4.6 .2 Induction Type Relays
These relays work on the principle of an electromagnetic induction . The use of these
relays is limited to a .c. quantities. The various types of these relays are ,
1.Induction Disc Type : In this relay, a metal disc is allowed tO rotate between the tw o
electromagnets . The electromagnets are energised by alternating currents . The two
types of constructions used for this type are shaded pole type and watthour meter
type.
2. Induction Cup Type : In this relay, electromagnets act as a stator and energised b y
relay coils . The rotor is metallic cylindrical cup type .
4.6 .3 Directional Type Relay s
These relays work on the direction of current or power flow in the circuit . The various
types of these relays are ,
1 . Reverse Current Type : The relay is actuated when the direction of the curren t
is reversed or the phase of the current becomes more than the predetermined value .
2 . Reverse Power Type : The relay is actuated when the phase displacemen t
between applied voltage and current attains a specified value .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 123 Protective Relayin g
4.6.4 Relays Based on Timin g
In relays the time between instant of relay operation and instant at which tripping o f
contacts takes place, can be controlled . This time is called operation time . Based on this, th e
time relays are classified as ,
1. Instantaneous Type : In this type no time is lost between operation of relay an d
tripping of contacts . No intentional time delay is provided .
2. Definite Time Lag Type :'In this type intentionally a definite time lag is provide d
between operation of relay and tripping of contact .
3. Inverse Time Lag type : In this type, the operating time is approximately inversel y
proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity .
4.6 .5 Distance Type Relay s
These relays work on the principle of measurement of voltage to current ratio . In this
type, there are two coils . One coil is energised by current while other by voltage . The, torque
produced is proportional to the ratio of the two quantities . When the ratio reduces below a
set value, the relay operates . The various types of these relays are ,
1. Impedance Type : In this type, the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but a n
impedance which is proportional to the distance of the relay form the fault point .
2. Reactance Type : The operating time is proportional to the reactance which i s
proportional to the distance of the relay from the fault point .
3. Admittance Type : This is also called mho type . In this type, the operating time i s
proportional to the admittance .
4.6 .6 Differential Type Relay s
A differential relay operates when the vector difference of two or more electrica l
quantities in the circuit in which .relay is connected, exceeds a set value . These are classifie d
as,
1. Current Differential Type : In this type, the relay compares the current entering a
section of the system and the current leaving the section . Under fault condition, thes e
currents are different .
2. Voltage Differential Type : In this type, two transformers are used . The secondaries
of the transformers are connected in series with the relay in such a way that th e
induced e .m.f .s are in opposition under normal conditions . Under fault condition,
primaries carry different currents due to which induced e .m .f.s no longer remain i n
opposition and the relay operates .
4.6 .7 Other Types of Relay s
Various other types of relays which are used in practice are,
1.Under voltage, current, power relay : This relay operates when the voltage, current o r
power in a circuit falls below a set value .
2. Over voltage, current, power relay : This relay actuates when the voltage, current o r
power in a circuit rises above a set value.
3. Thermal Relay : This relay actuates due to the heat produced by the current in th e
relay coil.
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 12 5
124 Protective Relayin g
VTU - Switchgear and Protection

4.Rectifier Relay : In this relay, the quantities to be sensed are rectified and then give n
to the moving coil unit of the relay .
5. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Relay : In this relay, the coil carrying current is fre e
to rotate in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet . This is used for d.c . only .
6. Static Relay : This relay uses some electronic method for sensing the actuatin g
quantity. It uses a stationary circuit .
7. Gas Operated Relay : The gas pressure is adjusted according to the variations in thne
actuating quantity . This gas pressure is used to actuate the relay . Buchholz relay is a
example of such type of relay .

4,7 Terminologies Used in Protective Relayin g

The various terminologies used in the protective relaying are ,
Fig . 4.5 Tapping for current settin g
1 . Protective Relay : It is an electrical relay, which closes its contacts when a ny Thus the value of pickup current can be obtained as ,
actuating quantity reaches a certain preset value. Due to closing of contacts, rela
initiates a trip circuit of circuit breaker or an alarm circuit . Pickup current = % current setting x rated secondary current of C
So if C.T. is 500/10 A i .e . rated secondary current is 10A and the current setting.T.
clay Time : It is the time between the instant of fault occurrence and th e is 15 0
instant of closure of relay contacts . then pickup current is 1 .5 x 10 =15 A i .e . 150% of 10
. So when relay coil current is greater tha n
or equal to pickup values, relay operates .
3. esker Time : It is the time between the instant at circuit breaker -operates an d
opens the contacts, to the instant of . extinguishing the arc completely . 11, g Setting Multiplier (P .S .M.) :
The ratio of actual fault current in the rela
4. It Clearing Time : The total time required between the instant of fault an d coi o the pickup current is called plug setting multiplier (P .S.M.) Mathematically iy
can be expressed as, t
the instant of final arc interruption in the circuit breaker is fault clearing time . It is
sum of the relay time and circuit breaker time . fault current in relay coil
5 rckup : A relay is said to be picked up when it mo ves from the 'OFF' positio n pickup valu e
to .ON' position . Thus when relay operates it is said that relay has picked up . fault current in relay coi l
6.);'rckup Value : It is the minimum value of an actuating quantity at which rela yl % current setting x rated secondary current of C .T.
starts operating . In most of the relays actuating quantity is current in the relay coi 12me/P .S.M. Curve : For a relay, a curve showing relation between time an
and pickup value of current is indicated along with the relay . p l -setting multiplier is provided which is called time/P d
o .S .M . curve . A typical curve
7. pout or Reset : A relay is said to dropout or reset when it comes back t
. The value o f for a relay is shown in th e
original position i .e . when relay contacts open from its closed position
an actuating quantity current or voltage below which the relay resets is called rese t Fig. 4 .6.
value of that relay . It can be observed tha t
T' eDelay : The time taken by relay to operate after it has sensed the fault i s for low values of
cane time delay of relay . Some relays are instantaneous wh ile in some relays overcurrents the operatin g
intentionally a time delay is provided . time varies inversely wit h
9, a mg Relays or Holding Relays : The relay contacts are designed : for light the current . But as the
weight and hence they are therefore very delicate . When the protective relay closes it s current increases an d
contacts, it is relieved from other duties such as time lag, tripping etc . These dutie s approaches upto 20 times its
are performed by auxiliary relays which are also called sealing relays or holdin g rated value thén the tim e
relays . becomes almost constant.
10. Current Setting : The pick up value of current can be adjusted to the require d This type of characteristic s
level in the relays which is called current setting of that relay . It is achieved by use of is necessary to ensur e
tappings on the relay coil, which are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the discrimination on very hig h
Fig. 4.5 . The tap values are expressed in terms of percentage full load rating of curren t Fig . 4 .6 Time / P.S .M . curve
fault currents flowin g
transformer (C .T .) with which relay is associated .
 126 ProtectiveRelaying . VTUSwitchgear and Protection
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 127 Protective Relayin g

through healthy part of the system . 4 .8 Instrument Transformer s

Using this curve and time-setting multiplier, the actual time of operation of a relay ca n In heavy currents and high voltage a .c . circuits, the measurement can not be done b y
be obtained . For example, the time in seconds corresponding to P .S .M . of 10 is 4 seconds a s using the method of extension of ranges of low range meters by providing suitable shunts .
n
shown in the Fig . 4.6 . Multiplying this by a time-setting multiplier, actual time of operatio In such conditions, specially constructed accurate ratio transformers called instrumen t
can be obtained . transformers . These can be used, irrespective of the voltage and current ratings of the a .c .
13 . Time-setting Multiplier : Similar to current setting, a relay is provided with a circuits . These transformers not only extend the range of the low range instruments but als o
feature with which its time of operation can be controlled . This feature is known a s isolate them from high current and high voltage a .c . circuits . This makes their handling ver y
time-setting multiplier . Its safe . These are generally classified as (i) current transformers and (ii) potential transformers . .
dial is calibrated from 0 to 1
in steps of 0 .05 as shown in 4. Current Transformers (C .T.)
the Fig . 4 .7 .
The value of time-settin g The large alternating currents which can not be sensed or passed through norma l
multiplier along with the tim e ammeters and current coils of wattmeters, energymeters can easily be measured by use o f
current transformers along with normal low range instruments .
obtained from time/P .S .M .
curve decides the actual tim e A transformer is a device which consists of two windings called primary and secondary .
of operation of the relay . Fo r It transfers energy from one side to another with suitable change in the level of current o r
example if time-settin g voltage . A current transformer basically has a primary coil of one or more turns of heav y
multiplier is selected as 0 .2 cross-sectional area . In some, the ba r
while time corresponding t o carrying high current may act as a
P .S .M. of 10 is 4 seconds then, primary . This is connected in series with
Fig . 4.7 Time-setting multiplier
the line carrying high current .
Actual time of operation = time in seconds x time-setting multiplie r
= 4 x 0.2 = 0 .8 second s The secondary of the transformer i s
made up of a large number of turns of
14. Trip Circuit : The opening operation of circuit breaker is controlled by a circui t fine wire having small cross-sectional
which consists of trip coil, relay contacts, auxiliary switch, battery supply etc . which i s
area . This is usually rated for 5A . This is
called trip circuit. connected to the coil of normal rang e
Earth Fault : The fault involving earth is called earth fault . The examples o f ammeter : Symbolic representation of a
15.
earth fault are single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault etc . current transformer is as shown in the
16. Phase Fault : The fault which dies not involve earth is called phase fault . Th e Fig. 4.8 .
example is line to line fault
.
17. Protective Scheme : The combination of various protective systems covering a
particular protective zone for a particular equipment is called protective scheme . For These transformers are basically step up transformers i .e . stepping up a voltage fro m
example a generator may be provided with protective systems like overcurrent , primary to secondary . Thus the current-reduces from primary to secondary . So from current
differential, earth fault etc . The combination of all these systems is called generato r point of view, these are step down :transformers, stepping down the current valu e
protective scheme . considerably from primary to-secondary .
18. Protective System : The combination of circuit breakers, trip circuits, C .T. an d Let Nl = Number of turns of primar y
other protective relaying equipments is called protective system . N 2 = Number of turns of secondar y
19. Unit Protection : A protective system in which the protection zone is clearl y I l = Primary curren t
defined by the C .T . boundaries is called unit protection. Such systems work fo r I2 = Secondary curren t
internal faults only .
For a transformer,
20. Reach : The limiting distance in which protective system responds to the fault s
is called reach of the protective system . The operation beyond the set distance is calle d
over-reach while failure of distance relay within set distance is called under-reach .
As N2 is very high corn .-re . to Ni , the ratio Ii to I2 is also very high for current
transformers . Such a current ratio is indicated for representing the range of current
 128 Protective Relayin g VTU - Switchgear and Protection 129
VTU - Switchgear and Protection Protective Relayin g
. Steps down th e
transformer . For example, consider a 500 : 5 range then it indicates that C .T In a low voltage wound type current transformer, the secondary winding is wound on a
current from primary to secondary by a ratio 500 to 5 . bakelite former. The heavy primary winding is directly wound on the top of the secondar y
Ir 500 winding with a suitable insulation in between the two . Otherwise the primary is woun d
I, 2 completely separately and then taped with suitable insulating material and assembled wit h
the secondary on the core .
Knowing this current ratio and the meter reading on the secondary, the actual high lin e
The current transformers can be ring type or window type . Some commonly use d
current flowing through the primary can be obtained .
. If ammeter reading is shapes for the stampings of window type current transformers are shown in the Fig . 4.10 .
Ex . 4.1 : A 250 : 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter
2 .7 A, estimate the line current .
Sol . : h 250
12 5
But as ammeter is in secondary, 12 = 2 .7 A
Ir _ 250
2 .7 5
I1 =135 A
So line current is 135 A .
(a) Rectangular (b) Rin g (c) Stadiu m
4 .10 Construction of Current Transformer s
Fig . 4 .10 Stampings for current transformers
There are two types of constructions used for the current transformers which are ,
The core material for wound type is nickel-iron alloy or an oriented electrical steel .
1. Wound typ e Before installing the secondary winding on core it is insulated with the help of end collar s
and circumferential wraps of pressboards . Such pressboards provide additional insulatio n
2. Bar typ e
and protection to the winding from damage due to the sharp corners .
4 .10,1 Wound Type Current Transforme r 4 .10 .2 Bar Type Current Transforme r
In wound type construction, the primary is wound for more than one full turn, on th e
In this type of current transformer, the primary winding is nothing but a bar of suitabl e
core . The construction is shown in the Fig . 4.9 . size . The construction is shown in the Fig . 4.11 .

Primary

Moulde d
insulation

*-- Secondary lead s

Fig . 4.11 Bar type current transforme r

Fig . 4 .9 Wound type current transformer
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 130 Protective Relaying VTU - Switchgear and Protection 131 Protective Relayin g

The insulation on the bar type primary is bakelized paper tube or a resin directly Primary winding consists of large number of turns while secondary has less number of turn s
moulded on the bar . Such bar type primary is the integral part of the current transformer . and usually rated for 110 V, irrespective of the primary voltage rating . The primary i s
The core and the secondary windings are same in bar type transformer . connected across the high voltage line while secondary is connected to the low rang e
voltmeter coil . One end of the secondary is always grounded for safety purpose . Th e
The stampings used for the laminations in current transformers must have hig h
connections are shown in the Fig . 4.12.
cross-sectional area than the ordinary transformers . Due to this, the reluctance of th e
interleaved corners remains as low as possible . Hence the corresponding magnetizin g As a normal transformer, its r_a_tio
current is also small . The windings are placed very close to each other so as to reduce th e N
N*
*J=

leakage reactance . To avoid the corona effect, in bar type transformer, the external diamete r V2
of the tube is kept large . So if voltage ratio of P .T. is-known and the voltmeter reading is known then the hig h
The windings are so designed that without damage, they can withstand short circuit voltage to be measured, can be determined .
forces which may be caused due to short circuit in the circuit in which the current A 11000 : 110, potential transformer is used along with a voltmeter reading 87 .5V.
Ex . 4.2 :
transformer is inserted . Estimate the value of line voltage .
For small line voltages,-the tape and varnish are used for insulation . For line voltage s Sol . : For a P .T .
above 7 kV the oil immersed or compound filled current transformers are used . V I _ 11000
V2 .110
4.11 Why Secondary of C .T. Should not be Open ?
and V2 = 87 .5 V
It is very important that the secondary of C .T . should not be kept open . Either it shoul d V I _ 11000
be shorted or must be connected in series with a low resistance coil such as current coils of 87 .5 11 0
wattmeter, coil of ammeter etc . If it is left open, then current through secondary becomes VI = 8750 V
zero hence the ampere turns produced by secondary which generally oppose primar y
ampere turns becomes zero . As there is no counter m .m .f., unopposed primary m.m.f. This is the value of high voltage to be measured .
(ampere turns) produce high flux in the core . This produces excessive core losses, heatin g
4.12 .1 Constructio n
the core beyond limits . Similarly heavy e .m .fs will be induced on the primary and secondar y
The potential transformer use larger core and conductor sizes compared to conventiona l
side . This may damage the insulation of the winding . This is danger from the operator poin t
of view as well . It is usual to ground the C .T . on the secondary side to avoid a danger of power transformer . In potential transformer, economy of material is not an importan t
shock to .the operator . consideration at the time of design . The accuracy is an important consideration .

Hence never open the secondary winding circuit of a current transformer while it s
primary winding is energised .
Thus most of the current transformers have a short circuit link or a switch at secondar y
terminals . When the primary is to be energised, the short circuit link must be closed so tha t
there is no danger of open circuit secondary .
4.12 Potential Transformers (P .T.)
The basic ' principle of these
transformers is same as curren t
transformers . The high alternating voltage
are reduced in a fixed proportion for the
measurement purpose with the help of
potential transformers . The construction of
these transformers is similar to the norma l
transformer . These are extremely accurat e
ratio step down transformers . Th e
windings are low power rating windings .
Fig . 4 .12 Potential transformer
The shell type or core type construction is preferred for potential transformer . The shell
type is used for low voltage while core type for high voltage transformers . At the time o f
assembly special core is required to reduce the effect of air gap at the joints .
The coaxial primary and secondary windings are used, to reduce the leakage reactance .
The secondary winding which is a low voltage winding is always next to the core . Th e
primary winding is a single coil in low voltage transformers . For high voltages, insulation i s
the main problem . Hence in high voltage potential transformers, primary is divided int o
number of small sections of short coils to reduce the need of insulation between coil layers .
The cotton tape and varnished cambric are used as the insulations for windings . Hard
fiber separators are used in between the coils . The oil immersed potential transformers ar e
used for the voltage levels above 7 kV .
For oil filled potential transformers, oil filled bushings are used . Two bushings are
required when no side of the line is at earth potential .
The overall construction of single phase, two winding potential transformer is shown i n
the Fig . 4.13 .
 Protective Relaying VTUSwitchgear and Protection 133 Protective Relayin g
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 32

4 .14 Errors in the Instrument Transforme r

For an instrument transformers, it is necessary that the transformation ratio must b e
exactly equal to turns ratio and phase of the secondary terms (voltage and current) must b e
displaced by exactly 1800 from that of the primary terms (voltage and current) . Two types o f
errors affect these characteristics of an instrument transformer which are ,
1. Ratio error
2. Phase angle error

4.141 Ratio Erro r

In practice it is said that current transformation ratio I, / I 1 is equal to the turns rati o
N1 / N 2 . But actually it is not so . The current ratio is not equal to turns ratio because o f
magnetizing and core loss components of the exciting current . It also gets affected due to th e
secondary current and its power factor . The load current is not a constant fraction of th e
primary current . Similarly in case of potential transformers, the voltage ratio V, / V 1 is als o
not exactly equal to N 2 / N 1 due to the factors mentioned above . thus the transformation
Fig . 4 .13 Single phase potential transforme r ratio is not constant but depends on the load current, power factor of load and excitin g
' ,current of the transformer . Due to this fact, large error is introduced in the measurement s
4 .13 Comparison of C .T. and P .T. done by the instrument transformers . Such an error is called ratio error .
The ratio error is defined as ,
he comparison of C .T . and P .T . is given in the following table,
nominal ratio - actual ratio x
% Ratio error = 100
Current Transformer Potential Transforme r actual ratio
Sr. No .
1. It can be treated as series transformer unde r It can be treated as parallel transforme r = K° R x 10 0
virtual short circuit conditions . Linder open circuit secondary .
R
2 Secondary is nearly under open circui t rated primary curren t
Secondary must be always shorted conditions . where K„ . ., for C . T .
rated secondary curren t
3. A small voltage exists across its terminals a s Full line voltage appears across its terminal s rated primary voltag e
connected in series . .. . for P .T .
rated secondary voltage
4 The winding is impressed with full lin e
The winding carries full line current . voltage . and R=
actual primary current
... for C .T .
corresponding secondary current
5 The line voltage is almost constant henc e
The primary current and excitation varie s exciting current and flux density varies ove r actual primary voltag e
over a wide range. a limited range . . . . for P .T.
corresponding secondary voltage
6. The primary current is independent of th e The primary current depends on th e The approximate formula to calculate R is given by,
secondary circuit conditions . secondary circuit conditions .
Rn+ `
I
7. Needs only one bushing as the two ends o f I2
primary winding are brought out through Two bushings are required when neithe r
side of the line is at ground potential . where n = turns rati o
the same insulator . Hence there is saving i n
cost. I, = loss component of exciting current
Iz = secondary curren t
No w Iz - i
n
 Protective Relaying VTU -Switchgear and Protection 135 Protective Relayin g
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 34
X2e = equivalent reactance of transformer referred t o
R n+ in `* n / 1+ I`
Il Il secondary = X2 + X1 = X, + Xz
n
where Il = primary current X1 = reactance of primary windin g
while precisely the formula to calculate R is , R1 = resistance of primary windin g
sins+I cos S V1 = primary voltag e
R = n + Im
12 V2 = secondary voltag e
where l m = magnetising component of exciting curren t lc = le cos k° and lm = To sin k °

6 = angle between secondary winging induced voltage where = no load power factor angle
and secondary winding curren t XI, = equivalent reactance of transformer referred t o
5 is positive for lagging p .f. and negative for leading p.f. primary
= X1 +X2=X 1 +n22 X2
4 .14.2 Phase Angle Erro r Rle = equivalent resistance of transformer referred t o
In the power measurements, it is must that the phase of secondary current is to b e primary
displaced by exactly 180° from that of primary current for C .T. While the phase of secondar y = R1 +R2 =R 1 +n2R2
voltage is to be displaced by exactly 180° from that of primary voltage, for P .T. But actually it VI
is not so . The error introduced due to this fact is called phase angle error . It denoted by angle and n= = N l for potential transforme r
V2 N2
e by which the phase difference between primary and secondary is different from 180° .
The precise expression to calculate the angle e is, 4.14 .3 Reduction of Ratio and Phase Angle Error s
180 Im cosh-I c sin 5 degree The ratio and phase angle errors can be minimized by using following methods . :
e 1 . As the errors depend on components of exciting current, reduce th e
n nI2
magnetizing and loss components of exciting current . This requires to provid e
While the approximate formula to calculate e is, smaller magnetic path, good core material and low flux density in core .
0= 180[1m 180 1m 2 Reduction of resistance and leakage reactance . The values decide the secondar y
7t nI 2JJ It n x 1In circuit power factor which affects the errors . This can be achieved by providin g
thick conductors and smaller length of mean turn .
= 180[I m 'degree 3 . Providing turns compensation at no load the actual ratio exceeds the turn s
1t Il ratio thus the solution to this is to reduce primary turns or increasin g
Similar to ratio error, this error also. depends on the components of exciting current ( I° ), secondary turns and to make actual ratio equal to nominal ration for on e
load current i.e. secondary current and power factor . This error does not affect the particular value of load .
measurements of only current or voltage but do affect at the time of power and energ y Ex. 4.3 : The no load current components of a current transformer are ,
measurements . magnetizing 'component =102 A
The phase angle error for P .T. is defined as, core loss component = 38A
The current transformation ratio is 1000 /5 A . Calculate the approximate ratio error a t
- In [Xle cosy -Rle'sin5]+IcXi -Im RI rad
full load.
e -
nV2 Sol. : Im = 102A, lc = 38A
12

2
(X2e cos5-R2e sin6]+ IXln mRi
2
V 1000
I(,, = nominal ratio = 5=200
where 6 = secondary p,f . angle At full load, IZ = 5A
R2e = equivalent resistance of transformer referred to 38
R = n+ -I` = 200+
secondary = R2 + Ri = R2 + Rz I2 5
n = 207 .6
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 136 Protective Relaying Protective Relayin g
VTU -Switchgearand Protection 137
Ratio error = K" -R x100= 2002-072.607'6 x100 K„ - R 400-398 .52
R /° Ratio error = * R 100 x 100
= 398 .52
_ -3 .66%
= 0.3713%
Ex. 4.4 : A current transformer has a single turn primary and 400 secondary turns . The
'magnetizing current is 90A while core loss cu r rent is 40A . Secondary circuit phase angle 180 I,,, cosh-Icsin 5
And e
is 28° . Calculate the actual primary current and ratio error when secondary carries 5 A rc [ n l2
current .
180[8x0 .8-3x(-0 .6)
Sol. : Im = 90A, I, = 40A, S = 28°, I, = 5 A
7c 399x5 J
n = 400 =40 0 = 0.2355°
1
= n = 400
4 .15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformer s
Now actual ratio R = ri + I"` Sind+I ` cosh
12 The advantages of instrument transformers can be listed as ,
400+ 90 x sin 28 + 40 x cos 28
1.The normal range voltmeter and ammeter can be used along with these transformer s
= to measure high voltage and currents .
5 The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high voltage o r
2.
= 415 .514. current to be measured .
Actual primary current = actual ratio x 1 2 '3 . These transformers isolate the measurement from high voltage and current circuits .
= 415 .514 x 5 = 2077 .5703 This ensures safety of the operator and makes the handling of the equipments ver y
easy and safe .
Ratio error = K" Rx100= 400 415 .514 x 100 . These can be used for operating many types of protecting devices such as relays or
R 415 .51 4 4
pilot lights .
= -3 .733%
Ex. 4.5 : A current transformer has turns ratio 1 :399 and is rated as 2000/5A . The core loss ,5 . Several instruments can be fed economically by single transformer .
Disadvantage :
component is 3A and magnetizing component is 8A, under full load conditions . Find the
phase angle and ratio errors under full load condition if secondary circuit power factor i s The only disadvantage of these instrument transformers is that they can be used only fo r
0.8 leading . a .c. circuits and not for d .c . circuits .
Sol. : lc = 3A, lm = 8A, cos 5 = 0 .8 leadin g Applications of C.T.s and P .T.s :
n = 399 = 39 9 The C.T.s and P .T .s are used for,
1 1. Circulating current differential protection .
Nominal ratio = Kn = 2000 = 400 2. Over current phase fault protection .
5
m ' 3. Distance protection .
Actual ratio = R = n + I sin 5 +I cos d
I2 4. Intermediate CTs for feeding protective devices, measuring systems, relays etc .
Rated I 2 = 5 A Review Questions
d = cos-1 0 .8 = - 36 .86° . .. negative as leading 1. What is protective relaying ? What is a relay ?
sin d = sin (-36 .86°) = - 0.6 2. Explain the various functions of protective relaying .
8x(-0 .6)+3x0 . 8
R = 399+ 3. What is a protective zone ? With a simple diagram, show the various zones in a typical power system .
5 4. Why the protective zones are arranged in overlap fashion ? With the help of simple diagram, show how th e
= 398 . 52 zones are overlapped .
5. Explain what is meant by primary protection and backup protection .
6. State the various methods used to provide backup protection .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 138 Protective Relaying

7. Discuss the basic action of a backup protection .

8. Discuss the quality of 'reliability ' of a protective relaying . Which factors affect the reliability ?
9. Discuss in brief the various essential qualities of protective relaying .
10. Define and explain relay time, breaker time and fault clearing time .
11. Why time delay is intentionally provided in practical relays ? Electromagnetic Relays
12. Discuss the classification of protective relays .
13. Explain the following terms related to protective relaying :
i) Pickup ii) Dropout or reset iii) Time delay
iv) Holding relay v) Trip circuit vi) Protective schem e
vii) Protective system viii) Current setting ix) Plug-setting multiplie r 5 .1 Introduction
x) Time-setting multiplie r An important element of any protective relaying scheme is a relay . It is a device which
14. What is time/P .S .M . curve ? How it can be used to obtain the actual operation time of a relay ? detects the fault and is responsible to energize the trip circuit of a circuit breaker . This
isolates the faulty part from rest of the system . In an electromagnetic relay, the drivin g
University Questions torque is created based on an electrical or electronic principle . While the restraining torque is
1. State and explain briefly the characteristics of good protective relaying . (Aug.-2002, 10 Marks) ' generally provided with the help of springs . The two torques are mechanically compare d
Marks) and the relay operates when driving or operating torque is more than the restraining torque .
2 . Write a short note on primary and back up protection in electrical power system . (Aug: 2002, 5
,
3 . Explain in detail the desired qualities of a good protective relaying system . (Feb .2003,10 Marks) Thus
T d = Driving torque or operating torque
4. What is protective zone ? With a simple diagram, show the various zones in a typical power system.
Tr = Restraining torque
(Aug.-2003, 10 Marks)
TR = Resultant torque = Td - Tr
❑ p❑ The relay operates when the resultant torque T R is positive . Let us study the basic actio n
of a trip circuit with a relay .

5.1 :1 Basic Trip Circuit Operatio n

Consider a simplified circuit of a typical relay as shown in the Fig . 5.1 . Usually the relay
,circuit is a three phase circuit and the contact circuit of relays is very much complicated . The
Fig . `5 :1 shows a single phase simplified circuit to explain the basic action of a relay . Let part
A is the circuit to be protected . The current transformer C .T . is connected with its primary in
series with the line to be protected . The secondary of C .T . is connected in series with th e
relay coil . The relay contacts are the part of a trip circuit of a circuit breaker . The trip circuit
consists of a trip coil and abattery, in addition to relay contacts . The trip circuit can operate
on a .c . or d .c .
If the fault occurs as shown in the Fig. 5 .1, then current through the line connected to A
increases to a very high value . The current transformer senses this current. Accordingly it s
secondary current increases which is nothing but the current thr'ougha'relay coil. Thu' the
rélây coat s get closed mechanically under the i ri uence o s uch a high fault current . Thu s
the trip circuit of a circuit breaker gets closed 'and current starts flowing from battery ,
through trip coil, in a trip circuit . Thus the trip coil of a circuit breaker gets energised . This
activates the circuit breaker opening mechanism, making the circuit breaker open . This
isolates the faulty part from rest of the healthy system .

(139 )
 Electromagnetic Relays VTU - Switch ear and Protection 141 Electromagnetic Relay s
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 140

Busba r 5 .2 .1 Relays with Make Type Contact

The schematic diagram representing the arrangement of various elements in a rela y
Trip coil Battery with make type contact is shown in the Fig. 5 .2.
Trip circui t
1111
JKZ. R Y B
C. B.
o

Relay contacts

C . T. o
C .T.
-Relay coi l o o

Relays

.- Fault

Breake r
A - auxiliary C1 C2 C3
Circuit to be switch
protected
Circuit
breaker i
Fig . 5 .1 Typical relay circui t
ô Trip coi l
a
5 .1 .2 Auxiliary Switch
Another important device in the trip circuit is an auxiliary switch. It is a multipoint
switch generally 4 point, 6 point, 12 point or 24 point . This switch is mechanically coupled
Fus e
with operating mechanism of the circuit breaker . Thus when circuit breaker opens, th e
switch also gets opened . The switch is in the trip circuit and hence when it opens, it breaks
the current through the trip circuit . Once the current in the trip circuit is interrupted th e
Equipment to b e
1 Battery
relay contacts come to normal position . The advantage of an auxiliary switch is that the protected suppl y
breaking of trip circuit takes place only across the switch and hence possible arcing due t o
current interruption across the relay contacts gets avoided . Such arcing is harmful for rela y Fig . 5 .2 Relay with make type contac t
contacts as relay contacts are delicate and light. To interrupt a current through the inductiv e As mentioned earlier, a separate supply is necessary for the relay operation. The relays
circuit like trip circuit a .robust mechanical switch is necessary. This purpose is served by an are connected in star while the relay contacts are connected in parallel . The entire rela y
auxiliary switch, protecting delicate relay contacts . In addition to this, indication circuit s conta ct unit is connected in series with the auxiliary switch,-trip coil and the battery . Relay
showing whether circuit breaker is open or close and some other control circuits also ge t contacts are open in normal position .
connected or disconnected by an auxiliary switch .
Operation : When the fault occurs, the current through relay coils increases to a
The auxiliary switch is generally placed in the control cabinet of the circuit breaker . very -high value . Due to this, the normally open relay contacts C,, C 2 and C 3 get
closed . This activates the trip coil of a circuit breaker . The auxiliary switch is initiall y
5.2 Tripping Schemes in Circuit Breake r closed along with the circuit breaker . So when contacts C 1, C2 and C3 are closed, th e
Two schemes are very popularly used for tripping in circuit breakers which are , current flows through trip coil of circuit breaker . This activates the trip coil which
opens the circuit breaker . As auxiliary switch is mechanically coupled with the circui t
1. Relay with make type contac t
breaker, it also gets opened . This interrupts the current through trip coil . Thus supply
2. Relay with break type contac t to faulty part gets interrupted and trip coil also gets de-energized . This brings the
The relay with make type contact requires auxiliary d .c. supply for its operation whil e relay contacts back to normal position . Due to auxiliary switch, arcing across rela y
the relay with break type contact uses the energy from the main supply source for it s contacts gets avoided . As relay contacts are normally open and they 'make' the circui t
operation . Let us see the details of these two types of schemes . to open the circuit breaker hence called make type contact relay .
 142 Electromagnetic Relays VTU -Switch ear and Protection 143 Electromagnetic Relay s
VTUSwitchgear and Protection

R Y B
5.2 .2 Relay with Break Type Contac t
The schematic arrangement of various elements in a relay with break type contact i s
shown in the Fig . 5.3 . P.T.

Fus e

I
Relays' g
I ô I â. I
o
C .T. ô
Relay o
contact s -ih o I II o I o

ô I oo I o Relay s
* *
C1 C3
* *1 I
Circui t I lI i
breaker
C* C2

Unde r
L
a Circui t o voltag e Relay
o o
0 0
j °r breake r
trip coi l
trip coil contacts

Fig.'5 .3'Relay with break type contact (using C .T .s )

This type of relay does not require external battery supply for the tripping . The curren t
transformers (C .T .s) or potential transformers (P .T .s) are used to derive the energy require d
for the relay from the main supply source . The relay using C .T .s to derive operating energy
from the supply is shown in the Fig . 5 .3 .
In this scheme, the relay coil and trip coil of each phase are connected in series . The thre e
phases are then connected in star. Under normal working, the relay contacts C I , C2 and C3
are closed . The energy for relay coils is derived from supply using C .T .s . The trip coils o f
circuitbreakers are de-energized under normal condition . When the fault occurs, heav y
current flows through relay coils due to which relay contacts C1, C 2 and C3 break . Thus
current flows through trip coils of circuit breaker due to which circuit breaker gets open .
The Fig . 5.4 shows thebreak type contact relay using P .T . to derive energy to keep rela y
coils energized .
Equipment to b e
protected
Fig . 5 .4 Relay with break type contact (Using P .T . )
In this type, in addition to normal trip coils of circuit breaker, an additional
undervoltage trip coil is used . All the relay contacts are in series-with the undervoltage tri p
coil . Through potential transformer, for normal voltage, the undervoltage trip coil is kep t
energized . When the voltage becomes less than the normal value, the magnetic effec t
produced by undervoltage trip coil reduces which is responsible for the opening of the
circuit breaker . When fault occurs, the normal trip coils of circuit breaker come into th e
picture and are responsible for the opening of the circuit breaker .
Inlboth the types, relay contacts 'break' to cause the circuit breaker operation hence th e
relay is called break type contact relay .
 VTU Switchgear and Protection 144 Electromagnetic Relay s VTU Switch ear and Protection 145 Electromagnetic Relay s

5 .3 Electromagnetic Attraction Relay s The minimum current at which the armature gets attracted to close the trip circuit i s
called pickup current.
In these relays, there is a coil which enerzises an electromagnet . When the operatin g
Generally the number of tappings are provided on the relay coil with which its turns ca n
current becomes large, the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet is so high that i t
be selected as per the requirement . This is used to adjust the set value of an operatin g
attracts the armature or plunger, making contact with the trip circuit contacts . These ar e
simplest type of relays . The various types of electromagnetic attraction type relays are , quantity at which relay should operate .
1. Attracted armature rela y An important advantage of such relays is their high operating speed . In modern relays
2. Solenoid and plunger type rela y an operating time as small as 0 .5 msec is possible . The current-time characteristics of suc h
relays is hyperbolic, as shown in the Fig . 5 .6.
5.3 .1 Attracted Armature Type Rela y
There are two types of structures available for attracted armature type relay which are ,
i) Hinged armature type
ii) Polarised moving iron typ e
The two types of attracted armature type relays are shown in the Fig . 5.5 (a) and (b) .

Current-timé',Icharacteristic s
Fig . 5 .6
Input 5.3.2 Solenoid and Plunger Type Rela y
Vor 1
The Fig . 5 .7 shows the schematic arrangement of solenoid and plunger type relay whic h
(a) Hinged armature type relay (b) Polarised moving iron type relay works on the principle of electromagnetic attraction.
It consists of a solenoid which is nothing but an electromagnet . It also consists a movable
Fig . 5 . 5
iron plunger . Under normal working conditions, the spring holds the plunger in th e
In attracted armature type, there exists a laminated electromagnet which carries a coil . position such that it cannot make contact with trip circuit contacts .
The coil is energized by the operating quantity which is proportional to the circuit voltage o r Under fault conditions when current through relay coil increases, the solenoid draw s
current . The armature or a moving iron is subjected to the magnetic force produced by th e
the plunger upwards . Due to this, it makes contact with the trip circuit contacts, whic h
operating quantity . The force produced is proportional to the square of current hence thes e
results in an opening of a circuit breaker .
relays can be used for a .c. as well as d .c. The spring is used to produce restraining force .
When the current through coil increases beyond the limit under fault conditions, armatur e
gets attracted . Due to this it makes contact with contacts of a trip circuit, which results in a n
opening of a circuit breaker .
 146 Electromagnetic Relays VTUSwitchgear and Protection 147 Electromagnetic Relays
VTU •Switchgear and Protection
I = I K' = constant
Input - Ki
Vor l
This is the current at which relay operates in case of d .c. operation .
For a.c. operation : In a.c . electromagnetic relays, the electromagnetic force i s
proportional to square of the current but it is not constant . It is given by,
Electroma gnet Fe =KI2
Coil
= 2 KIm- 1 KI*cos2m t
where = Maximum value of the operating curren t
K = constant
It shows that the electromagnetic force consists of two components ,
o
i) Constant, independent of time .
To trip circuit ii) Pulsating at double the frequency of applied voltage .
Movable _ _-ro P---, The total force thus pulsates at double the frequency .
iron plunger
If the restraining force Fr which is produced by the spring is constant then the armature
of relay will be picked up at time tl and it drops off at time t2 as shown in the Fig. 5.8.
â•--Sprin g
r
Fig. 5 .7 Solenoid and plunger type relay
Principle of Electromagnetic Attraction Relay s
5 .3 .3 Operatin g
The electromagnetic force produced due to operating quantity which is exerted o n
armature, moving iron or plunger is proportional to the square of the flux in the air gap .
Thus neglecting the saturation effect, the force is proportional to the square of the operatin g
. both.
current. Hence such relays are useful for a .c. and d .c
. operation, the electromagnetic force is constant . When
For d .c . operation : In d.c
this force exceeds the restraining force, the relay operates .
K112
Now Fe =
where Fe = Electromagnetic forc e
K, = constan t Fig. 5 .8 Electromagnetic force and current curve s
I = Operating current in a coi l Thus relay armature .pulsates at double frequency . This causes the relay to hum an d
produces a noise . It may cause damage to the relay contacts .
And Fr = K 2
where Fr = Restraining force due to spring including frictio n To overcome this difficulty, the air gap flux producing an electromagnetic force i s
K2 = Constant divided into two fluxes acting simultaneously but differing in time phase . This causes
resulting electromagnetic force to be always positive . If this is always greater tha n
On the verge of relay operating, electromagnetic force is just equal to the restrainin g restraining force F then armature will not vibrate . The phase lag between the tw o
force . components of fluxrcan be easily produced using shading in a relay . The flux through th e
K112 = K 2 shaded pole lags behind the flux through the unshaded part .
12 = K2
Kl
 148 VTUSwitchgear and Protection 149 Electromagnetic Relay s
n
VTU - Switch . ear and Protectio
s Before studying these types in detail, let us derive the torque equation for the inductio n
5.3 .4 Advantages of Electromagnetic Relay type relays, which is same for all the three types of relays . .
The various advantages of electromagnetic relays are ,
. and d .c. 5.4.1 Torque Equation for Induction Type Relay s
1. Can be used for both a .c As mentioned earlier, the alternating currents supp lied to two electromagnets produce
2. They have fast operation and fast reset . s
arrangements
instantaneous . instantaneous, the o perating tim e the two alternating fluxes $and 4 2 . These two .- ,.
These are almo s W . slow peratin g
3.
with current ., W th ar in etc phase difference of a in betweenkernsuch that 2 l ads
mathematical) ex s,
Thus the two fl„xP* **n he
and resetting times can be obtained . .
High operating speed with operating time in few milliseconds also can be achieved sinm t
1 = Cm (1)
4. .c, operation and 60 to 90% for the d .c .
The pickup can be as high as 90-95% for d 4 = d'2m sin (co t+a) . . . (2 )
5.
operation. These alternating fluxes caus e
Modern relays are compact, simple, reliable and robust . the induced e.m.f.s in the rotor .
6.
Due to the induced e .m .f.s, the
.5 Disadvantages of Electromagnetic Relay s
5 .3 eddy currents i1 and i2 re
The few disadvantages of these relays are , circulated in the disc . The two
.
1. The directional feature is absent eddy currents react with eac h
as the working can be affected by the
2. Due fast ell pulsating component ,
value less than se t other to produce sforce w11 c
acts on therotor.
contain d .c: as as w s
value, the relay . can operate during, transient The Fig . 5.9 shows how th e
.6 Applications of Electromagnetic Relay s forces are produced in a section o f
5 .3 rotor due to the . alternating fluxes .
The various application s of these relays are , The instant considered to sho w
.c . and d .c . equipments .
1. The protection of various a .over/under voltage, protection of various a .c. and d .c. Fig . 5 .9 Torque productio n the various quantities is whe n
2. The over/under current and both the fluxes are directe d
equipments . e downwards and are increasing in magnitude . The induced eddy currents lag behind th e
In the definite time lag over current and earth fault protection along with definite tim respective fluxes by -90°.
3.
lag over current relay . Assumption : The parts of rotor in which rotor currents flow have negligible sel f
4. For the differential protection . inductance and hence the rotor currents are in phase with the respective induce d
Used as a iliary relays in the contact systems of protective relaying schemes voltages.
5.
.9z .4 The induced voltages are proportional to the rate of change of fluxes and hence the edd y
ction Type Relays( ,
5 .4 I currents also are proportional to the rate of change of fluxes . Hence we can write,
relays. These relays work on th e
The induction type relays are also called magnitude . In these rela s a metallic disc is allowe d it
do t
(3)
principle of the induction motor or an ever . meter dt
to rotate between t Zem two e l -aroma n
torque is p roduced in these relays due to the interactio 12
)
a .dql 2 , . . (4 )
thé he of alternatin •-** * * aced m the rotor byailofher terns ng flux; dt
of one alternatin
e_fregiiency but are displaced in time and ^spâce• As the interactio n Substituting
e two and from (1) and (2) we get ,
ernating fluxes is the base of operation of these relays, these are not used for the d .c.
fluxesl1av_e_sam C
sincot)
ofalt . These are widely used for protective relaying involving only a .c . quantities. i « d1m a Cm cos co t (5)
j quantities dt
e re ays are ,
Based on the constructio n , the various types of the induction typ d[c 2m sin(cot+a))
1. Shaded pole type dt cc 2m COS (cot+a) ., (6)
2. Watt hour meter type
3. Induction cup type
 150 Electromagnetic Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 151 Electromagnetic Relay s

The forces are produced due to the interaction of 11 with i2 and ¢ 2 with il . It consists of an aluminium disc which is free to rotate in an air gap of an electromagnet .
(7) The . art of . • ' - - .••
Fl a (1)1 i 2 1ng . This is
e

(8) ca ed shading ring . The total flux roduced due to the alternating current split ;nta_too
and , F2 cc (1)2 it fluxes displaced in time and space due to the shading ring .
The directions of F l and F, can be obtained by Flemings left hand rule . It can be seen from Due to the alternating flux, e .m .f. gets induced in the shading ring . This e .m .f . drives th e
the Fig . 5 .9 that the two forces are acting in the opposite directions and hence the net forc e
currents causing the flux to exist in shaded portion . This flux lags behind the flux in th e
acting on the disc is proportional to the difference between the two forces .
unshaded portion by angel a .
F a F 2 - Fl
Let = Flux in shaded portio n
F oC 11)2 in - (1) 1 12 .(9)
from (1), (2), (5) and (6) in th e = Flux in unshaded portio n
Substituting the proportional expressions of (1o1,
E S = E .M .F . induced in the disc due to (k 5
equation (9) we get,
F x [4) 2 ,1 sin (cot+a)* 1m cosc)t-`) i mSmcot4)2m c oS (O)t+a ) ] E u = E .M .F . induced in the disc due to (1) u
IS = Induced current due to E S
a 4 im cl)2m [sin ((1.) t + a) cos (cot) - sin (cot) cos (co t + a) ]
] I,, = Induced current due to E, ,
klm k2m [sin ((At+a-cot)
o`
E„ lags behind C, by 90° while E S lags behind cli 5 by 90°. The current I S lags ES by small
F cc cklm(k2m sin a angle p while Iu lags E„ small angle f3 . This angle is generally neglected and I S and Iu are
The equation (10) gives the : het force acting on the disc which is proportional to sin a . assumed to be in phase with E S and Eu respectively, in practice . The phasor diagram i s
Substituting the r .m .s . values e fluxes instead of maximum values we get , shown in the Fig . 5.11 .
. . . (11 )
F a (P I 13' 2 sin a
I important to note that the net force or torque acting on the disc is same at ever y
stant . The action of relay under such force is free from vibrations .
It can be observed from the equation (10) that if a is zero then the net force is zero an d
disc cannot rotate . Hence there must exist a phase difference -between the two fluxes . The
torque is maximum when the phase difference a is 90° .
The direction of the net force which decides the direction of rotation of disc depends o n
which flux is leading the other . In practice various constructions are used to produce phas e
displacement between the two fluxes .

5 .4.2 aded Pole Type Induction Rela y

he construction of shaded pole induction relay is shown in the Fig . 5 .10 .

Fig . 5 .11 Phasor diagra m

As proved in the previous section, neglecting R we get,
T c sin a
where . ./<-f -= Torque
A.ssuming fluxes ck5 and !li l, to be proportional 'to the current I in the relay coil we ca
n
write,
I2 sin a
*a
T = kI2 k = constant
As sin a is constant for the given design . Thus the torque is proportional to the square o f
the current through the coil .

Fig . 5 .10 Shaded pole type induction relay

VTU -Switch and Protection 152 Electromagnetic Relay s VTU - .Switchgear and Protection 153 Electromagnetic Relay s

5.4 .3 atthour Meter Type Induction Rela y

The construction this type of relay is similar to the watthour meter which is ver y
popularly used everywhere . Thus relay has double winding structure . The arrangement i s
o-
shown in the Fig . 5.12. C-
1'

Cup type °--

rotor
2
Electromagnet "\ n (\ (\ *+ r A l1

* 2 * *
2'
o o Coi l
Stationary 1
core

Fig . 5 .1 3
T to • i is of two fo @s diles . These are energized by the rely coils . The
.

Watthour meter type induction rela y

Fig . 5 .12 Fig. 5.13 shows 4 pole structure and the two pairs of coils . The coils 1 and 1' are connecte d
It consists of two magnets, one E shaped magnet and other U shaped magnet . The disc is while the coils 2 and 2' are co - • • •• . . . , ' of coi . The rotor is ho o w
free to rotate in between these two magnets . The u• .er . •- •• • • ee h cyclindrical cup type in structure . Compared to induction motor the difference is that in thi s
primary winding which is relay coil and the secondar w' •' g . TZe rim relay the rotor • • • • y and on1 ro • • e - , • • _ t its
re ay current I which produces the flux * 1 . The e.m.f. axis .
# r t* This drives cur n IZ t rough secondary . Due to this current 1 2, flux (1)2 gets The currents and respective fluxes produced by the two pairs of coils are displaced from
produced in the lower magnet :- This flux lags behind the main flux 41 by an angle a . Due to each other by angle a . Thus the resultant flux in the air gap is rotating . So rotating magnetic
the interaction of these two fluxes, the torque is exerted on the disc and disc rotates . field is produce . . i. • . .' _ . Due to this, eddy currents are ind' in t e cup typ e
Assuming that the entire flux 41 enters the disc from upper magnet and entire flux (1) 2 r• or. - ese currents produce the flux . The interaction of the two fluxes produce the torque
enters the disc from lower magnet, we can write , end-the ram rotates in the same dire ' • . , . . ' - e A control sprin g
T oc 41 2 sin a and the backstop carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the cup, are responsible to
prevent continuous-rotation .
In this relay, the tapping can be provided on the primary . With the help of this suitabl e
number of primary turns can be selected and hence current setting can be adjusted . These relays are very fast in operation . The operating time of the order of 10 millisecond s
is ossible with this t e . This is because the rotor is light having very low moment o f
Most of the induction relays are of this type . An important feature of this relay is that its
operation can be controlled by opening or closing of the secondary winding . It is opened, n o inertia . The induction cup structure can be use d
current can flow through secondary hence flux d) 2 cannot be produced and hence no torqu e for two quantity or single quantity relays . A
can be produce . Thus relay can be made inoperative opening the secondary winding . single quantity relay means both the coils are fe d
by the same actuating quantity with a fixe d
5,4:4 uction Cup Type Rela y phase angle shift in-between them . To reduce-the
he construction of this type of relay is very similar to an induction motor . The rotor inertia and to make the operation more fast,
arrangement is shown in the Fig . 5.13. double induction loop structure is used . Such a
structure is shown in the Fig . 5.14.
Fig . 5 .14 Double induction loop structure
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 154 Electromagnetic Relays Electromagnetic Relays
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 155

In all, the induction relays are widely used for protective relays involving a .c. quantities . With the help of this bridge, number of turns of primary winding can be adjusted . Thus
High, low and ad*ju table speeds are possible in these relays . Various shapes of time agains t the de--S-ire current setting for the relay can be obtained . There are usually seven sections o f
operating qua tffcurves can be obtained . tappings to have the overcurrent range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% . These values are
percentages of the current rating of the relay . Thus a relay current rating may be 10A i .e. it
5.5*N9tfdirectional Induction Type Overcurrent Rela y can be connected to C .T . with secondary current rating of 10A but with 50% setting the rela y
t/ Thiss r v is also called earth leakage induction type relay . will start operating at 5A. So adjustment of the urrent setting is made by inserting a pin ,
between spring loaded jaw of the ri e socket, at the proper tap value required . When the
' The overcurrent relay operates whe n pin is withdrrawi fa-the purpose of chap;' • ; • • _ ' • ; . • • ice then relay
value . The induction type riondirectional overcurrent relay has a construction simi a r a igher current if C.T. is not o en circuited . So
automatically ac opts • ; • • s . s .
watthour meter, with slight modification . The Fig . 5 .15 shows the constructional details o f regy remin erative or It oc - ; • •. the •rocess of changing t e se ng.
riondirectional induction type over current relay .
To
The secondary winding on the central limb of upper magnet is connected in series wit h
trip circuit ° winding on the lower magnet . This winding is energized by the induction from primary . By
this arrangement of secondary winding, the leakage fluxes of upper and lower magnets ar e
Upper electromagne t sufficiently displaced in space and time to produce a rotational torque on the aluminiu m
°
° disc. The control torque is provided by the spiral spring .
Primary
winding When current exceeds its preset value, disc rotates and moving contacts on spindl e
make connection with trip circuit terminals . Angle through which the disc rotates i s
between 0° to 360° . The travel of the moving contacts can be adjusted by adjusting angle o f
rotation of disc . This gives the relay any desired time setting which is indicated by a pointe r
on a time setting dial . The dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 . This does not give direct operating
time but it gives multiplier which can be used along with the time-plug setting multiplie r
curve to obtain actual operating time of the relay . The time-plug setting multiplier curve i s
Aluminum disc provided by the manufacturer .
Secondar y Disc Movin g 5.5 .1 Time-Current characteristic s
winding - spindle contact
Time required to rotate the disc depends on a torque . The torque varies as current in the
primary circuit . More the torque, lesser is the time required hence relay has inverse tim e
Plu g characteristics . The Fig. 5 .16 (see on next page) shows the time-current characteristics for th e
setting
bridg e
overcurrent relay . Such characteristics are called Inverse Definite Minimum Type (I .D.M.T. )
characteristics . This is because, the characteristics shows inverse relation between time an d
current for small values ofcurrents . . But . as current increases, some definite time is require d
Lower
electromagnè t
P by the relay . So the characteristics becomes straight line for higher values of currents . Such
'I.D.M.T. characteristics can be obtained by saturating the iron in the upper magnet so tha t
there cannot be increase in the flux once current achieves certain high value .
Curren t
o The P.S.M . can be obtained as,
terminal s Fault current in relay coi l
from C . T. Rated secondary C .T. current x Current setting
Fig . 5 .15 Nondirectional induction over current rela y
Fault current in relay coil = Line fault current x C .T. ratio
It consists of two electromagnets . The upper is E shaped while the lower is U shaped .
The aluminium disc is free to rotate between the two magnets . Thpindle of the lisc carries '5 .5 .2 Operation
moving contacts and when the disc rotates the moving contacts come in contact with fixe d The torque is produced due to induction principle, as explained in the section 5 .4.1 . This
contacts which are the termin g s of a trip circuit. torque is opposed by restraining force produced by spiral springs . Under normal conditions
The upper magnet has two windings, primary and secondary . The rimaryis connected the restraining force is more than driving force hence disc remains stationary . Under fault
to the secondary of C . T. on the line to be protected . This winding is tappe at in e r
`tappings are connected to plug setting bridge . conditions when current becomes high, the disc rotates through the preset angle and make s
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 156 Electromagnetic Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection 157 Electromagnetic Relay s

Sol . : Let us calculate P .S.M . first .

Operatin g
time in secs Fault current in relay coil = actual fault current x C.T . rati o
= 5000 x 5
400
= 62.5 A
20 -
Rated secondary of CT . = 5 A
15 - Current setting = 150% = 1 .5
62 .5
10 - P.S.M. = = 8 .333
5x1 .5
7 - From Fig . 5 .17, approximate time for P .S .M. of 8 .33 is 1 .8 sec.
Actual operation time = 1 .8 x time setting multiplier
5 -
= 1.8x0. 6
= 1.08 seconds
Ex. 5.2 : The Fig . 5.18 shows the part ofa typical power system . Iffor the discrimination the-tim e
grading margin between the relays is 0 .6 sec, calculate the time ofoperation of relay 1 an d
time setting multiplier for relay 2 . Refer to characteristics given in the Fig . 5.17. The tim e
setting multiplier of relay 1 is 0.3.

500/5 Fault current

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 C . T. 4000 A

Operating cffrrent (P. S . M .) 1

Fig . 5.16 Time-current characteristics

contact with the fixed contacts of trip circuit . The trip circuit opens the circuit breaker ,
I Relay 2 1 I Relay 1
1
150% 125%
isolating the faulty part from rest of the healthy system .
Ex.5.1 : An I.D:M.T. overcurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and a time multiplie r Fig. 5.1 8
setting of 0 .6. Theprimary of relay is connected to secondary of C .T. having ratio 400/5. Sol . : For relay 1 : Current setting = 125 % = 1 .25
Calculate 'the time of operation if the circuit carries a fault current of 5000 A . The Fault,current = 4000 A
time-current characteristics of the relay is shown in the Fig 5 .17. C .T. ratio '500/ 5
Fault current in relay coil = 4000 x
500
=40 . A
40
P.S.M . = = 6.4
5x1,25
From the Fig . 5 .17, the corresponding time for 6 .4 P.S.M. is approximately 3 sec .
.. Actual time of operation = 3 x time setting multiplier = 3 x 0.3
= 0.9 se c
For relay 2 : Current setting = 150% = 1 .5
Actual time of operation = time of operation of relay 1 + time margi n
= 0.9+0 .6=1 .5se c

Fig. 5.17
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 158 Electromagnetic Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 159 Electromagnetic Relay s

Fault current = 4000 x 5 = 40 A The number of tappings are

50 0 provided to the current coil with whic h
Fault current desired current setting can be achieved .
. P .S.M . =
C.T. secondary rating x current setting The restraining torque is provided b y
40 the spiral spring . The spindle of disc
= 5 .3 3 carries the moving contacts whic h
5x1 . 5
make contact with tripping circuit
From the Fig . 5 .17, the corresponding time for 5 .33 P .S .M . is approximately 3 .8 sec. terminals when the disc rotates . The
Actual time of operation voltage coil provided on the uppe r
Time setting multiplier
Time for P.S.M . obtained magnet produces the flux 41 . This lags
1 5
- ' Fig . 5 .2 0
the voltage V by 90°. The current I is
=0 .395=0 .4 sensed by the current coil on lowe r
3. 8
magnet which produces the flux 4 2 . This is in phase with current I . The current I lags voltag e
This is the required time setting multiplier for the relay 2 . V by an angle 4) . The angle between 41 and 4)2 is a as shown in the phasor diagram in the
Fig . 5 .20 .
5.6 Directional Power Relay The interaction of fluxes 41 and (2 produces the torque . Hence we can write ,
The directional relay means the relay operates for the specific direction of the actuatin g « 4142s in a
quantity in the circuit . The directional power relay operates when power in the circuit flow s But cc V and 4) 2 cc I
in the specific direction . The construction and principle of operation of this relay is similar t o while = 90 -4)
the-induction-type watthour meter relay . The difference is that in watthour meter type rela y
the torque is produced due to interaction of the fluxes produced by only the current derive d *T cc VIsin (90-4 )

from secondary., . of C .T. while in directional ow -r -I . the tor q ue is roduced due to
- au . s
,interaction of the fluxes •ro 09 ;ii . .. . ii6i7.li*T3*TiTi urren o e e
two windings, one acts as voltage coil while other as current coil, similar to a wattmeter . The
upper magnet carries a voltage coil or potential coil which is,energized from P .T . while th e
lower magnet carries a current coil which is energized fromC Tin the line to be protected .
The construction is shown in the Fig. 5.19.
. ,,,-T a V I cos 4) oc power in circuit
Under normal working conditions, the driving torque acts in the same direction as tha t
of restraining torque . This moves the moving contacts away from the fixed tripping circui t
contacts . Thus relay remaii inoperative as long as power flow is in one particular direction .
But when there is a current reversal and' hence the power reversal then the driving
torque acts in opposite direction to the restraining torque in such a manner that the moving
contacts close the tripping circuit contacts . This opens the circiit breaker to isolate the fault y
part .
This relay is used for providing the reverse power protection to synchronous machines .
The relay e single phase or three phase .

Directional Induction Type Overcurrent Relay

The directional power relay is not suitable to use as a protective relay under short circui t
conditions . This is because under short circuit conditions the voltage-falls-drastically an d
such a reduced voltage may not be sufficient to produce the driving torque required for th e
relay operation. Hence in practice, directional induction type overcurrent relay is used, . This
relay operates almost independent of system voltage and power factor .
The directional induction type overcurent relay uses two relay elements mounted on a
common case . These elements are,
1. Directional element which is directional po w er relay
2. Nondirectional element which is nondirectional overcurrent rela y
The schematic arrangement of such a directional relay is shown in the Fig. 5 .21 .

Fig . 5 .19 Directional power relay

VTU-- Switchgear and Protection 160 Electromagnetic Relays VTU - Switchgear and Protection 161 ElectromagneticRelay s

Nondirectional element : The current coil of thé directional element is connecte d

in series with the primary win . mg o nondirectionalelement . e p ug se r n
iS provided in this element to adjust current settin• as per the-r irement --trip--
winding on lower magnet of nondire onl
Voltag e element . So unless and until trip contact s tie moveme it of--the
coil disc of di ectronal element, t the
rri vemen o tie non rrection- aelemen rs contro e
5.7 .1 Operatio n
Under normal conditions, power flows in the proper direction and hence directiona l
element of the relay is inoperative . Thus the secondary winding on lower magnet o f
-* . Curren t nondirectional element is open and hence nondirectional element is also inoperative .
o coil
Curren t When the fault takes place, the current or power in the circuit has a tendency to flow i n
from C . T. reverse direction . The current flows through current coil of directional element which
10
produces the flux. Thecrrm'irh--t-fhe voltage coil produces another flux . The two fluxe s
Plug setting bridg e
interact to produce the torque due to which the disc rotates . As disc rotates, the trip contact s
(1-1') get closed . Note that the design of directional element is such that it is very sensitiv e
and though voltage falls under short circuit, the current coil is responsible to produc e
❑ ❑ 4 Q ❑ ❑1 0 7 sufficient torque to have disc rotation. It is so sensitive that it can operate even at 2 % o f
power flow in reverse direction .
'-- --0 The current also flows through the primary winding on the upper magnet o f
nondirectional element . Thus energizes the winding to produce the flux . This flux induces
the e.m.f . in the secondary winding of the nondirectional element according to induction
principle . As the contacts (1-1') are closed, the secondary winding has a closed path . Hence
the induced e .m.f . drives the current through it, producing the another flux . The two fluxe s
Nondirectiona l interact to produce the driving torque which rotates the disc . Thus the contacts of trip circui t
C element
get closed and it opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty sectio n
So directional element -must operate first to have the operation of the nondirectiona l
r-? element.
I *. The following conditions must be satisfied to have the operation of the entire rela y
To tri p 1. The direction of current in the circuit must reverse to operate directional element .
-o circuit 2. The current value is the reverse direction must be greater than the current setting .
3. The high value of current must persist for a time period which is greater than the tim e
setting of the relay . -

5.7.2 Directional Characteristic s

Let us study the..phasor diagram to understand the directional characteristics of th e
relay .
Directional overcurrent rela y
Fig . 5 .21 Let V = Relay voltage through P .T.
Directional element : The directional element is nothing but a directional :power I = Relay coil current through C .T.
relay which o • erate . • . • er i = direction. The
age coil of this element is energized b, a s stet u_h .a •otential e = Angle between V and I
transformer . The current coil__o>tfhe--kaw-ern- dnet is energized by the system curren t Note : The system current is generally lagging the voltage but with suitabl e
through -current transformer Thetrip-eo-x-aets-of-this rely • - are connecte• in connection the relay current is made to lead the voltage by angle O .
series with-the seco a . • e}ig-of-nondirectional element .
 Electromagnetic Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection 163
VTU - Switchgear and Protectio n
162 Electromagnetic Relay s

Due to this, the correct operation of relay at all the types of faults under all syste m Thus the directional element operates, provided that the current phasor lies within ±90 °
of the maximum torque line . If it is displaced more than 90° then the element will restrain .
condition is ensured . Both operating as well as nonoperating regions are shown in the Fig . 5.22.
So current I leads voltage V by angle 0 . Maximum torque angle : The angle by which the current supplied to the rela y
*>v = Flux produced by voltage V leads the voltage supplied to the relay so as to obtain the maximum torque is calle d
This flux 4)v lags voltage V by an angle 4) . maximum torque angle (M .T.A.) . It is denoted as T in the Fig . 5.22.
= Flux produced by current I From the Fig . 5 .22, we can write,
The flux 4)is in phase with the current I . 4) = 90°- T
.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig . 5 .22 . The voltage V is taken as reference Substituting in the torque equation ,
T = KV I sin (0 + 90°-T )
T = KV I cos (0 - T )
I for maximum torque .
This is the torque equation interms of maximum torque angle T . The typical values of the
maximum torque angle are 0°, 30°, 45° etc .

5.8 T rural Relay s

Thermal relays work on the principle
of heating effect of an electric current in
t e re ayy . Instead of the
measurement of ' temperature, thes e
re-la s sen - - -
produced by the current .
In a simplest thermal relay, a
bimetallic strip is used . The strip , is
mounted above a resistance coil carryin g
c
:current to produce necessary heatin g
Fig . 5 .22 Phasor diagram and directional characteristi effect . The spring is used to make the
o
The torque is proportional to the fluxes 4v, 4t and sine of the angle between the tw connection between contacts and th e
fluxes .
T cc (v11 sin (¢v A 4) ) carry the contact which is pivoted . To
have variable settings, the tension in th e
cc 4)v41'sin (e+( ) spring can be adjusted . The Fig . 5 .23
Now (I) v cc V and 41c I shows the schematic diagram of therma l
T = KVIsin(0+4))I elay . Fig . 5 .23
where K = constan t
Under normal conditions, the heating due to current I is not enough to heat the strip s
Maximum torque occurs when sin (0 +4)) is 1 i .e. and contacts remain closed as strip remains straight .
0+4) = 90 ° When there is overloading, then the current I increases beyond safe value producin g
The condition for the maximum torque is shown dotted in the Fig . 5.22. very high I2 R losses and corresponding large heat . Thus the strip gets heated up and bends .
The torque is zero when sin (0 +4)) = 0 i .e. Due to the bending of the strip, the spring opens the contacts and current is interrupted .
0+4 = 0° or 180 ° In some cases, the bimetallic strips themselves carry the current without using a heate r
coil . These relays are commonly used in protection of low voltage a .c. and d .c. motors. In
This will be satisfied when the relay current I phasor lies along the 4v phasor or in
e case of large motors, the bimetallic strip is connected through current transformer .
antiphase with 4v . The corresponding line is called zero torque line and is shown in th
.
Fig . 5 .22 . This line is at right angles to the maximum torque condition line
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 164 Electromagnetic Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 165 Electromagnetic Relay s

5.9 Universal Relay Torque Equatio n
Most of the protection relays consist of some arrangement of electromagnets wit h
armature or induction disc, which carry contacts . The relays also carry the closing o r
opening of contacts control devices like trip coils of circuit breaker . The electromagnets hav e
current, voltage or both the types of windings . Currents through windings produc e
magnetic fluxes and torque is developed by the interaction between the fluxes of sam e
5 . Derive the torque equating for electromagnetic attraction relays when used for,
i) A. C. operatio n
ii) D . C. operation
6. State the advantages, disadvantages and applications of electromagnetic relay s
7. Derive the torque equation for the induction type relay s
8 . Describe the operation of following relays with neat sketches ,

windings or between the fluxes of both the windings . In general the torque produced b y i) Shaded pole type induction relay
current winding is proportional to square of the current the torque produced by voltag e ii) Watthour meter type induction rela y
winding is proportional to square of the voltage, and the torque produced by both th e iii) Induction cup type rela y
windings is proportional to product of voltage and the current . Mathematically we ca n 9. Explain with the help of a neat diagram, the construction and working of a nondirectional induction t)p
write, e
overcurrent relay. Draw and explain its time-current characteristics .
Torque produced by current coil, = K I 2 10 . What is I .D .M.T characteristics of a relay ?
K2V2
Torque produced by voltage coil = 11 . Explain the working principle of directional power relay.
Torque produced by both the coils = K 3VI cos (0 - r) 12. What is the procedure of setting I .D.M .T . relay ? What initial data is required ? How
is the directiona l
relay different than simple I .D .M.T relay ?
where K1, K, and K3 = constant 0 = angle between V and I
13 . Explain with the help of neat sketch, the construction and working of directional inductier typ
= maximum torque angl e e
overcurrent relay .
Torque produced by control spring = K 4 14. State the conditions to be satisfied by a directional relay before its operatio n
The control springs are used as restraining element s 15 . Draw the directional characteristics and explain what is maximum torque angl e
If all the elements are present in a relay then total torque produced by all the causes ca n 16 . What . is universal relay torque equation ? What is its use ?
be expressed by a general equation as , 17. An I.D .M.T. ouercurrent relay has a current setting of 150% and has a time multiplier setting of
+ K4 9 .5 .
T = K1I 2 + K7V2 + K 3VI cos (0 The relay is connected in the circuit with the help of C .T. having ratio 500 : 5 A . Calculate the tim e
This equation is called universal relay torque equation the term K4 can be a restraining of operation of the relay if circuit carries a fault current of 6000 A . The relay characteristics are give
n
in the Fig . 5 .24.
torque due to springs or gravity .
By assigning positive and negative signs to certain constants and lets other constants t o
be zero and sometimes by adding similar other terms, the operating characteristics equatio n
of all the types of protective relays can be obtained from universal equation .
For example, for overcurrent relay K 2 = K3 = 0 and the spring torque is negative so w e Tim e
in secs
get,
T = K1I 2 -K4
For the directional relay K 1 = K, = 0 and the spring torque is negative .
So we get,
T = K3 VI cos (0-T) -K4
Review Question s
1 . Explain the operation of basic trip circuit
2. Explain the following schemes used in circuit breakers , P.S .M .

i) Relay with make type contac t Fig . 5 .24 Relay characteristic s

ii) Relay with break type contac t
3 . Describe any one type of electromagnetic attracted armature rela y
4. Describe with neat sketch the operation of solenoid and plunger type relay
 t'

16 6 Electromagnetic Relay s
VTUSwitchgear and . Protection

18. For a particular transmission line, relays are used as shown in the Fig. 5 .25 .

200/1 200/ 1
C.B . C.B . li
Fault 2000 A
Differential Protectio n
I Relay 2 1 [Relay 1
125 % 100 %
Plug setting Plug setting
Fig. 5.25 6 .1 Introductio n
For discrimination, the time grading margin is 0 .5 sec . In the overcurrent relays, a current is sensed but such relays are not very sensitive a s
Determine the time of operation of the two relays assuming that both the relays have characteristic s these relays cannot distinguish between heavy loads and minor fault conditions . In such
as shown in the Fig . 5.24 . The relay 1 has time setting multiplier of 0 .2 . Find the time settin g cases, differential relays can be used.
multiplier of relay 2 . (Ans . : 0.56 sec, 1 .06 sec, 0.3364 )
A differential relay is defined as the rela that operates when the hasor diffe r
19. Write a note on thermal relays. tw o or more similar elect alue.
University Questions Thus a current differential relay operates on the result of comparison between the phas e
1. With a neat sketch explain the working principle of induction disc relay . (Aug.-2002, 10 Marks ) angle and magnitudes of the currents entering and leaving the system to be protected .
Under normal conditions, the two currents Ore equal in phase and magnitude hence relay i s
2. Explain the working principle of an induction disc type relay with a neat sketch . inoperative . But under fault conditions, this condition no longer exists. The relay is
(Feb.-2003, 10 Marks ) connected in such a manner that the difference between current entering and current
3. Explain with the help of neat sketch, the construction and working of directional induction type ove r leaving flows through the operating coil . If this difference current exceeds a preset valu e
current relay . (Aug.-2003, 10 Marks) then the relay operates and opens the circuit breaker .
❑ 0❑ Almost any type of relay when connected in a certain way can be made to operate as a
differential relay .
6.2 Types of Differential Relay s
The various types of differential relays are,
d . Current differential rela y
2.Biased beam relay or percentage differential rela y
3.Voltage b nice differential relay
6.2 .1 Cur t Differential Relay c i \/\C t̀ p 1
(I
st of the differential relays are of current differential type . Consider an over curren t
relay connected in the circuit so as to operate as the current differential relay . This is shown
in the Fig. 6.1 .
Two current transformers are used having same ratio are connected on the either side o f
the section to be protected . The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series ,
so they carry induced currents in the same direction . Let current I is flowing through th e
primary of current transformers towards the external fault . As the current transformers ar e
identical, the secondaries of current transformers will c . âl ts . Due to the
co re ay, no curren wi ow . ug le operating coil for the relay . Hence relay
will remain inoperative . So relay cannot operate if there is an external fault .
(167 )
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 168 Differential Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 169 Differential Protectio n

3. Under sever through fault conditions, the current transformers may saturate an d
cause unequal secondary currents . The difference between the currents ma y
approach the pick value to cause the inaccurate operation for the relay .
4. Under heavy current flows, pilot cable capacitances may cause inaccurate operatio n
of the relay .
All these disadvantages are overcome in biased beam relay .

6.2 .2 B' Beam Relay or Percentage Differential Rela y

s the name suggests, this relay is designed to operate to the differential current i n
terms of its fractional relation with the actual current flowing through the protected circuit .
The Fig. 6 .3 shows the arrangement of a biased beam relay .

Fig . 6.1 Current differential relay

Consider now that an internal fault occurs at point A, as shown in the Fig . 6.2 .

Generato r
C . T. winding C. T.
niuui r

Interna l
fault

-Differentia l
relay

Fig . 6.2 Action of differential rela y

The current flows through the fault from both sides . The two secondary currents Fig . 6.3 Biased beam rela y
through C .T.s are not equal . The current flowing through the relay coil is now I l + I, . This The simple circuit connection of this type of relay is shown in the Fig . 6.4 .
high current causes the relay to operate .
Alternator windin g
It should be noted that the fault current need not always flow to the fault from bot h
C . T. to be protected C . T.
sides . A flow on one side only . or even. some current flowing out of one side while a larg e
current entering the other side can cause' differential relay tooperaté . Thus the amount o f 1
current flowing through a relay coil : depends upon the way the fault is being ,fed . Operatin g
\ coil
This relay suffers from the following disadvantages ,
1. The current transformers are connected through cables called pilot cables . Th e
impedance of such pilot cables generally causes a slight difference between th e
currents at the ends of the section to be protected . A sensitive relay can operate to a 1 1 2-
very small difference in the two currents, though there is no fault existing . , mmtl
2. The relay is likely to operate inaccurately with heavy through current flows . This is I
- R- - - `* Percentage differential relay
because the assumed identical current transformers may not have identica l
secondary currents due to the constructional errors and pilot cable impedances . Restraining coi l

Fig . 6 .4 Simple circuit of biased beam rela y

VTU -Switchgear and Protection 170 Differential Protection
The operating coil 0 of the relay carries a differential current (I, - I I) while the
+1, 1
restraining coil R carries the current proportional to (11 2 J as the operating coil is
connected at the midpoint of the restraining coil . This can be explained as ,
Let N = Total number of turns of restraining coi l
N N
So current I l flows through turns while current 12 flows through .
i IZ
Effective ampere turns = I1 N + I2 N = N I+
2 2 \ 2
Thus it can be assumed that the current Il2I2l flows through the entire N turns of the
restraining coil .
Under normal and through load conditions, the bias force produced due to th e
restraining coil is greater than the operating force produced by operating coil hence relay i s
inoperative . When internal fault occurs, the operating force becomes more than the bia s
force . Due to this, beam moves and the trip contacts are closed to open then circuit breaker .
The operating characteristics of
this type of relay is shown in th e
Fig. 6.5.
It can be seen that except at lo w
currents, the characteristics is a
straight line .
Thus the ratio of the differentia l
operating current to the average
restraining current is a fixe d
percentage . Hence the relay name is
percentage differential relay .
The relays with constant slop e
Fig. 6 .5 Operating characteristic s characteristics are called constant
slope percentage differential relays .
Operating In some relays, the slope of the
Relay i characteristic s
current characteristics increases as the shor t
circuit current increases . Such
characteristics is shown in th e
Fig. 6.6.
Such relays are called increasin g
slope percentage differential relays .
The important fact about
increasing slope type relays is tha t
their cost is more but require les s
accuracy in the performance of their
Short circuit current
Fig. 6.6 Increase in slope characteristic
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 171 Differential erotectio n
current transformers . Constant slope type relays require good accuracy in the performance
of the current transformers .
\'-> 9.-f ( 'C
6.2 .3 Voltage Balance Differential Relay
)
This is also called opposed voltage method . In this type, the over current relay i s
connected in series with the secondaries of the current transformers . This is shown in th e
Fig. 6.7.
Alternator winding
C. T. to be protecte d
C . T.
Relay
oo
o
'0000'
Fig. 6 .7 Voltage balance differential rela y
Under normal conditions, the current at the two ends of the section to be protected i s
same . Hence there is no voltage drop across the relay to cause the current to flow .
Under fault conditions, the currents in the two secondaries of current transformers ar e
different. This causes a large vo lttiage drop across the relay . Thus the voltage balance of th e
circuit gets disturbed . Hence large current flows through the relay due to which the rela y
operates to open the circuit breaker .
.3 Busbar Protectio n
The busbar plays an important role in the supply system . The busbar faults are rare but i f
occurs there can be interruption of supply, considerable damage and loss . Hence busba r
protection is must and it must be fast, stable and reliable . The busbar protection needs t o
protect not only the busbar but the apparatus associated with it such as circuit breakers ,
isolating switches, instrument transformers etc .
6.3 .1 Bus Bar Fault s
The various busbar faults can be classified as ,
1.Failure of insulation due to material deterioration .
2. Failure of circuit breaker .
3. Earth fault due to failure of support insulator .
4. Flashover due to sustained excessive over voltages .
5. Errors in the operation and maintenance of switchgear .
6. Earthquake and mechanical damage .
7. Accidents due to foreign bodies falling across the busbars .
8. Flashover due to heavily polluted insulator .
 172 Differential Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 173 Differential Protectio n
VTU -Switchgear and Protection

rame Leakage Protection of Bus Ba r 6 .5 Circulating Current Protection of Bus Ba r

All bus bar protection schemes are mostly designed for earth faults . Each conductor i s This is nothing but the differential scheme of the protection of bus bar . The circulating
surrounded by the earthed metal barrier . All the metal frameworks are bonded together an d current principle states that under normal working conditions or external fault conditions ,
. sum of the currents entering the bus equals sum of the currents leaving the bus . Under any
insulated from earth . The switchgear framework is also insulated from lead cable sheaths
abnormal conditions in the protected zone i.e . short circuit or phase to phase faults, th e
The arrangement of frame leakage protection to a single busbar substation with a
current condition gets disturbed and sensing this the relay can be operated .
switchgear unit is shown in the Fig . 6.8 .
The Fig . 6 .9 shows the principle of circulating current protection of bus bar .

--------------------------- -
B C i Bus ba r
sectio n

Switchgea r
frame work

o+

Fram e
leakag e
relay

Incomin g o
transformer ! o
0
-
CT Chec k
relay Fig .
Circulating current protection of bus ba r
6 .9

Il , I 6 are the currents in the circuits comlected to the bus bar .

12

To tripping circui t Under normal condition, I = 0.

0 --i ofA,Band C i .e . h + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + I 6 = 0 (vector sum)
o-►
No current flows through the relay and hence remains inoperative .
Under fault conditions ,
I1 +IZ +I 3 + ...+I 6 =If
Fig . 6 .8 Frame leakage protection of bus ba r
where I f = Fault current = unbalanced current .
Metal supporting frame work known as fault bus is earthed through a CT . When the The unbalanced current flows through the relay and the relay operates .
fault is there, a contact between conductor and earth results . This drives current through thi s Under normal conditions, currents in the secondaries of CT balance each other and n o
CT . This energizes the frame leakage relay . current flows through the relay . Thus relay is inoperative . Under any fault conditions, th e
The CT energizing the check relay is mounted in neutral earth of the transformer . The fault current flows through relay coil to activate it .
contacts of check relay and frame leakage relay are in series . To obtain exact balance of currents, all current transformers must have same ratio . But i n
Thus before tripping circuit gets energized both the relays must operate . Once both the practice there exists a difference in the magnetic conditions of iron cored curren t
relays operate due to earth fault, all the breakers will trip connecting the equipment to th e transformers and false operation of the relay is possible, at the time of external faults . For
s large fault currents there is a possibility of saturation of the cores of current transformers . T o
bus bar . Due to check relay, accidental operation of single relay to trip the circuit get
overcome such difficulties, a special type of C .T . having no iron core is used . It is calle d
avoided .
linear coupler .
 Differential Protectio n
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 174
The linear coupler has a property that it s
secondary voltage is proportional to the primar y
current and the secondary windings of all th e
linear couplers are connected in series to the
relay . This is shown in the Fig . 6.10 .
The sum of the voltage outputs of linea r
couplers is equal to the vector sum of the voltage s
in the circuits connected to the bus bars . Hence
under normal conditions overall voltage in the
secondary circuit is zero and relay is inoperative .
Under fault conditions, there is resultant voltag e
Fig . 6 .10
in the secondary and the relay operates .
A high impedance relay can differentiate properly the internal and external fault s
compared to normal low impedance relay . Hence in circulating current protection, hig h
impedance relays are used . A high resistance is connected in series with relay operating coi l
to get high impedance relay . This resistance is called stabilising resistance .
6.6 High Impedance Differential Protection of Bus Bar
Another method to provide differential protection to bus bar is based on sensing a
voltage drop across a high impedance, under fault conditions . The scheme is shown in the
Fig . 6.11 .
Fig . 6 .11 High impedance bus bar protectio n
The basic principle remains same as differential scheme . Under normal condition s
vector sum of the currents in the lines is zero . Hence I f i.e . current flowing through hig h
impedance Z H is zero . And the relay is inoperative .
During fault conditions, unbalanced current exists . Such an out of balance current I f
flows through Z H causing a high voltage drop V Z across it. It is given to a transformer . A
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 175
Differential Protectio n
measuring unit is connected to the secondary of this transformer which measures this dro p
and trips the relay accordingly . Main advantage is that as voltage drop is sensed, saturation
of core of one of the current transformers has no effect on the protection scheme .
6 .7 Difficulties in Bus Bar Protectio n
The various difficulties in the bus bar protection are ,
1. Current levels for different circuits are , different.
2. Large number of circuits to be protected .
3. Saturation of cores of current transformers due to d .c. component in short crrctit
current is possible which produces ratio error .
4. Due to various bus sections, the scheme becomes complicated .
5. With large load changes, relay settings need to be changed .
Review Question s
1 . What are differential relays ? How they are classified ?
2 . Explain the working of following differential relays ,
i) Current differential rela y
ii) Percentage differential relay
iii) Voltage balance differential rela y
3 . Explain the need of bus bar protection and difficulties in'bus bar protection .
4 . Explain frame leakage protection of bus bar .
5. Explain current circulating protection of bus bar .
6. Explain high impedance differential protection of bus bar.
University Question s
1. Write a short note on frame leakage protection . (March-2003,5 M xl<s)
2. What are the problems encountered in differential protection of bus bars ? (Aug .-2003,10 Marks )
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 177 Distance Protectio n

-CO
Distance Protectio n

7.1 Distance Relays

In the relays discussed uptil now, the operation of the relays is dependent on th e
magnitude of the current or voltage of the circuit to be protected . In distance relays, th e
operation is 4 • 04 e ratio of the volta • e an : •, - - • 'n erms of
an impedance. Hence basically distance relays are called impedance relays . The impedanc e
7 .2. orque Equatio n
is noDing Gût an electrical measure of distance along a transmission line . The relay operates The 'positive torque produced by the current element is proportional to 1 2 while the
when the ratio V/I i .e. impedance is less than a predetermined value . As the ratio V/I affects negative torque produced by the voltage element is proportional to V 2.
the performance of these relays, the relays are also called ratio relays . Dependent on the ratio Let control spring effect produces a constant torque of - K3.
of V and I there are three types of distance relays which are , Hence the torque equation becomes ,
T = K1I2-K2V2-K3 1,.
l> 2mpedance relay which is based on measurement of impedance Z .
✓ 1
.-Reactance relay which is based on measurement of reactance X .
3 . . A mittance or Mho relay which is based on measurement of component o f where K1, K2 are the cc istants, while V and I are r .m.s . values .
*/ admittance Y . At the balance point, when the relay is on the verge of operating, the net torque is zer o
In short, a distance relay is one whose performance is based on the measurement o f hence we can write,
impedance, reactance or admittance of line between the location of relay and the poin t 0 = K1I2-K2V2-K3
where fault occurs . K2 V2 = K1 I2 - K3 . . . (2)
Dividing both sides by K, 12,
V 2 - Kl - K3
The impedancerem workscorres•ond' . : to the ratio of voltage V and current I of the 12 KZ K2 I2
circuit to be rote d . There are two elements in this relay, the one_produces ator.u 3
. .: a o curren while the other produces a torque ro•ortional to voltage Th e Z -K
torque produced bythe current element is balanced against torque produced by the voltag e KZ K2 IZ
element . Thus the current element roduces . o erating torque, pickup torque which can be
said to be positive or•ue . he voltage element produces restrainin• tor•ue, reset torque Z= Kl K3 (3)
K2 K2 12
which can be said to be negative torque . So this relay is voltage restrained o rcurrent relay .
The Fig . 7.1 shows the basic operating principle of an impedance relay . Generally the spring effect is neglected as its effect is dominant at low currents whic h
generally do not occur in practice . So with K
The current element is energized by current throu ;h C .T. while voltage element is 5
energized by voltage t rough he section AB of the line is protecte• zone . Z=* Ki
2
=t =,constant . . . (4)
Under normal conditions, the ratio of voltage V and current I is denoted as Z, which is
impe ance o in e relay is inoperative under this condition., 7.2 .2 Operating Characteristics
' When the fault occurs at point F in the protected zone then the voltage drops while As seen from the equation (4), it can be stated that the impedance relay is on the verge o f
current increases . Thus the ratio V/Ii.e. the impedance reducés drastically. This is th e operating at a given constant value of the ratio V/I,which can be expressed as a n
impe ance o i between the point at which relay is connected and the point F at whic h impedance .
(176)
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 178 Distance Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 179 Distance Protectio n

For a particular fault position, the ratio V/I i.e. impedance is constant. It changes if the Mathematically x 2 + y2 = 1.2 represents an equation of circle where x and y are vertical and
fault position changes . If fault is nearer to relay, this ratio will be low and as fault positio n horizo co-ordinates while r is the radius . Similarly the equation (1) represents circl e
moves away from the relay the ratio becomes higher and higher . So it can be installed t o re R and X are vertical and horizontal co-ordinates and magnitude of impedance Z is I

operate for the section to be protected and once installed and adjusted for a particula r the radius of the circle . The centre of this circle is at point where R and X axes intersect each
section, it is inoperative beyond that section . other i.e. origin.
The operating characteristics of the relay is shown in the Fig . 7.2. From equation (1) we can write,
tan ) = -
X .L
7`
P \ X (-\v-e-)
'v,`.
✓ * = tan-1 - XR ,A*(s V x. .z*
The numerical values of ratio V and I determine the length of the radius vector Z whil e
the phase angle between V and I determines the exact position of the vector Z .
i
If I is in phase with V then th e
Z vector lies along R-axis . If 1 lags
vector V then X is negative whil e
if 1 leads vector V then X i s
positive .
The operation of the relay is
V independent of phase angle and
hence the operating characteristi c
Fig . 7 .2 Operating characteristic s is a circle with radius equal t o
As the effect of spring is dominating for the lower values of currents, the characteristic s magnitude of Z which i s
predetermined set value .
shows a noticiable bend at lower currents .
But for all practical purposes, the dotted line, which represents a constant value of Z At any value of Mess tha the
radius of the circle the vel a
may be considered as an operating characteristics .
Hence the entire
The impedance Z which is predetermined set value is given by , portion inside the circle is
1 positive torque region i.e.
slope of characteristic s operating region of the rela y
The relay will pickup for any combination of V and I represented by any point above th e while the portion exterior to th e
line in the positive torque region . In other words for any value of Z less than the constan t circle is negative torque regio n
value represented by the line, the relay will operate . i .e . nonoperative region, a s
Fig . 7 .3 Characteristic on R-X diagra m
shown in the Fig . 7 .3 .
By adjustments, the slope of the characteristics can be changed so that the relay wil l
alues of impedance less than any : desired upper limit . If Z f = Impedance between relay and fault poin t
respond to all tl
Z = Set value for impedance = Radius of circl e
7.2 .3 perating Characteristics on R-X Diagra m Then for, Zf < Z . . . relay operates
The operating characteristics of an impedance relay can be more easily represented by a Z f > Z . . . relay is inoperativ e
diagram called R-X diagram . The diagram is shown in a plane having X-axis as R (resistance ) Such a relay is nondirectional and can operate for faults on either side of a point wher e
while the Y-axis as X (reactance) . This plane is called R-X plane . The impedance Z can b e relay is installed.
expressed as,
.,!Z = R+jX
f I Z = ,R2 + X 2
I

Z22=R 2 +X 2
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 180 Distance Protectio n VTU - Switchgear and Protection 181 Distance Protectio n

7.2 .4 Disadvantages of Plain Impedance Relay

The plain impedance relay suffers from following disadvantages ,
is nondirectional and can operate for faults on both sides of a point where relay i s
core ted . Hence it fails to discriminate between internal and external faults .
en fault occurs, an arc= The arc resistance of line fault affects the performanc e
of this relay.
arge area is covered by the circle on each side on R-X plane, the power swing s
also can affect the performance of this relay .
The nondirectional performance can be made directional by adding a directiona l
1 element in the plain impedance relay .

7 .2 .5 Dir Iona! Impedance Relay

The directional impedanc e
relay can be obtained by
adding a directional element _
in the basic impedance relay .
The element can sense the
direction of power or current -
flow and relay can operate ,
only if the direction of power_
flowis in one particula r
° direction with respect to the
point where relay is installed .
The characteristics of a
directional element is a tilte d
straight line passing through
origin, which can be shown in
R-Xdiagrarn as represented in Fig . 7 .5 Directional impedance relay characteristic s
the Fig. 7.4 . The dotted line
indicates the line of maximum ified Characteristics : By supplying additional voltage to the voltage coils of an
torque . While the dotte d impedance relay, the torque equation of the relay can be modified . The additional voltage
portion shown above the line supplied is proportional to the line current and is called current bias . The modified torqu e
indicates the opering region of ,equation is,
Fig . 7 .4 Directional characteristics
the directional element . -T = K 1 I2 -K2 (V+K3 I)2
Now such a pure directional element is added to the impedance relay, we get th e where K3 I) = voltage supplied to voltage coil
resultant characteristics which is a combination ofa straight line and a circle of râdius J Z* . Due to this additional current bias, the circle representing impedance characteristics o n
Thus the resultant characteristics obtained by superimposing the straight line characteristic s
R-X diagram shifts . The radius of circle remains same as V/I but its centre gets shifted fro m
of directional element on the circle of the impedance relay is shown in the Fig . 7.5 . The relay origin . This is shown in the Fig. 7.6. By controlling current bias, shift of the circle can b e
trips for the points which are within the circle an d above the diredinn 1 rharacteriGti @6 . The adjusted as per the requirement . (See Fig. 7.6 on next page .)
o eratin ; region is 'ust a semicircle . The shaded portion shown in the Fig. 7.5 is apositiv e
torque region i .e. the operating region of relay.
eZI 7.2 .6 Use of Impedance Relay for Transmission Line Protectio n
Let us see how an impedance relay can be used for the transmission line protection . The .
scheme is called distance protection for the transmission line . The voltage coil of the relay is
fed from P .T. while its current coil is fed from C .T. as shown in the Fig . 7.7.
 Distance Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 183 Distance Protectio n
VTU--Switchgear and Protection 182

Operating regio n Let IF = Line current when fault occurs at point X

+ve torque region VF = Supply voltage when fault occurs at point X
1F= Current supplied to current coil when fault occur s
VF = Voltage supplied to voltage coil when fault occur s

V = Normal supply voltag e

= Normal line curren t

ZL = T = impedance of healthy sectio n

ZF = = impedance when fault occurs
IFF
F

The relay is connected at point A . The fault occurs at point X . The voltage coil of rela y
receives voltage V F and current coil receives current i F, when fault occurs . The setting of th e
relay is selected such that it protects the transmission line upto point B . Thus for any faul t
between A-B similar to that shown at point X, the impedance under fault condition will b e
less than the predetermined value of impedance Z L and the relay will operate .

Fig . 7 .6 Modified directional impedance relay characteristics

Fig . 7 .8
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 184 Distance Protectio n
If the impedance relay used is nondirectional, it can protect the line from faults for al
fault positions within the section AC too . So nondirectional relay provides protection o nl
either side of the point where relay is located . But if the portion of line AB only is to b e
protected, then the directional impedance relay can be used . As directional unit permit s
tripping only in one direction, the section AB will be protected but relay will hot.operate fo r
any fault positions between section AC .
. It is a four pol e
The structure used for the reactance rel . can be of induction cup; type
coi The schemati c
structure . It has eratm : coil y.o arizin; coi nd es ramm
arrangement of coi s or the reactance relay is shown in the Fig . 7 .9 .
The current I flows from pole 1, through iron core stacking to lower pole 3 . The windin g
of fluxe s
on pole 4 is fed from voltage V . The oeratin for ue is produced by interaction
due to the windings carrying current cor s i .e . interaction of fluxes • • . • s • • '
7

Whether the relay is directional or nondirectional, if its setting is such that fo and 3 . While the restra a . . • •- develope d ue to interaction of fluxes dice to the poles
impedance less than Z L defined upto point B, the relay should operate then for any faul r ratin tor . ue . . square o the current I while
t 1,3 d4 . cethe
positions to the right of point B like point Y the relay will not operate . ro or ona l t The desired maximu m
the aming torqu
The characteristics of the directional distance scheme discussed above can be shown o n torque ang e is obtained wit t e e p of RC circuit, shown in the Fig . 7.9 .
1 R-X diagram . It is shown in the Fig . 7 .8 (See Fig . on previous page)
. The various sections o f
the line are represented by straight lines on the R-X diagram . 7 .3 .2 Torque Equatio n
The driving torque is proportional to the square of the current while the restrainin g
For fault at X, Zf < ZL hence point X is in the operating region and relay will trip
. So for torque is proportional to the product of V and I .
any fault position along line AB, relay will trip as the entire section AB is in the protecte d
zone . For fault at Y, it can be seen that the impedance Zf > ZL hence point lies outside th Hence the net torque neglecting the effect of spring is given by ,
e
circle hence in the negative torque region and relay remains inoperative . T = Kl 12 -K2 VIcos (0-r)
7.3 R ctance Rela y At the balance point net torque is zero ,
0 ='K l 12 - K2 V I cos (0 -t)
In this relay the operatin tor ue is obtained hile th• estraining torq e du e Ki 12 = K2 V I cos (0 - i)
to current-voltages irectional rela he overcurrent element develops e posi ' e torqu e
and directional unit produces negative torque . Ki = K2 cos (e-ti )
I
Thus the reactance rela is an overcurrent relay with the directional restraint . Ki = K2 Z cos (0 - i )
The directional element is so designed that the maximum torque ang e i s Adding capacitor, the torque angle is adjusted as 90° ,
7 Ki = K2 Zcos(e-90°)
.3 .1 Construction
Ki = K2 Zsin e
K
Zsine = i
2
Consider an impedance triangle shown in the Fig . 7.10.
Z sin 0 = X = reactanc e
Z cos 0 = R = resistance
X= K, constant
K2
Thus the relay operates on the reactanc e
only . The constant X means a straight lin e
parallel to X-axis on R-X diagram . For the
operation of the relay, the reactance seen b y
the relay should 'be smaller than th e
reactance for which the relay is designed .

Fig . 7 .10
Fig . 7 .9 Schematic arrangement of reactance relay
 187 Distance Protectio n
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 186 Distance Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection

7 .3 .3 Operating Characteristic s
The operating characteristics of such relay is a straight line parallel to the x-axis i .e R-axi s
on R-X diagram . All the impedance vectors have their tips lying on the straight lin e
representing constant reactance . The resistance component of the impedance has no effec t
on the operation of the relay . It responds only to the reactance component of the impedance .
The characteristics is shown in the Fig. 7.11 .

-ve torqu e Characteristics

region

2
K1
+ve torqu e zsinO = X = -
region K2
+R

-X

Fig . 7 .11 Operating characteristics of reactance relay y

Fig . 7 .12 Schematic arrangement of admittance rela
The relay will operate for all the impedances whose heads lie below the operatin g hile th restraining
In e
characteristics, whether below or above the R-axis . d this relay th hus an a .'m1 ance relay is a voltage restraine d
or . is obtained b
7.advantage s directional relay .
This relay as can be seen from the characteristics is a nondirectional relay . This will no t is produced by the interaction of the fluxes due to the winding s
n _ rating torque
The ope
be able discriminate when used on transmission line, whether the fault has taken place in th e 1_„2-and-3--While the restrainin tor ue is produced by the interaction o f
carried by the poles
section where relay is located or it has taken place in the adjoining section . It is not possibl e the fluxes due to the windings carried by t e poles 1, 3 and 4 .
) while the
to use a directional relay of the type used with basic impedance relay because in that case th e Thus the restraining torque is proportional to the square of the voltage ( V2
relay will operate even under normal load conditions if the system is operating at or nea r . The torque angle
operating torque is proportional to the product of voltage and current (VI)
unity pi conditions . The reactance relay with directional feature is called mho relay o
admittance relay .
r is adjusted using series tuning circuit .

7.4 Mho Relay or Admittance Relay 7.4 .2 Torque Equatio n

The operating torque is proportional to VI while restraining torque is proportional to Vz.
In the impedancerelaa separate unit is re uired to make,it directional while-the sam Hence net torque is given by,
e
unit can not be used to make a reactance relay with directional feature . The mho re ay is T = K1 V I cos (8 - ti) -K 2 Vz - K3
made inher -•. _ -- g . This K3 = control spring effec t
where
relay works on the measurement of admittance Y L 0 . This relay is also called angl e
impedance relay . Generally control spring effect is neglected ( K3 = 0) .
And at balance net torque is also zero .
7 .4 .1 Constructio n 0 = K1 VIcos(0-T)-K2 V2
This relay also uses an induction cup type structure . It also has an operating coil , K1 VIcos(0-ti) = K2 V2
polarizing coil and restraining coil . The schematic arrangement of all the coils is shown i Vz
n
the Fig. 7.12. K1 cos (8-ti) = K2
VI
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 188 Distance Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 189 Distance Protectio n

Kl cos (0 -T) = K, V The angle r can be adjusted to be 45°, 60°, 75° and so on . This angle is maximum torqu e
I angle . The setting of 45°is used for high voltage (33 or 11 kV) distribution lines, the setting o f
Z =
K21
K
cos (0-r)
60° is used for 66 or 132 kV lines while the setting of 75° is used for 275 and 400 kV lines .
On a R-X diagram show a line having an impedance of 3 + j 4 On the same diagra m
Ex . 7 .1 :
show the operating characteristics of,
This is the equation of a circle having diameter K 1 /K2 passing through origin . And thi s
constant K1/K2 is the ohmic setting of this relay . 1. Impedance rela y
2. Reactance relay
7 .4 .3 Operating Characteristic s
3. Mho rela y
As seen from the torque equation, the characteristics of this relay is a circle passin g Assume that these relays are adjusted to just operate for a zero impedance shor t
1 through origin with diameter as K 1 /K 2.
circuit at the end of the line section .
L et K = ZR = ohmic setting of relay = diameter If an arcing short circuit fault having an arc impedance of 1 + j0 E2 occurs any-
z1 where on the line, find for each type of distance relay, the maximum portion of th e
The circle is shown in the Fig . 7.13. line that can be protected .
Sol .. : The line OA is the impedance vector with impedance 3 + j 4 S2
OB= 3
BA=4 .
The circle with 0 as a centre and OA as radius represents the characteristics of a n
impedance relay.
The line parallel to the resistance axis at a distance of 4, passing through point A ,
corresponding to reactance o&tfie impedance given, represents the characteristics of a
reactance relay .
Draw the circle with OA as the diameter, passing through 0 and A represent s
characteristics of mho relay .
The characteristics are shown in the Fig . 7.14 . (See on next page )
The impedance of arcing fault is 1 + j 0, is represented by OD .
The line parallel to the OA is drawn from point D, cutting the mho circle at point F an d
cutting the impedance circle at pont E .
Draw line FN parallel to R-axis to cut OA at N and draw EM parallel to R-axis to cut O A
at M .
Then the ratio ON/OA represents the line protected by mho relay .
ON x 100 = % of line protected by mho rela y
OA
= 4 x10 0
5
Fig . 7 .13 Operating characteristics of mho relay
= 80%
The relay operates when the impedance seen by the relay falls within this circle . While the ratio OM/OA represents the line protected by impedance relay .
Consider two lines AB and AC with mho relay located at the point A . The relay will operat e OM x
for the faults occurring in the section AB only and not for the faults occurring in the sectio n 100 = % of line protected by impedance rela y
AC . This shows that this relay is inherently directional without any additional directiona OA
l
unit required . = 4 .25 x10 0
5
= 85 %
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 1 90 Distance Protection BTU - Switchgear and Protection 191 Distance Protectio n

+x ' .5 .1 Definite Distance Type Impedance Rela y

Characteristics of
Scale : 1 :1 unit reactance rela y The construction of this relay can be balanced beam type or induction disc type . The
e
)g lanced beam type construction of definite distance impedance relay is shown in th
7 .15 .
A
M To trip circui t

Characteristics o f
mho relay

-R +R

Characteristics o f Fig . 7 .15 Definite distance type impedance relay

an impedance rela y
It consists of a balanced beam pivoted at the central point C . The beam carries the
armatures of the two electromagnets . The two electromagnets are energized by a curren t
from C .T. and voltage from P .T., which are ldca"ted in the circuit to be protected . The voltage
coil acts as restraining coil while the current coil acts as operating coil . The beam also carries
the moving contacts which can bridge the two fixed contacts of a trip circuit when the rela y
-X
operates ,
Operation : The torque produced by voltage coil is proportional to square of th e
Fig . 7 .1 4 !voltage K V while th torque produced by curren t ,coils ro ssquare
e proportional produce dtoe
Now reactance relay is unaffected by the presence of the arc resistance and hence eve n of the current (K2 I) Under normal operain g conditions p thé torqu by
e voltage coil is more than the torque produced by the current coil . Thus restrainin g
with the arc present the % of line protected by the reactance relay is 100% . e
torque. is more than the operating . torque and hence the relay is inoperative . On th
7.5 Classification of Distance Relay s occurrence of any fault, the voltage of system decreases and current increases . Thu s
the ratio V/I which is impedance also decreases . It falls below its preset value . Th e
We have seen that ,the distance relay basically measures ohmic values and operate s torque produced by current coil becomes greater than the torque produced by th e
when the impedance is below the preset value . The distance relays are classified as , voltage coil . Hence beam experiences a pull on the current coil side . As the beam tilts ,
1. Definite distance relays : These can be of impedance type, reactance type or mh
o )the moving contacts of beam bridges the fixed contacts of . the trip circuit . This
type . This operates instantaneously for the faults upto certain predetermine ,operates the trip. circuit and opens the circuit breaker . .
d
distance from the relay .
Torque Equation : The torque by voltage coil is proportional to V2 while that b y
2. Distance time relays : These can be also of impedance type, reactance type or mh current coil is I 2. .
o
type . In these relays the time of operation is proportional to the distance of the faul t
The relay will operate when torque produced by voltage coil is less than that produce d
from the point where relay is installed . The fault nearer to the relay operates it faste r
than for the faults further away from the relay . by current coil . So we can write,
.K V2 ' < 2I2 ' . . .'relay operate s
Let us discuss the construction and operation of these two types of distance relays .
where Ki, K2 = constants
V2 K2
I2 Ki
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 1 92 Distance Protectioi VTU - Switchgear and Protection 193 Distance Protectio n

The Fig . 7 .17 shows the schematic arrangement of distance time impedance relay .
I Kl
To trip circuit
z < IK?
VK i Fixed contacts
`o
So for impedance value less than JK 2 /K1 , the relay operates. Moving contact s
TI
The constants K1 and K2 are dependent on the ampere turns of the two electromagne t Fro m V
P.T.
By providing tappings on the coils, Kl and K2 can be changed and hence any preset value f c
To
the impedance can be adjusted as per the requirement .
1 Characteristics : The Fig . 7.16 shows the characteristics of the definite distant
type impedance relay . The Y-axis represents time for operation while the X-ax
Spiral spring couplin g
represents distance which is measured interms of impedance between fault positio: Voltage restrainin g
and the point where relay is installed . magnet and armature

Tim e I to
From o
C .T.
t
-- Induction typ e
over current rela y
Inductio n
disc

B S
Distance
P
Fig . 7 .16 Characteristics of definite distance impedance rela y
For the entire length AB of the line, the time of operation remains constant, irrespecti v Fig . 7 .17 Distance time impedance rela y
of distance . But if fault occurs in the section of line which is not protected, the operating tini " It consists of an induction type over current relay unit which is _a current driven element .
becomes suddenly infinite as shown in the Fig . 7.45 . Towards end of the protected zone, th i The spindle which is carrying the disc of the element is connected to â second spindle wit h
curve rises gradually . the help of spiral spring coupling . This second spindle carries moving contacts which i s
Its advantages are, nothing but a bridging piece which can bridge the trip contacts when relay operates . The trip
1. Superior to the time graded over current rela y contacts are normally open and spindle is held in this position by an armature held agains t
2. Number of feeders in series which can be protected is unlimited as the relay time i the pole face of an electromagnet . This electromagnet is energized by the voltage of th e
constant . circuit to be protected .
The one limitation of these relays is the absencé of back up protection . Operation : Under normal conditions, the force exerted by voltage restrainin g
magnet is more than that produced by an overcurrent induction element . Thus the trip
7 .5.2 Distance Time Impedance Rela y contacts remain open and the relay is inoperative .
This relay adjusts automatically, its time or operation corresponding to the distance â When :the fault occurs, the induction disc starts rotating . The speed of the disc is
the fault from the relay . proportional to the operating current, neglecting the spring effect . Hence the time which th e
Operating time cc Z cc distance disc requires to turn through the given angle varies inversely with current . As the dis c
rotates, spiral spring is wound . this exerts a force on armature so as to pull it away from th e
voltage restrained magnet . The disc continues to rotate till the tension of the spring i s
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 194 Distance Protectio n
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 195 Distance Protectio n
sufficient to overcome the restraining force produced by voltage restraining magnet on th e
armature . Immediately the moving contacts bridge the fixed contacts of tripping circuit . Review Question s
This open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section . 1 . Explain fully how an impedance relay is used for distance protection obtain its operating characteristic . Dra w
The angle through which the disc must rotate to close the trip contacts depends on th e its operating characteristics on R-X diagram .
pull required by armature which is restrained by voltage restraining magnet . This pull i s 2 . State the disadvantages of basic impedance rela y
thus proportional to the voltage of system . Greater this pull, greater will be travel of the disc . . 3 . Explain the operation of directional impedance relay . Draw its characteristics on R-X diagram . How thes e
So travel for the disc is proportional to the voltage V . But the time which disc takes to rotate characteristics can be modified, similar to that of mho relay ?
through certain required angle varies inversely with current (1/I) . Thus effectively , ,
4 . Draw and explain the full scheme of protecting a transmission line using an impedance rela y

I or Z or distanc e
Time of operation of relay or 5 . Explain the construction, working, torque equation and characteristics offollowing distance relays

1 i) Reactance relay
In actual practice the pull on armature is proportional to the V2 while the torque on dis c ii) Mho relay
is proportional to the 12 . Hence the time distance characteristics of this relay is nonlinear in .
6 . Explain the construction and working of,
nature, as shown in the Fig. 7.18 . The exact curve is shown dotted while the assumed line i s
shown thick . The minimum operating time for the relay is generally 0 .2 seconds . i) Definite distance type impedance relay
ii) Distance time impedance relay
7. State the advantages and applications of distance relays
8 . A line section has an impedance of 2 .8 + j 5 Sd. Show this on R-X diagram, as impedance vector . If f the relay i s
adjusted to operate for a zero impedance short circuit .at the end of the line section, show on the same R- X
diagram the characteristics of,
1. Impedance rela y
2. Reactance relay
3. Mho rela y
Assume that centre of mho relay characteristics lies on an impedance .vector . If the arching fault occurs wit h
an impedance of 1 .5 + j 0 (2 anywhere along the line, find for each type of distance relay the maximum portio n
of the line that can be protected . (Ans . : 82%, 100% and 85% )

University Question s
1. Write a short note on operating principle of distance relay . (Aug .-2002, 5 Marks )
Fig . 7 .18 Time-distance characteristics of distance time impedance rela y 2. What is a distance relay ? Explain the different types with relevant diagrams . (Feb .2003, 10 Marks )
7.5 .3 Applications and Advantages of Distance Relay s 3. Explain fully how an impedance relay is used for distance protection . Obtain it's operating characteristic .
The various advantages of the distance relays are . Draw its operating characteristics on R-X diagram . (Aug .-2003, 10 Marks )

1. Gives faster operation

2. Simpler to co-ordinat e
®0 ❑
3. Less effect of fault levels and fault current magnitude s
4. Permits high line loading .
5. With the need at readjustments, permanent settings can be done .
Thus the distance relays are used for providing the primary i .e . main protection an d
backup protection for a .c . transmission and distribution lines against the following faults ,
1. Three phase faults
2. Phase to phase fault s
3. Phase to earth faults

8 .1 Introductio n
The generators used in the power system are the alternators which produce very hig h
a .c. voltages . The protection of generators is very much complex , .due to the followin g
reasons,
1. The generators are very large machines producing very high voltages and ar e
connected to busbars .
2. Various other equipments are always associated with the generators . Suc h
equipments are prime movers, excitation systems, voltage .regulators, coolin g
systems etc . Thus protection of generators must consider the presence of thes e
other equipments also .
3. The generators are very costly, expensive and very important factor in a powe r
system . The protection scheme must be such that it should not shut off th e
generators as far as possible . The shut off generators result ' in a power
shortage .
All these factors make the design of protection scheme for the generator', very muc h
complex .
Before studying the various protection schemes for the generators, let us discuss variou s
faults which can occur associated with the generators .
8 .2 Generator Faults
The various faults which can occur associated with a generator can be classified as ,
1. Stator fa-tilts : The faults associated with the stator of the generator .
2. Rotor faults : The faults associated with the rOtOr of the generator .
3. Abnormal running conditions : This includes number of abnormal condition s
which may occur in practice, from which the generator must be protected .
{
Let us discuss these faults in detail .
8 .2 .1 Stator Fault s
The stator faults means faults associated with the three phase armature windings of th e
generator . These faults are mainly due to the insulation failure of the armature windings .
The main types of stator faults are,
Generator Protectio n
1. Phase to earth faults
2. Phase to phase faults
3. Inter-turn faults involving turns of same phase winding .
The most important and common fault is phase to earth fault . The other two are not ver y
common while inter-turn fault is very difficult to detect .
8 .2 .1 .1 Phase to Earth Fault s
These faults mainly occur in the armature slots . The faults are dangerous and can caus e
severe damage to the expensive machine . The fault currents less than 20 A cause negligibl e
burning of core if machine is tripped quickly . But if the fault currents are high, sever e
burning of stator core can take place . This may lead to the requirement of replacing th e
laminations which is very costly and time consuming . So to avoid the damage due to phas e
to earth faults, a separate, sensitive earth fault protection is necessary for the generator s
alongwith the earthing resistance .
8 .2 .1 .2 Phase to Phase Fault s
The phase to phase faults means short circuit between two phase windings . Such faults
are uncommon because the insulation used between the coils of different phases in a slot i s
large . But once phase to earth fault occurs, due to the over heating phase to phase fault als o
may occur . This. fault is likely to occur at the end connections of the armature winding s
which are overheating parts outside the slots . Such a fault causes severe arcing with very
high temperatures . This may lead to melting of copper and fire if the insulation is not fir e
resistant.
8,2 .1 .3 Stator Inter-turn Faults
The coils used in the alternators are generally multiturn coils . So short circuit between
the turns of one coil may occur which is called an inter-turn fault . This fault occurs due t o
current surges with high value of (L di/dt) voltage across the turns . But if the coils used are
single turn then this fault can not occur . Hence for the large machines of the order of 50 MV A
and more, it is a normal practice to use single turn coils . But in some countries, multitur n
coils are very commonly used where protection against inter-turn faults is must .
8 .2 .2 Rotor Faults .
The rotor of an alternator is generally a field winding as most of the alternators are o f
rotating field type. The field winding is made up of number of turns . So the conductor to
earth faults and short circuit between the turns of the field winding, are the commonly
occurring faults with respect to a rotor . These faults are caused due to the severe mechanica l
and thermal stresses, acting on the field winding insulation .
The field winding is generally not grounded and hence single line to ground fault doe s
not give any fault current . A second fault to earth will short circuit the part of the fiel d
winding and may there by produce an unsymmetrical field system. Such an unsymmetrica l
system gives rise to the unbalanced forces on the rotor and results in excess pressure on the
bearings and the shaft distortion, if such a fault is not cleared very early . So it is very much
necessary to know the existence of the first occurrence of the earth fault so that correctiv e
measures can be taken before second fault occurs.
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 198 Generator Protectio n
The unbalanced loading on the generator is responsible to produce the negativ e
sequence currents . These currents produce a rotating magnetic field which rotates i n
opposite direction to that of rotor magnetic field . Due to this field, there is induced e .m.f. in
the rotor winding . This causes overheating of the rotor .
Rotor earth fault protection and rotor temperature indicators are the essential and ar e
provided to large rating generators .
8 .2.3 Abnormal Running Condition s
In practice there are number of situations in which generator is subjected to som e
abnormal running conditions . The protection must be provided against the abnorma l
conditions . These abnormal conditions include ,
1. Overloadin g
2. Overspeeding ' Such atmospheric surge voltages are generated by direct lighting strokes to the aerial lines o f
3. Unbalanced loading
4. Overvoltag e
5. Failure of prime mover
6. Loss of excitation (Field failure )
7. Cooling system failur e
8 .2.3 .1 Overloadin g
Due to the continuous overloading, the overheating of the stator results . This may
increase the winding temperature . If this temperature rise exceeds certain th e
insulation of the winding may get damaged . The degree of overloading decides the effect s
and temperature rise . The overcurrent protection is generally set to very high value henc e
continuous overloads of less value than the setting cannot be sensed by overcurren t
protection.
8 .2.3.2 Overspeedin g
In case of hydraulic generators a sudden loss of load results in overspeeding of th e
generator . This is because the water flow to the turbine cannot be stopped or reduce
d relays is used.
instantly . Generally a turbogovernor is provided to prevent the ovespèéd`ing
. But if there is
any fault in the turbine governor then the dangerous overspeeding may take place . Hence it
is necessary to supervise the working of turbine governor and-Lake some correctiv e
measures if there is some fault in the governor .
8.2 .3 .3 Unbalanced Loadin g
The unbalanced loading of the generator results in the circulation of negative sequence
currents . These currents produce the rotating `magnetic field : This ' rotating magnetic field
rotates at the synchronous speed with respect to rotor . The direction of rotation of this
magnetic field is opposite to that of rotor . Hence effectivélythe relative speed between th e
two is double the synchronous speed .
Thus the e .m.f . gets induced, having double the normal frequency, the rotor winding .
The circulating currents due to the induced .e.m.f. are responsible toinoverheat the roto r
winding as well as rotor stampings . Continuous unbalanced load more than 10% of the
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 19 9 Generator Protectio n
rated load causes tremendous heating which is dominant incase of cylindrical rotor o f
truboalternators .
The reasons for the unbalanced load conditions are ,
1. Occurrence of unsymmetrical faults near the generating station .
2. The failure of circuit breaker near the generating station in clearing all the thre e
phases.
Negative sequence protection is important to prevent dangerous situations due t o
negative sequence currents which are because of unbalanced load conditions .
8.2 .3 .4 Overvoltag e
The overvoltages are basically due to the overspeeding of generators . Another reaso n
for the overvoltages is the faulty operation of voltage regulators . Not only the interna l
overvoltages are dangerous but atmospheric surge voltages can also reach to the generators .
high voltage system . Inductively and capacitively, these surges can get transferred to th e
generator . To protect the generators from surge voltages, the surge arresters and surg e
capacitors are often used .
At the time of restriking across .the contacts of circuit , breakers, the transient ove r
voltages get generated . Such surges are called switching surges and can be limited by th e
uses of modern circuit breakers . R-C surge suppressors also help in reducing switchin g
surges . Another situation, when the transient overvoltages are generated, is when the arc s
are grounded . During arcing grounds, the transient voltages having amplitudes five time s
more than the normal line to neutral peak amplitude are generated . Such transient voltages
are dangerous and can be reduced by using resistance earthing .
8.2.3 .5 Failure of Prime Move r
The failure of prime mover results in motoring operation of synchronous generator . The
generator draws active power from the network and continues to run at synchronous spee d
as a synchronous motor . This may lead to dangerous mechanical conditions if allowed t o
persist for more than twenty seconds . The serious overheating of the steam turbine blade s
may result . To prevent this the reverse power protection achieved by directional powe r
8 .2.3 .6 Loss of Excitatio n
The loss of excitation orreduced excitation is possible due to the field failure i .e. opening
of field winding or due to short circuit in field or due to some fault in exciter system .
Such loss of excitation results in loss of synchronism within a second and this causes th e
increase in speed of the generator : Since power input to the machine remains same, th e
generator starts working as an induction generator, drawing the reactive power from th e
bus . The machine starts drawing an exciting current from the system, which is equal to th e
full load rated value . This leads to the overheating of the stator winding and the rotor bod y
due to induced currents . The loss of excitation may also lead to the pole slipping conditio n
which results in the voltage reduction for the output above half the rated load .
Loss of excitation should not persist for long and corrective measures like disconnectio n
of alternator should be taken immediately . For this a tripping scheme can be used which ca n
trip the generator circuit breaker immediately when there is a field failure .
 VTUSwitchgear and Protection 200 Generator Protectio n
Generator Protectio n 201
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
8 .2 .3 .7 Cooling System Failur e 1 i, . Even some +

currents are t and i, . So the current flowing through the relay will be
i
i

The failure of cooling system also causes severe overheating to rise the temperatur e current flowing out of one side while a large current entering the other side will cause th e
above safe limit. This may lead to insulation failure, causing some other faults to occur .
. The differential current . Such a current is responsible to operate the relay
thermocouples or resistance thermometers are used in large machines to sense th
e Thus the relay current is proportional to the phasor difference between the current s
temperature
. The corrective measures are taken whenever the temperature exceeds th e entering and leaving the protected circuit and if the differential current exceeds the picku p
limit.
value, the relay operates .
Apart from the above dominant abnormal conditions, some conditions may exist whic This basic differential scheme has following disadvantages :
are rare in practice . Such conditions are, wrong synchronization, local overheating, leakagh .
e 1. This circuit operates inaccurately with heavy external faults
in hydrogen circuit, moisture in the generator winding, oxygen in pure water circuit , f
vibrations, bearing currents, excessive bearing temperature etc . 2. The C .T.s may saturate and cause unequal secondary currents and the difference oy
secondary currents may approach the pickup value to operate the rela
8 .3 Basic Differential Protection Scheme unnecessarily .
for Generator s These disadvantages are overcome in the percentage differential relay .
A basic differential protection scheme used for the generators is shown in the Fig . 8.1
. It Protection Scheme for Generator s
is known that the differential relay operates when the phasor difference of two or mor
e 8 .4 Basic Percentage Differential
similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value .
This protection scheme is also called biased differential protection scheme . The Fig . 8 .3
Generato r shows the connections of the percentage differential relay, in such a protection scheme .
C . T. winding
IV;
C . T.
I,ilui l
1 A

!} r
Externa l
fault

i
Differential rela y
Fig . 8 . 1
Suppose the current I flows through the primary of C .T.s to the external fault
C .T .s have same ratio, then no current will flow through . If the tw o
the relay and it remain
inoperative . s

But now if an internal fault occurs at point X as shown in the Fig . 8 Fig . 8 .3 Percentage differential protection schem e
through the fault from both the sides . The primary currents are .2,, the,current flow s
Il and 12 while the secondary The fault occurs at point X and the primary currents in the circuit are Il and 12 . The C .T .
The current flowing through the operating coil of the relay is
secondary currents are 1 and 2 :
i i
12 +
.
1 This i s
i t - i 2 . While the current flowing through the restraining coil of the relay is 2
because the operating coil is connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil .
flows through
2 and
i1 i2
Thus if the number of turns of the restraining coil is N then
11 N + 1 ' N
This is a s
flows through remaining . The total ampere turns are - i.e. N (11 +12

2 2 2 2

X1 1 +1 2 *
good as the flow of current through the entire restraining coil .
2 i
 Generator Protectio n
20 3
VTU -Switchgear and Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection
202 Generator Protectio n
Star connecte d C .T.
The operating characteristics of such a biased differential relay is shown in the Fig . 8 .4. alternator stato r - neutral
windin g earthing
The characteristics shows that except at low currents, ratio of differential operating curren t C . T.
Alternator
to average restraining current is a fixed percentage . Hence the relay is called the percentag e neutral
differential relay . earthin g
II

Pilot O , C . -w- Operating coi l

wires R .C . -a- Restraining coi l
C . B . - - Circuit breake r

r
Fig . 8 .5 Merz-Price protection for star connected alternato
f
The differential relay gives protection against short circuit fault in the stator winding o
d
.s are connected in star and are provided on both, the outgoing side an
a generator . The C .T . The restraining coils are energized from th e
Fig . 8 . 4
machine winding connEctions to earth side . The operating coils ar e
This basic percentage differential protection scheme forms the basis of the practicall y secondary connection of C .T .s in each phase, through pilot wires
. neutral earthing connection .
very commonly used percentage differentiah protection scheme for alternator stato r energized by the tappings from restraining coils and the C .T
windings . This popular scheme is known as Biased differential protection or Merz-Pric s
e The similar arrangement is used for the delta connected alternator stator winding, a
protection .
shown in the Fig . 8.6 .
Let us discuss the details of Merz-Price protection scheme for the three phase alternato r Delta connected alternato r neutral
stator windings . stator winding earthin g
C . T. R
8 .5 Merz-Price Protection of Alternator Stator Winding s 11,111,1

This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator windings . The
scheme is also called biased differential protection and percentage differential protection .
In this method, the currents at the two ends of the protected section are sensed usin g
current transformers . The wires connecting relay coils to the current transforme
r
secondaries are called pilot wires . B
I11$11,1

Under normal conditions, when there is no fault in the windings, the currents in the pilo t
wires fed from C .T . secondaries are equal . The differential current i t i2 through the
operating coils of the relay is zero . Hence the relay is inoperative and system is said to b e Pilot wir e ---------------- -
balanced .

When fault occurs inside the protected section of the stator windings, the differentia l 0 .c . etô Q .C . O .C .
current it - i2 flows through the operating coils of the relay . Due to this current, the rela
y WW I
operates . This trips the generator circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section
. The field is als o O .C .-► Operating coil
R .C .
disconnected and is discharged through a suitable impedance . R .C . -► Restraining coil 0001100 0
C .B . - - Circuit breaker RR .C
C. /ooa ooo,
The Fig . 8 .5 shows a schematic arrangement of Merz-Price protection scheme for a sta R .C .
r
connected alternator . Percentag e
differential rela y

r
Fig . 8 .6 Merz-Price protection for delta connected alternato
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 205 Generator Protectio n
204 Generator Protectio n VTU -Switchgear and Protection
d
The C .T .s on the delta connected machine winding side are connected in delta while th e windings get partly protected against earth faults . The percentage of winding protecte
C .T .s at outgoing ends are connected in star . The restraining coils are placed in each phase depends on the value of earthing resistance and the relay setting .
,
energized by the secondary connections of C .T .s while the operating coils are energize d In this scheme, the value of earth resistance, relay setting, current rating of eart h
from the restraining coil tappings and the C .T . neutral earthing. e
resistance must be carefully selected . The earth faults are rare near the neutral point as th r
. But when earth fault occurs nea
If there is a fault due to a short circuit in the protected zone of the windings, it produces a voltage of neutral point with respect to earth is very less
difference between the currents in the primary windings of C .T .s on both sides of th e the neutral point then the insufficient voltage across the fault drives very low fault curren t
generator winding of the same phase . This results in a difference between the secondar y . Thus 15 to
than the pick up current of relay coil . Hence the relay coil remains inoperative d
currents of the two current transformers . Thus, under fault conditions, a differential curren t 20% winding from the neutral side remains unprotected in this scheme . Hence it is calle
.
flows through the operating coils which is responsible to trip the relay and open the circui t restricted earth fault protection . It is usual practice to protect 85% of the winding
breaker . The differential relay operation depends on the relation between the current in th e
The restricted earth fault protection scheme is shown in the Fig . 8 .7 .
operating coil and that in the restraining coil .
stato r
In addition to the tripping of circuit breaker, the percentage differential relay trip a han d
reset multicontact auxiliary relay . This auxiliary relay simultaneously initiates the followin g C . T.
$,11111 1 V
operations,
Neutra l
1. Tripping of the main circuit breaker of generato r
point I.1
2. Tripping of the field circuit breake r b
arm 11111111
3. Tripping of the neutral circuit breaker if it is presen t V i If
4. Shut down of the prime mover Earth faul t
5. Turn on of CO, gas if provided for safety of generator under faulty conditions . Operating coi l
6. Operation of alarm and /or annunciator to indicate the occurrence of the fault and th e '0000000) '
operation of the relay the field must be opened immediately otherwise it start s 00000010 '
feeding the fault .
00000010
When differential relaying is used for the protection, C .T .s at both the ends of generator o
must be of -equal ratio and equal accuracy otherwise if the error-is-excessive, -wron g Earthing
operation of the relay may result . The causes of unequal currents on both•the .sides of C .T.s resistance
Is Restricted earth fault relay
without any fault are ratio errors, unequal lengths of the leads, unequa l. secondary burdens
etc.
Fig . 8.7 Restricted earth fault protectio n
This scheme provides very fast protection to the stator winding against phase to phas e
faults and phase to ground faults . If the neutral is not grounded or grounded throug h Consider that earth fault occurs on phase B due to breakdown of its insulation to earth ,
o
resistance then additional sensitive earth fault relay should be provided . as shown in the Fig. 8.7 . The fault current If will flow through the core, frame of machine t S
. secondary current I
earth and complete the path through the earthing resistance . The C .T
The advantages of this scheme are ,
flows through the operating coil and the restricted earth fault relay coil of the differential
1. Very high speed operation with operating time of about 15 msec . e
2. It allows low fault setting which ensures maximum protection of machine windings . protection . The setting of restricted earth fault relay and setting of overcurrent relay ar e
5 , the relay operates to trip th
independent of each other . Under this secondary current I
3. It ensures complete stability under the most severe through and external faults . f when the
circuit breaker . The voltage V bX is sufficient to drive the enough fault current I
4. It does not require current transformers with air gaps or special balancing features . fault point x is away from the neutra l point .
, If the fault point x is nearer to the neutral point then the voltage V bX is small and no t
8.6 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Generator . Thus part o f
sufficient to drive enough fault current I f . And for this If, relay cannot operate
s
Generally Merz-Price protection based on circulating current principle provides th e the winding from the neutral point remains unprotected . To overcome this, if relay setting i
protection against internal earth faults . Butfôr large generators, asthese are costly, a n chosen very low to make it sensitive to low fault currents, then wrong operation of relay ma y
.T .s,
additional protection scheme called restricted earth fault . protection is provided . result . The relay can operate under the conditions of heavy through faults, inaccurate C t
When the neutral is solidly grounded then the generator gets completely protecte d saturation of C .T .s etc . Hence practically 15% of winding from the neutral point is kep
unprotected, protecting the remaining 85% of the winding against phase to earth faults .
against earth faults . But when neutral is grounded through earth resistance, then the stator
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 20 7 Generator Protectio n
206 Generator Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection
. The generator ratings ar e
8.6 .1 Effect of Earth Resistance on % of Winding Unprotecte d Ex . 8.1 : A generator is protected by restricted earth fault protection
to ground fault i s
Let us see the effect of earth resistance on the % of the winding which remain 13 .2 kV, 10 MVA . The percentage of winding protected against. phaseCalculate the resistanc e
s 85% . The relay setting is such that it trips for 20% out of balance
unprotected .
to be added in the neutral to ground connection .
Consider the earth Sol. : The given values ,
resistance R used to limit VL = 13.2 kV Rating = 10 MV A
earth fault current as shown
V b
in the Fig. 8 .8. From rating, calculate the full load current ,
------------- - I _ Rating in VA 10x10 6
% of winding The value of the
x13 .2x10 3
N J which is unprotected resistance R limits the earth VL
fault current . = 437 .386 A
.
Alternato r If the resistance R is ver y Relay setting is 20% out of balance i .e . 20% of the rated current activates the realy
small i.e. the neutral i s 20
almost solidly grounded, I ° = 4387 .386x 100 87 .477 A
B then the fault current is very = Minimum operating curren t
high . But high fault current s
are not desirable hence V = Line to neutral voltage =
small R is not preferred fo r
Fig. 8.8 the large machines . 13,2x103 =7621 .02 V
For low resistance R, the value of R is selected such that full load current passes throug h
the neutral, for a full line to neutral voltage V .
of winding unprotected =15% as 85% is protecte d
In medium resistance R, the earth fault current is limited to about 200A for "full line t o
neutral voltage V, for a 60 MW machine . 15 = .R2 x10 0
V
In high resistance R, the earth fault current is limited to about 10 A . This is used for Rx 87 .477
distribution transformers and generator-transformer units . 15 = x10 0
7621 .02
Now higher the value of earth resistance R, less is the earth fault current and les s
percentage of winding gets protected . Large percentage of winding remains unprotected . R = 13 .068 S 2
kV alternator has a phase reactance of 10% . It is
Let V = Full line to neutral voltage Ex. 8.2 : A star connected 3 phase, 12 MVA, 11 t
protected by Merz-Price circulating current scheme which is set to operate for faul
I = Full load current of largest capacity generato Calculate the value of earthing resistance to be provided i n
r current not less than 200 A .
R = Earth resistanc e order to ensure that only 15% of the alternator winding remains unprotected .
Then the value of the resistance R is , The given values are,
Sol. :
V V L = 11 kV Rating =12 MVA
R=
I Rating = - VL I L
And the percentage of winding unprotected is given by,
12x10 6 = ,x11x10 3 xI L
% of winding unprotected = R V x 100
IL
12x10 6
where I° = Minimum operating current in the primary of C .T. ,f§xl1x10 3
If relay setting used is 15 %, then l o is 15% of the full load current of the largest machin e = 629 .8366 A = I = rated curren t
and so on.
Greater percentage of windings of small capacity machines running parallel ge t
v VL 11 x 103
= 6350 .8529 V
protected .
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 208 Generator Protectio n VTU -Switchgear and Protection 209 Generator Protectio n

% Reactance = IX x100 Generato r

V stator winding
C .T
where X = reactance per phas e
and I = rated curren t
629 .8366 X
10 = x 10 0
6350 .852 9
X = 1 .0083 S 2
.•. Reactance of unprotected windin g Earthin g
resistance
= (% of unprotected winding) x (X )
15
= x1 .008 3
100
= 0 .1512 S2
To trip circui t
v = voltage induced in unprotected windin g
▪ 15 x V = 0 .15x 6350 .852 9
100 Fig . 8.9 Unrestricted earth fault protectio n
952.6279 V When there is no fault, under normal conditions, vector sum of the three line currents i s
i = Fault current zero . Hence the vector sum of the three secondary currents is also zero .
So if Irs, Iys and Ibs are C .T. secondary currents then under normal conditions we ca n
▪ 200 A
write,
Z= Impedance offered to the faul t
v 952 .627 9 I rs +I ys +I bs = 0
i 200 The sum of the three currents is residual current I RS which is zero under norma l
conditions .
4.7631 S2 (1 )
Now The earth fault relay is connected in such a way that the residual current flows throug h
r + j (reactance of unprotected winding)
the relay operating coil. Under normal condition, residual current is zero so relay does no t
carry any current and is inoperative . However in presence of earth fault condition, th e
balance gets disturbed and the residual current IRS is no more zero . If this current is mor e
than the pickup value of the earth fault relay, the relay operates and opens the circui t
breaker through tripping of the trip circuit .
4.7631 = Ire + (0 .1512) 2
In the scheme shown in the Fig . 8:9, the earth fault at any location near or away from th e
22.6875 = r 2 + 0 .02286 location of C .T .s -can cause the residual current . Hence the protected zone is not definite .
Such a scheme is hence called unrestricted earth fault protection .
r2 = 22.664 6
r = 4.760752 8 .8 Balanced Earth Fault Protectio n
This is the earthing resistance required .
In practice for small rating alternators, the neutral ends of the three phases are connecte d
8 .7 Unrestricted Earth Fault Protectio n to a single point . Hence it is not possible to introduce C .T. in each phase on neutral side a s
required in Merz-Price protection . In such cases, the balanced earth fault protection can b e
The unrestricted earth fault protection uses a residually connected earth fault relay . It used .
consists of three C .T .s, one in each phase . The secondary windings of these C .T.s ar e
connected in parallel . The earth fault relay is connected across the secondaries which carrie s
a residual current . The scheme is shown in the Fig . 8.9 .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 210 Generator Protection
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 211 Generator Protectio n

The balanced earth fault protection is shown in the Fig . 8.10.

8 .9 100% Earth Fault Protectio n
Generato r As seen uptill now, no protection scheme is in a position to give complete protection t o
stator winding
- C .T the stator of generator against earth faults . The maximum protection achieved is upto 85 t o
► R 90% from the schemes discussed uptill now .
But in modern days it is possible to provide 100% earth fault protection to the stator o f
C .T
Alm
the generator . It uses a coupling transformer and the coded signal current . The scheme i s
shown in the Fig . 8.11.

Earthin g 00000000L -
resistance
F2

LT - 1
o
g i Relay

Fig . 8 .10 Balanced earth fault protectio n

At the outgoing side, the three C .T .s are connected in parallel as are connected i n
unrestricted earth fault protection . A single C .T . is connected on the neutral side in the pilot
wire connecting neutral of alternator to earth . The neutral earthing is achieved through th e
earthing resistance . A relay is connected across the C .T. secondaries .
Under normal conditions, the alternator line currents add to zero . Hence the vector sum Fig . 8 .11 100% earth fault protectio n
of the currents through the secondaries of C .T. is also zero . Thus no current flows through
the relay and as neutral carries zero current hence no current is supplied to relay from A coupling transformer is connected between the earth and the earthing resistance R i .e.
neutral side . So relay is inoperative . in neutral to ground circuit . The primary of the coupling transformer is excited by coded
signal current source . This coded signal current has a frequency of 12 .5 Hz . This current is
If the fault appears at F2 , at a position outside the protected zone then the sum of th e continuously injected into the generator stator winding through the secondary of th e
alternator line currents is exactly equal to the current in the neutral . Thus zero current flows coupling transformer .
through the relay is inoperative .
During the normal condition the signal current injected into the stator flows throug h
But if the fault occurs at Fn which is the protected zone then vector sum of alternator lin e
stray capacitance of the generator and directly connected system . But when earth fault
currents is different than the current through neutral side current transformer . Hence a
occurs, the stray capacitance is bypassed . This increases the monitoring current . Thi s
residual current flows through the relay . If this is greater than the pickup value of the relay , increase is measured by a measuring device . Depending upon this measurement a n
the relay operates . This trips the tripping circuit, opening the circuit breaker . immediate corrective action is taken .
By this scheme, the protection against earth faults is restricted to the region between th e
This scheme gives the protection of 15 to 20% of stator winding from the neutral side, th e
neutral and the position where line current transformers are installed .
portion which is unprotected by Merz-Price protection . The remaining portion is protecte d
by Merz-Price protection . Overall 100% of stator winding gets protected against earth faults .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 212 Generator Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 213 Generator Protectio n

8 .10 Stator Protection Against Interturn Fault s
The Merz-Price protection system gives protection against phase to phase faults an d
earth faults . It does not give protection against interturn faults . The interturn fault is a shor t
circuit between the turns of the same phase winding . Thus the current produced due to suc h
fault is a local circuit current and it does not affect the currents entering and leaving th e
winding at the two ends, where C .T .s are located . Hence Merz-Price protection cannot giv e
protection against interturn faults .
In single turn generator, there is no question of interturn faults but in multitur n
generators, the interturn fault protection is necessary . So such interturn protection i s
provided for multiturn generators such as hydroelectric generators . These generators hav e
double winding armatures . This means, each phase winding is divided into two halves, du e
to the very heavy currents which they have to carry . This splitting of single phase windin g
into two is advantageous in providing interturn fault protection to such hydroelectri c
generators .
The Fig . 8 .12 shows the interturn fault protection scheme used for the generator wit h
double winding armatures .
The scheme uses cross differential principle . Each phase of the generator is doubl y
wound and split into two parts S 1 and S2 as shown in the Fig . 8.12 . The current transformer s
are connected in the two parallel paths of the each phase winding . The secondaries of th e
current transformers are cross connected . The current transformers work on circulatin g
current principle . The relay is connected across the cross connected secondaries of th e
current transformers .
Under normal operating conditions, when the two paths are sound then currents in th e
two parallel paths S 1 and S2 are equal . Hence currents in the secondaries of the curren t
transformers are also equal . The secondary current flows round the loop and is same at al l
the points . Hence no current flows through the relay and the relay is inoperative .
If the short circuit is developed between the adjacent turns of the part S I of the windin g
say then currents through S 1 and S 2 no longer remain same . Thus unequal currents will b e
induced in the secondaries of the current transformers . The difference of these current s
flows through the relay R . Relay then closes its contacts to trip the circuit breaker whic h
isolates the generator from the system .
Such an interturn fault protection system is extremely sensitive but it can be applied t o
the generators having doubly wound armatures .

8 .11 Rotor Earth Fault Protectio n

C .T. Si
The rotor circuit of the alternator is not earthed and d .c. voltage is imposed on it . And
I '60060040 '
hence single ground fault in rotor does not cause circulating current to flow through the
Two parallel path s rotor circuit . Hence single ground fault in rotor does not cause any damage to it. But single
Phase R
0 of same phas e
ground fault causes an increase in the stress to ground at other points in the field windin g
windin g
1111111 1 when voltages are induced in the rotor due to transients . Thus the probability of secon d
ground fault increases .
If the second ground fault occurs then part of the rotor winding is bypassed and th e
Si currents in the remaining portion increase abruptly . This causes the unbalance of rotor
'0000000 0
circuit and hence the mechanical and thermal stresses on the rotor . Due to this, rotor may ge t
damaged. Sometimes damage of bearings and bending of rotor shaft takes place due to th e
Phase Y
vibrations . Hence the rotor must be protected against earth fault .

1111111 1 Method 1 : In this method a high resistance is connected across the rotor circuit . It is
S 2 provided with centre tap and the centre tap point is connected to the ground throug h
C .T. a sensitive earth fault relay as shown in the Fig . 8.13 .

C .T.
o tllh 1111111 1

. Phase B

1111111 1
111■1
■
C .T.

Fig . 8 .12 Interturn fault protection Fig . 8 .13 Rotor earth fault protectio n
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 214 Generator Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 215 Generator Protectio n

Except the centre point, the earth fault relay detects the earth faults for most of the roto r
circuit . Thus most of the rotor winding part is protected against the earth faults .
Method 2 : The modern method of providing earth fault protection includes d .c.
injection or a .c. injection . The scheme is shown in the Fig . 8 .14.
8 .12 Protection Against Loss of Excitatio n
The loss of excitation of the generator may result in the loss of synchronism and slightl y
increase in the generator speed . The machine starts behaving as an induction generator . It
drawn reactive power from the system which is undesirable . The loss of excitation may lea d
to the pole slipping condition . Hence protection against loss of excitation must be provided .
The protection is provided using directional distance type relay with the generato r
terminals .
When there is loss of excitation, the equivalent generator impedance varies and traces a
curve as shown in the Fig . 8 .15. This Fig . 8 .15 shows the loss of excitation characteristic s
alongwith the relay operating characteristics, on R-X diagram .

+X
Normal operating point

+R
Auxiliary
supply

Relay
Locus of equivalent
characteristics
generator impedance
during loss of excitation

+v e
-ve torque torque

Fig. 8 .14 Rotor earth fault protectio n

A small d.c . power supply is connected to the field circuit . A fault detecting sensitiv e
relay and the resistance are also connected in series with the circuit . This high resistanc e
limits the current through the circuit .
A fault at any point on the field circuit will pass a current of sufficient magnitud e
through the relay to cause its operation . The d.c . supply is preferred and simple to use and i t
has no problem of the leakage currents . In case of a .c . injection, the high resistance is
replaced by a capacitor .
The earth fault relays are instantaneous in operation and are connected to an alar m
circuit for indication and to take the proper action . This is because, a single ground faul t
does not require an immediate action of isolating the generator .
Fig. 8.15 Loss of excitation characteristics
The equivalent generator impedance locus traces a path from first quadrant of R- X
diagram to the fourth quadrant . The distance relay is used which covers the portion of th e
fourth quadrant where impedance locus path exists . Thus when the impedance takes valu e
in the region covered by the relay characteristics, the relay operates . The relay operates
when generator first starts to slip poles . Then relay trips the field circuit breaker . And it
disconnects the generator from the system, too . When the excitation is regained and
becomes normal, the generator can then be returned to service instantly .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 216 Generator Protectio n VTU - Switchgear and Protection 217 Generator Protectio n

Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network . The magnitudes of the impedances o f

8 .13 Negative Sequence Relays all the branches of the network are equal . The impedances Z l and Z3 are purely resistiv e
The negative relays are also called phase unbalance relays because these relays provid e while the impedances Z2 and Z4 are the combinations of resistance and reactance . The
protection against negative sequence component of unbalanced currents existing due t o currents in the branches Z2 and Z4 lag by 60° from the currents in the branches Zl and Z3. Th e
unbalanced loads or phase-phase faults . The unbalanced currents are dangerous fro m vertical branch B-D consists of inverse time characteristics relay . The relay has negligibl e
generators and motors point of view as these currents can cause overheating . Negative impedance .
sequence relays are generally used to give protection to generators and motors agains t The current IR gets divided into
unbalanced currents . two equal parts I1 and I2 . And I, lag s
A negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which is operative only for negativ e I 1 by 60°. The phasor diagram is
sequence components . Low order of over current also can cause dangerous situations henc e shown in the Fig . 8.17 .
a negative sequence relay has low current settings . The earth relay provides protection fo r I1 +12 = I R
phase . to earth fault but not for phase to phase fault . A negative sequence relay provide s Let Il = I2 = I
protection against phase to phase faults which are responsible to produce negative sequence
components . The perpendicular is drawn from
point A on the diagonal meeting it at
The Fig . 8 .16 shows the schematic arrangement of negative phase sequence relay . point B, as shown in the Fig . 8.17.
This bisects the diagonal .
C.T.
Fig . 8 .1 7

C .T. OB= R
2
Now in triangle OAB,
OB
cos 30 =
C .T. OA
/ IR
IY 13- 2 )
2 I

I= =I 1 =I2 (1 )
13-
Now I1 leads IR by 30° while I2 lags IR by 30° .
Similarly the current I B gets divided into two equal parts 13 and 14. The current 13 lags 14
by 60° . From equation (1) we can write,

IB
r = I3 = I4 . . . (2 )
NJ

The current 14 leads IB by 30° while current 13 lags IB by 30°.

The current entering the relay at the junction point B in the Fig . 8.16 is the vector sum o f
I1' 13 and I .
`relay = Il +I 3 +I Y
= IY + I R IB
IR by 30°) + 3(leads (lags I B by 30°)
13- 1-

Fig . 8 .16 Negative phase sequence relay


VTU -Switchgear and Protection
The vector sum is shown in the Fig. 8 .18 when the load is balanced and no negativ e
sequence currents exist .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 219 Generator Protectio n
218 Generator Protection
The components I 1 and 13 are equal and opposite to each other at the junction point B .
Hence Il and 13 cancel each other . Now the relay coil carries the current Iy and when this
current is more than a predetermined value ., the relay trips closing the contacts of trip circuit
which opens the circuit breaker .
Zero Sequence Currents : The zero sequence components of secondary currents ar e
shown in the Fig . 8.20 (a) . We know that,

Fig„8 .1 8
It can be seen from the Fig . 8 .18 that,
3 = -Ty
I1 +1-
.. I l +1 3 +Iy = 0
Fig . 8 .20 Zero sequence currents
Thus the current entering the relay at point B is zero . Similarly the resultant current at
I R = I 1 +I 2
junction D is also zero . Thus the relay is inoperative for a balanced system .
Ig I 3 +I 4
Now consider that there is unbalanced load on generator or motor due to whic h
negative sequence currents exist . The phase sequence of C .T. secondary currents is as show n These sums are shown in the Fig . 8 .20 (b) and (c) . It can be seen from the Fig . 8.20 (d) that,
in the Fig. 8.19 (a) . The vector diagram of I1, 13 and Iy is shown in the Fig . 8.19 (b) under this I 1 +I 3 = I Y in phase with I y
condition . _The total current through relay is I 1 +I 3
+I . . Thus under zero sequence currents th e
total current of twice the zero sequence
current flows through the relay . Hence th e
relay operates to open the circuit breaker .
To make the relay sensitive to only
negative sequence currents by making it
inoperative under the influence of zer o
sequence currents is possible by connectin g
the current transformers in delta as shown in
the Fig . 8.21 . Under delta connection o f
current transformers, no zero sequenc e
current can flow in the network .
Fig . 8 .21 Delta connection of C .T. s
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 22 0 Generator Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 221 Generator Protectio n

8 .13 .1 Induction Type Negative Sequence Rela y

Another commonly used negative sequence relay is induction type . Its construction is (B
similar to that of induction type over current relay . The schematic diagram of this type o f
relay is shown in the Fig . 8 .22.

Auxiliary
transformer
Upper magnet
(Primary ) 30°

r1 120 °

IY IR
(a) C.T. secondary current s (b) Current I RI

-(Y
Ds-itTo-Dis
trip circuit
■ c

Lower magnet
(secondary)

Induction type negative sequence rela y
Fig . 8 .22
The central limb of upper magnet carries the primary which has a centre tap . Due to this,
the primary winding has three terminal 1, 2, and 3 . The section 1-2 is energized from the
secondary of an auxiliary transformer to R-phase . The section 2-3 is directly energized from
the Y-phase current .
The auxiliary transformer is a special device having an air gap in its magnetic circuit.
With the help of this, the phase angle between its primary and secondary can be easil y
adjusted . In practice it is adjusted such that output current lags by 120°rather than usual 180 °
from the input .
IR = Input current of auxiliary transforme r
IRI = Output current of auxiliary transformer
IR1.lags IR by 120 °
Hence the relay primary carries the current which is phase difference of I RI and I .
Positive Sequence Currents : The C .T . secondary currents are shown in th e
Fig . 8.23 (a). The Fig. 8 .23 (b) shows the position of vector IRI lagging IR by 120°. Th e
Fig . 8.23 (c) shows the vector sum of IRI and - Ix, .
The phase difference of IRI and IY is the vector sum of IRI and - I . It can seen from the
Fig. 8.23 (c) that the resultant is zero . Thus the relay primary current is zero and relay i s
inoperative for positive sequence currents .
I R1
(c) Relay current
Positive sequence current s
Fig . 8 .23
Negative sequence currents : The C .T . secondary currents are shown in the
Fig. 8.24 (a) . The Fig . 8 .24 (b) shows the position of IRI lagging IR by 120°. The
Fig. 8 .24 (c) shows the vector difference of I RI and IY which is the relay current .
Under negative sequence currents, the vector difference of I RI and I y results into a
current I as shown in the Fig . 8 .24 (c) . This current I flows through the primary coil of the
relay . (See Fig . on next page .)
Under the influence of current I, the relay operates . The disc rotates to close the tri p
contacts and it opens the circuit breaker .
This relay is inoperative for zero phase sequence currents . But the relay can be mad e
operative for the flow of zero sequence currents also by providing an additional winding o n
the central limb of the upper magnet cif the relay . This winding is connected in the residual
circuit of the three line C .T.s . This relay is called induction type negative and zero sequenc e
relay .
The schematic arrangement of induction type negative and zero sequence relay i s
shown in the Fig . 8.25 . (See Fig . on next page .)
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 222 Generator Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 223 Generator Protectio n

8 .14 Protection Against Unbalanced Loadin g

When the load on the generator becomes unbalanced, negative phase sequence current s
flow. The negative sequence components produce a rotating magnetic field which rotates a t
synchronous speed in a direction opposite to the direction of rotor field . Hence effectively
the relative speed between the two is double the synchronous speed . Thus double frequency
currents are induced in the rotor . These currents cause severe heating of the rotor and ca n
cause damage to the rotor . The unbalanced stator currents also cause severe vibrations an d
heating of stator . Hence it is necessary to provide the negative sequence protection to th e
generators against the unbalanced load conditions .
The negative phase sequence filter alongwith the overcurrent relay provides th e
necessary protection against the unbalanced loads .
The relative asymmetry of a three phase generator is given by the ratio of negativ e
sequence current to the rated current . Mathematically it can be expressed as,
%S=°X10 0
I
where % S = percentage asymmetry
I = Negative sequence current
I = Rated current
The negative sequence protection scheme is shown in the Fig . 8.26 .

Generato r
stator windin g
C .T
-4J 00000000'- : -
Fig . 8 .24 Negative sequence currents C .T
N (00000000 `
T C .B .

- C .T
Auxiliary -(00000000'
transformer
Upper magne t
(Primary)

Additiona l
windin g

Negative phase sequence

filte r

To trip
circui t
T
Disc O
Relay
Lower magnet
-4
(secondary)

Fig . 8 .26 Negative sequence protection

Fig . 8 .25 Induction type negative and zero sequence relay

VTU - Switchgear and Protection 224 Generator Protection VTU - Switchgearand Protection 225 Generator Protectio n

A negative phase sequence filter is connected to the secondaries of the curren t Ex. 8.4 : A 50 MVA, 3 phase, 33 kV synchronous generator is protected by the Merz-Pric e
transformers . A negative phase sequence filter consists of resistors and inductors . These are protection using 1000/5 ratio C .T.s . It is provided with restricted earth fault protectio n
so arranged that under normal operating conditions, the relay is inoperative . The filter with the earthing resistance of 7.5E2 . Calculate the percentage of winding unprotected i n
circuit is stable for the symmetrical overloads up to about three times the rated full load . each phase against earth faults if the minimum operating current of the relay is 0.5 A .

When unbalanced load occurs, the negative phase sequence filter circuit produces a n Sol. : The given values are,
output proportional to the negative phase sequence components . This is directed through L
V = 33 kV C . T. ratio =1000/5 R = 7.5 E2
the relay coil . Hence the relay operates to open the circuit breaker to isolate the generator . °
i = 0 .5 A = relay current
Examples with Solution s °
I = minimum operating current (primary )
1000 0 .5x100 0
Ex. 8.3 : The neutral point of a 11 kV alternator'is earthed through a resistance of 12 SQ, the relay i s
=1 x °
5 5
set to operate wizen there is out of balance current of 0 .8 A . The C .T .s have a ratio of 200/5 .
What percentage of the winding is protected against earth faults . What must be th e = 100 A
minimum value of earthing resistance required to give 90% of protection to each phase ? V =
L
V - 33x10 3
Sol. : The given values are,
11 kV R =1252 C.T. ratio = 2000/5 = 19052.55 V
relay current = 0.8 A RI°
Winding unprotected = x10 0
minimum operating lin e current (C .T. primary) V
2000 .= 0 .8x 200 0 7.5x100
ix x100
° 5 5 19052 .55
= 320 A 3.936%
V = line to neutral voltage =
V L Ex. 8.5 : A 13 .2 kV, 3 phase, 100 MW at 0 .8 pf lag, alternator has reactance of 0 .2 p .u . If it is
equipped with a circulating current differential protection set to operate at least at 500 A
fault current, determine the magnitude of the neutral grounding resistance that leaves th e
11 x 10 3
= 6350 .8529 V 10% of the winding unprotected ,
Sol . : The given values are,
12x 320x
% Winding unprotected = RIx 100 =
V
100 L
V = 13.2 kV cosh=0.8 P = 100 MW X = 0 .2 p.u.
6350 .852 9
Now P = N*V I cos,1■ LL
60 .46 100x106 = Jx13 .2x 103 xI x 0. 8 L
% Winding protected = 100 - 60 .46 = 39.53 %
Thus with R =1252 only 39 .53 % winding is protected .
L
I = 5467 .33 A = I = full load curren t

It is necessary to give 90% protection .

The p .u. reactance is given by ,
% Winding unprotected = 100 - 90 = 10%
RxI° p .u. X = I where X = reactance per phas e
10% = x100
V
0.2 =
5467 .33X
where V = V
L
Rx 320x
10 = 100 ! 13 .2x10 3
6350 .8529
R = 1 .98465 2
X = 0 .278752 per phas e
This is the minimum value of resistance to give 90% protection to the largest machine .
% of unprotected winding = 10 %
Reactance of unprotected winding =1Ô
Ô x 0 .278 7
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 226 Generator Protection VTU - Switchgear and Protection 227 Generator Protectio n

= 0 .02787E2 i1 = (300 + j 0) x 5= 3 A
Voltage induced in 10% of unprotected winding 500
10 x13.2x103 and i 2 = (340 + j 0) x 5 = 3.4 A
xV= 10 =762 .1023 V 500
100 100
The directions of currents are shown in the Fig . 8 .28.
Let this voltage be v = 762 .1023 V
Z = .\/r 2. +x 2
where Z = Impedance offered to the faul t
r = Resistance in neutral
x= Reactance of 10% of winding
Now Z = v
where V Voltage induced in 10% winding
Fig . 8 .2 8
762 .1023 V
i Fault current = 500 A The current flowing through the relay coil is i 1 - i 2.
'jr +X 2 762 .1023 i 1 -i2 = 3-3 .4=-0 .4 A
500 i 1 +i2 3+3 . 4
While =3,2 A
vIr2 + (0 .02787) 2 1 .5242 2 2
r2 + (0 .02787) 2 2.3232 From the characteristics of 15 % slope, corresponding to 11 + 12 the out of balance curren t
r2 2.3224 2
r 1 .524 S2 required is,
i 1 +i 2
This is the required resistance in neutral earthing . 11 i2 = Slopex
2 l
Ex. 8.6 : An alternator stator winding protected by a percentage differential relay is shown in th e
Fig. 8.27. The relay has 15% slope of characteristics (I 1 - I2) against (l + I2/2). The high = 0 .15x3 . 2
resistance ground fault has occurred near the grounded neutral end of the generato r = 0 .48 A
winding while the generator is carrying load . The currents flowing at each end of th e
generator winding are also shown . Assuming C .T. ratio to be 500/5 A, will the relay This is shown in the
+ve 15% Slop e
operate to trip the circuit breaker ? Fig. 8.29.
-ve Thus it - i, must b e
0 .48 A
more than 0.48 A i.e.
i1 - i2
above the line to operate
0 .4A
Q Actual poin t the relay but actual poin t
is located below the line
h in negative torque region.
Hence the relay will
2 not operate .
Fig . 8 .2 9

Ex. 8 .7 : A 6.6 kV, star connected alternator has a transient reactance of 2 S2 per phase an d
negligible winding resistance . It is protected by circulating current Merz-Pric e
protection . The alternator neutral is earthed through the resistance of 7 .5 S2 . The relay s
Fig . 8 .2 7 are set to operate when there is out of balance current of 1 A in secondary of 500/5 A
Sol. : From the given current at two ends, let us calculate C .T . secondary currents current transformers . How much % of winding is protected against earth fault ?
at two ends, (V.T.U August-2003 )
 Generator Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 229 Generator Protectio n
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 228
i) I ° = minimum line operating current (C .T. primary)
Sol. : The given values,
. 1000 3x100 0
V L = 6 .6 kV X = 2n/phase r = 7 .552 C.T. = 500/ 5 = r° x
5 5
Let the x % of winding is unprotected .
= 600 A
Reactance of unprotected winding =100 x 2 = 0 .02 x S2 V20x10 3
v ._ =
1/J 3
V L - 66x10 3 =3810.511 V . . . full voltage
V= =11547 V
X = % of winding unprotecte d
V = Voltage across unprotected windin g
x x 3810 .511=38 .10511 x V - RI,, x100= 15x600 x100
= V 11547
10 0
= 77.94%
r = 7.551
Z = Impedance offered to the faul t ii) We want 75% protection .
= r + j (0.02x) %X = 100-75=25 %
= 7.5 +j (0 .02x) S 2 Remaining conditions are same except R .
1Z = (7 .5) 2 +(0 .02x) 2 25 = RRI°x10 0
V
i = fault current Rx600
= out of balanés--secondary current x C.T. ratio 25 = x10 0
= 1x 500
11547
25 x 11547
5 R-
= 100 A 60N 10 0
V = 4 .811 S
Z=
This is the required earth resistance .
38 .10511 x
V(7 .5) 2 +(0 .02x)2 = Ex. 8.9 : The Fig. 8.30 shows the percentage differential relay used for the protection of a n
100 alternator winding . The relay has minimum pickup current of 0 .25 A and has a % slope of
(7 .5)2 + (0.02 x) 2 = 0 .1452 x2 10%.. A high resistance ground fault occurs near the grounded neutral end of th e
56 .25 +4 x 10 -4 x2= 0.1452 x 2 generator winding with the current distribution as shown in the Fig . 8,30 . Assume a C .T.
0 .1448 x2 = 56.25 ratio of 400 : 5, determine if relay will operate .
x2 = 388.4668
x = 19.7%
This is % of winding unprotected .
of winding protected = 100 - 19 .7
= 80 .29' %
i Fig . 8 .3 0
Ex . 8.8 : A synchronous generator rated at 20 kV protected by circulating current system having '
neutral grounded through a resistance of 1552 . The differential protection relay is set t o "Sol. : For the given current at the two ends, the C .T. secondary currents can be
operate when there is an out of balance current of 3 A . The C .T .s have ratio of 1000/5 A . ? obtained using C .T. ratio as,
Determine,
il = (380 + j 0) x 4 .75 A
i) The % of winding remains unprotecte d 400
ii) Value of earth resistance to achieve 75% protection of winding i2 = (340 + j 0) 40
x-- 4.25 A
Sol. : The given values are ,
VL = 20 kV, i° = 3 A, R = 15 S2, C .T. ratio = 1000/5 ii -i2 = 4.75-4.25=0 .5 A
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 230 Generator Protectio n VTU -Switchgear and Protection 231 Generator Protectio n

i1 + iz = 4 .75+4 .2 5 Ex. 8.10 : An alternator rated 10 kV protected by balanced circulating current system has it s
2 2 neutral grounded through a resistance of 10 ohms . The protective relay is set to operat e
when there is an out of balance current of 1 .8 amperes in the pilot wires which ar e
= 4 .5 A connected to the secondary of current transformers with ratio 1000/5 .
So i t - i, current flows through operating coil while 4 .5 A flows through the restrainin g Determin e
coil . i) The percentage winding which remains unprotected .
With the minimum pickup current of 0 .25 A, and slope 10%, the operatin g ii) The minimum value of the earthing resistance required to protect 80% of the winding .
characteristics is as shown in the Fig . 8.31 . (V .T .U August-2002)
Sol. : VL =10kV, R = 10C .T .ratio =1000/5,=1 .8 A
1° = minimum operating line current (C .T . primary)
1000
.°x15 =1 .8x=360
5 A
3
1o x 10
V = line to neutral voltage = v = = 5773 .5026 V

10 x 360
i) % Winding unprotected = RIx 100 = x 10 0
V 5773 .5026
= 62.3538 %
ii) It is necessary to give 80 % protection .
% Winding unprotected = 100 - 80 = 2 0
Fig . 8 .3 1 Rx360
The equation of the characteristics is, 20 = x10 0
5773 .502 6
y = mx+ c
R = 3 .2075 S2 . . . Minimum earthing resistance require d
At origin, x = 0 but y = 0 .25
Ex . 8.11 : The neutral point of a 10,000 V alternator is earthed through a resistance of 10 Sd, th e
Y = c = 0 .25 relay is said to operate when there is an out of balance current of 1A . The CT's have a rati o
Hence characteristic equation is, of 1000/5 . What % of the winding is protected . What should be the value of resistance t o
get 90% protected . (V .T .U March-2003 )
(il - i2) _
where m = slope = 0 .1
Sol. : VL = 10000 V, R =10E2, i ° = 1 A, C .T . ratio = 1000/ 5
1000
(i 1 - i 2) = 10 = i ° x C .T .ratio =1x =200 A

rl L = 10000
and V=V = 5773 .5026 V
For r2- = 4 .5 we get,
2
10 x 200x
i t -i 2 = (0 .1x4 .5)+0 .2 5 i) % Winding unprotected = x 100 = 100
V 5773 .502 6
=0 .7 A
12 = 34 .64 1
Thus to operate the relay, it - i2 must be greater than 0 .7 A when lr+ is 4 .5 A . Bu t
% Winding protected = 100 - 34 .641 = 65 .3589 %
actually it - i 2 = 0 .5 A as shown . It is located below the line in negative torque region henc e ii) It is necessary to give 90% protection .
relay will not operate . % Winding unprotected = 100 - 90 = 1 0
Rx 200
10 = x10 0
5773 .502 6
R = 2.8867 SI . . . Minimum earthing resistance required
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 232 Generator Protection
Review Question s
1. Which are the various types of faults which can occur in a generator ? Explain in brief.
2. Why the protection of generators is complex ? Explain .
3. Which are the various abnormal running conditions, which may exist in a generator ? What are thei r
effects and how these effects can be minimized ?
4. Explain the basic differential protection scheme . What are its disadvantages ?
5. Explain the basic percentage differential protection scheme . Draw its operating characteristics showin g
positive and negative torque regions .
6. Draw and explain the Merz-Price protection of alternator stator windings . State .its advantages .
7. What is the role of auxiliary relay, in Merz-Price protection ?
8. Explain the restricted earth fault protection of generators.
9. Derive the expression for the percentage of winding unprotected in the restricted earth fault protection .
10. Explain the operation of unrestricted earth fault protection scheme .
11. Draw and explain balanced earth fault protection scheme .
12. Is it possible that 100 % winding of generator is protected against earth faults ? How ?
13. Suggest the scheme for interturn fault protection for Stator of alternator .
14. Explain the negative phase sequence protection for the generators .
15. What are the methods to provide rotor earth-fault protection ?
16. How the protection against loss of excitation is provided in generators ? Why it is important ?
17. A generator is provided with restricted earth fault protection . The ratings are 11 kV, 5000 kVA . Th e
percentage of winding protected against phase to ground fault is 80% . The relay setting such that it trip s
for 25% out of balance. Calculate the resistance to be added in neutral to ground connection .
(Ans. 1 .94 S2)
18. The neutral point of a 10,000 V alternator is earthed through a resistance of 10 ohms, the relay is .set t o
operate when there is an out of balance current of lA . The C .T.s have a ratio of 1000/5 . Wha t
percentage of the winding is protected against fault to earth and what must be minimum value o f
earthing resistance to give 90% protection to each phase winding ? (Ans . : 62 .5%, 2 .88n)
19. A 3 phase, 2 pole, 11 kV, 10,000 kVA alternator has neutral earthed through a resistance of 7 ohms . Th e
machine has current balance protection which operates upon out of balance current exceed 20% of ful l
load . Determine % of winding protected against earth fault. (Ans . :88.4% )
20. The Fig. 8.32 shows percentage differential relay applied to the protection of an alternator winding. Th e
relay has 10% slope of characteristics I, -12 vs (I, + 12)/2.
Circuit
breaker
320+j 0
'00
304 + jO
University Question s
Real coi l
r 000 00 0
Fig . 8 .32 (a)
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 233 Generator Protectio n
Fig . 8 .32 (b )
A high resistance ground fault occurred near the grounded neutral end of the generator winding whil e
generator is carrying load. As a consequence, the currents in amperes flowing at each end of th e
winding are shown in Fig . 8.32 (b) . Assuming C .T. ratio of 400/5 amperes, will the relay operate to tri p
the breaker. (Ans . : Relay will not operate )
21. A 11 kV, 3 phase alternator has full load rated current of 200 A . Reactance of armature winding i s
15 percent . The differential protection system is set to operate ,on earth fault currents of more than 200
A. Find the neutral earthing resistance, which gives earth fault protection to 90% of stator winding .
(Ans . : 3 .145 S2)
22. A star-connected 3-phase 10 MVA, 6 .6 kV alternator has a per phase reactance of 10% . It is protected b y
Merz-Price circulating-current principle which is set to operate for fault currents not less than 175 A .
Calculate the value of earthing resistance to be provided in order to ensure that only 10% of th e
alternator winding remains unprotected . (Ans . : 2 .171 S2)
23. A star connected, 3 phase, 10 MVA, 6 .6 kV alternator is protected by Merz-Price circulating curren t
principle using 1000/5 amperes current transformers . The star point of the alternator is earthed through
a resistance of 7.5E2 . If the minimum operating current for the relay is 0 .5 A, calculate the percentage of
each phase of the stator winding which is unprotected against earth faults when the machine is operatin g
at normal voltage. (Ans . : 19 .69 % )
24. A 6.600 volt 3-phase turbo-alternator has a maximum continuous rating of 2,000 kW at 0.8 p .f and its
reactance is 12 .5% . It is equipped with Merz-Price circulating current protection which is set to operat e
at fault currents not less than 200 amperes. Find what value of the neutral earthing resistance leaves
10% of the windings unprotected ? (Ans . :1.89 S).)
25. A 50 MVA, 3-phase, 33 kV alternator is being protected by the use of circulating current balance schem e
using 2000/5 ampere current transformer. The neutral of the generator is earthed through a NCR of
7,5 ohms, if the pick up current forthe relay is just above 0 .5 ampere, determine what percentage of th e
winding of each phase unprotected against earth when the machine operates at nominal voltage.
(Ans . : 7 .88% )
1. With a neat sketch and vector diagrams explain how a negative phase sequence relay is employed fo r
protection of electrical power system . (Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )
2 . With a neat diagram explain any one method of protecting large size generator rotor against earth faults .
(Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 234 Generator Protectio n
3 . An alternator rated 10 kV protected by balanced circulating current system has its neutral grounde d
through a resistance of 10 ohms . The protective relay is set to operate when there is an out of balanc e
current of 1 .8 amperes in the pilot wires which are connected to the secondary of current transformer s
with ratio 1000/5 .
Determine
i) The percentage winding which remains unprotected. Induction Motor Protection
ii) The minimum value of the earthing resistance required to protect 80% of the winding .

(Aug.-2002, 10 Marks )
4 . Explain the Merz-Price protection given to a generator . (March-2003, 10 Marks )
5 . The neutral point of a 10,000 V alternator is earthed through a resistance of 1052, the relay is said t
o 9 .1 Introductio n
operate when there is an out of balance current of 1 A . The CTs have a ratio of 1000/5 . What % of th e
winding is protected . What should be the value of resistance to get 90% protected .
(March-2003, 10 Marks )
6. With a suitable diagram explain a negative sequence relay and mention its applications .
(Aug .-2003, 10 Marks )
7 . Draw and explain the Merz-Price protection of alternator stator windings . State its advantages
. If the rating of the motor is upto 150 kW then contactors and fuses can be used while fo r
(Aug .-2003, 10 Marks )
8. A 6 .6 kV star connected alternator has a transient reactance of 2U per phase and negligible windin
g e
resistance. It is protected by circulating current Merz-Price protection . The alternator neutral is earthe
d current .to be interrupted is . six times the rated current of the motor then contactors can b
through the resistance of 7 .5 SI . The relays are set to operate when there is out of balance current of 1
A
in secondary of 500/5 A current transformers . How much .% of winding is protected against earth fault
?
(Aug.-2003, 10 Marks )
❑❑❑
g
Based on the control action i .e . starting, stopping or reversal, various controllin
elements known in electrical terms as switchgear are employed for the protection o f
d
induction motor . Generally two basic protections viz short circuit protection and overloa
. The switchgear used for protection include s
protection are provided for each motor
.
contactors with H .R.C fuse and thermal overload relays along with circuit breakers
motors having rating beyond 150 kW, circuit breakers are used . The contactor is a kind o f
switch through which supply can be given to the motor when its coil is energized . If th e
used .
9 .2 Abnormal Conditions and Failure in Case of Induction Moto r
The three phase induction motors are used in numerous industrial applications . Henc e
before studying the protection circuit we have to consider the abnormal conditions an d
failure that may occur in case of induction motor .
If the motor is heavily loaded beyond its capacity then it will be overload condition o f
motor in which case motor draws heavy current from the supply and there will b e
simultaneous rise in temperature of winding and deteroriation of the insulation resulting i n
l
damage of winding . Hence the motor must be protected against this mechanica
. Normally thermal overload relays, ove r
overloading with overload protection circuits
current relays or miniature circuit breaker with built in trip coils may be used .
It might be possible that the rotor is locked or starting lasts for longer duration or roto r
does not move because of excessive load (stalling) at start . In all these cases motor draw s
heavy current from the supply and results in damage to the winding due to overheating a s
.
stated above . In this case thermal relays or instantaneous overcurrent relays are used
If the supply conditions are abnormal such as loss of supply voltage, unbalanced suppl y
voltage, phase sequence reversal of supply voltage, over voltage, under voltage or unde r
frequency then also the performance of the motor is affected . With unbalanced supply
voltage there will be excessive heating while with undervoltage the motor draws mor e
current for the same load . For undervoltage protection, undervoltage relays are used .

(235 )
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 236 InductionMotor Protectio n VTU - Switchgear and Protection 237 Induction Motor Protectio n

With correct phase sequence, the motor runs in one direction . With change in phas e
9 .3 Protection Circuit for Induction Moto r
sequence of supply it runs in other direction which is dangerous in some of the application s
such as cranes, hoists or elevators . In such cases phase reversal relay may be provided whic h The protection circuit along with its single line diagram is shown in the Fig . 9 .1 .
will disconnect the supply to the motor through the circuit breaker .
Ro
Due to excessive temperature rise, the insulation may get damaged which may lead t o
stator earth fault or stator phase to phase fault which are rare in nature . For low ratin g
motors, HRC fuses provide sufficient protection against these faults while for large motors ,
differential protection may be used .
Bo
Due to blowing of fuse in any phase or open circuit in one of the three phases results in
single phasing. In such case motor continues to run and if it is loaded to its rated value then i t
will draw excessive current which will damage the rotor and eventually the motor will b e
damaged due to excessive overheating. Normally thermal overload relays are used agains t Fus e
single phasing . Sometimes special single phase preventer may be provided .
Thermal overload rela y
Summary of abnormal condition and protection circuit to be employed is given in th e ? Suppl y
table . e Switch/
Fuse
ON pushbutton
Abnormal condition Choice of protection circuit to be employe d (normally open )
Overload release, thermal overload relay, over
1 Mechanical overload current relays, miniature circuit breaker (MCB )
with built in trip coil . OF F
(Normally Butto n
2 Stalling or prolonged starting of motor Thermal relays ; Instantaneous overcurrent relay. closed) -*-
Mai n
3 Under voltage Under voltage release, under voltage relay . contacts 0

4 Unbalanced voltage Negative phase sequence relays .

B o AC ?
5 Reverse phase sequence Phase reversal relay.
HRC fuse, Instaneous overcurrent relays . For large Contacto r
energizin g
6 Phase to phase fault or phase to earth fault motors, differential protection may be employe d coil control coil
for economy.
7 Single phasing Thermal overload relays, single phase preventer .

Table 9 . 1

The motor protection circuit that is designed should be simple in operation an d
economically feasible . Its cost should be less than 5% of the motor cost . It should also be kept
in mind that during starting and permissible overload conditions, the protection circui t
should not operate . The choice of motor protecting circuit is based on various factors such as
rated voltage, rated kW, size of motor, type of induction motor, type of starter, type o f
switchgear used, cost of motor, type of load, starting current possibility of occurance o f
abnormal conditions etc .
(a) (b) Single line diagra m
Fig . 9 . 1
The three phase supply is given to the motor through various elements such as fuse ,
switch, contactor and thermal overload relay . The control circuit of contactor consists o f
energizing coil, start and stop buttons . The start (ON) push button is normally open gree n
switch while the stop (OFF) push button is normally closed red switch .
When the start button is pressed then the contactor coil is energized as it gets suppl y
voltage . The coil attracts the plunger when excited and the main contacts are closed alon g
with the auxiliary contact . Even if the ON push button is relased, the contactor coil remains
energized as it gets supply through auxiliary contacts . Thus motor starts running .
 239 Induction Motor Protectio n
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 238 Induction Motor Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection

The OFF push button which is normally closed when pressed cuts the supply of th e
contactor coil and hence the main as well as auxiliary contacts are open so motor eventuall y
stops . If supply voltage fails, control coil is de-energized which opens the contactor an d
motor stops .
During overload condition, the thermal overload relay operates . Thermal overload relay Contro l
consists of bimetallic strips . Because of bending of one or more bimetallic strip results i n circuit
operation of common lever which operates the trip contacts to deenergize the coil and
disconnects the supply to the motor .
The bimetallic strips are either heated directly by flow of current or with the help o f
special heater coil through which motor current flows . For large motors, these relays ar e Therma l ON
connected in secondary of current transformers . The bimetallic strips can be of self settin g overloa d o--+
type or hand resetting type in which mechanical reset is required as the trip mechanis m %zz relay
locks itself in operated condition . It should be observed that the rating of thermal rela y
should be such that it should not operate during normal starting conditions . A setting range
is provided for adjustment for various load conditions . Protection against short circuit i s OF F
provided with the help of HRC fuses . o
_ -10000-ti =====
9.4 Single Phasing Prevente r
If one of the supply line is disconnected due to open circuit or improper contact in switc h Contacto r Contactor
then still the motor continues to run . The power is then supplied to the remaining windings . coil
The current in the other phases increases to about times its normal value . This is calle d
single phasing which results in unbalanced stator currents . The component which is present
Three phas e
in this unbalanced current called negative sequence component causes magnetic flu x I. M.
rotating in opposite direction to the main flux . This results in double frequency currents t o
induce in the rotor to cause its heating . Thus major damage to motor may take place due t o
single phasing if proper precaution is not taken . As the phase overcurrent relays reac t
slowly, they cannot give the instantaneous protection against single phasing . Fig. 9.2
Consider an example of a person .whose finger sticks into the socket . Even though the
For small motors separate protection against single phasing is normally not provided as
metal enclosure is securely earthened, the person will receive a severe shock . Under such
thermal relays sense the increased current in remaining phases due to single phasing an d
case there must be certain device that will cut the supply . This can be done with the help o f
provides the sufficient protection .
ELCB which will typically trip in around 25 ms if current exceeds its preset value .
A separate single phasing protection circuit is required in case of large induction motor s
as even a small unbalance can cause damage to motor winding and rotor . The single phasing The schematic of ELCB is shown in Fig . 9.3 .
preventer is shown in the Fig . 9.2 . (See Fig. on next page .)
As shown in the figure, it consists of C .Ts connected in each phase . The output of control
circuit is fed to the level detector which sensethe magnitude of unbalance . Depending o n
this output from the control circuit the tripping command to the starter or the circuit breake r
is given when negative sequence current exceeds its preset limit .

9 .5 Ground Fault Protectio n

The ground fault protection is achieved using earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) .
When the fault current or leakage current flows through earth return path then it forms th e
earth fault . These faults âre relatively frequent and hence protection is required agains t
these which is provided with the help of Earth leakage circuit breaker .

Fig. 9 .3
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection VTU - Switchgear andProtection 241 Induction Motor Protectio n
240 Induction Motor Protection
As shown in the Fig. 9 .3 ELCB consists of a small current transformer surrounding liv e R Thre e
and neutral wire . The secondary winding of current transformer is connected to relay circui t Y phas e
which can trip the circuit breaker which is connected in the circuit . supply
B
Under normal conditions, the current in line and neutral conductor is same so the ne t
current (I L -IN ) flowing through the core is zero . Eventually there will not be an y
production of flux in the core and no induced emf. So the breaker does not trip .
If there is a fault due to leakage from live wire to earth or a person by mistake touching t o
the live terminal then the net current through the core will no longer remain as zero bu t
equal to I L -IN or It which will set up Rix and emf in C .T. As per the preset value the
unbalance in current is detected by C .T . and relay coil is energized which will give tripping
singal for the circuit breaker . As C.T . operates with low value of current, the core must b e
very permeable at low flux densities .
In case of three phase circuits, single ring shaped core of magnetic material, encircles th e
conductor of all three phases as shown in the Fig . 9.4. A secondary is connected to relay
circuit . Under normal condition, the component of fluxes due to fields of three conductor s
are balanced and secondary carries negligible current .

Fig. 9 .5 Earth fault protection by ZSCT

9 .6 Phase Fault Protectio n
This protection is also called shor t
circuit protection . At the time of such a
fault, the current increases by 8 to 1 0
times the full load current of the motor .
Attracted armature type relay unit i s
Fig. 9.4 connected in each phase with a curren t
During faulty condition, the balance is disturbed and current is induced in th e setting of 4-5 times the full load current .
secondary to trip the, circuit breaker through relay. This is because starting current can be 4- 5
This method to provide earth fault protection is called core balance type protection o r times full load current . Hence to operate
zero sequence current transformer (ZSCT) protection . In case of earth faults, to avoi d the relay only under fault condition such
burning of coils and stampings the motor must be disconnected as quickly as possible fro m a setting is necessary . Such a protection is
the supply. shown in the Fig . 9 .6 .
The Fig . 9.5 shows ZSCT protection scheme . It is preferred for the systems with neutra l The phase faults can cause burn out o f
earthed via resistance. Fig . 9 .6 Phase and earth fault protection
coils and stampings and hence motor
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 242 InductionMotor Protectio n

should be disconnected as quickly as possible when fault occurs . Fast over current relay s
also are used to provide phase fault protection .
As mentioned above to avoid relay functioning during starting, the short circui t
protection current setting must be just above the maximum starting current of the motor .

9 .7 Phase Reversal Protectio n

The direction of induction motor depends on the direction of rotating magnetic fiel d
produced by the stator windings . For a particular phase sequence RYB the motor rotates in a
particular direction due to corresponding direction of rotaing magnetic field . But if any tw o
lines are interchanged after repairs the phase sequence reverses such as YRB . Then the
direction of rotating magnetic field also reverses and induction motor starts rotating i n
opposite direction . Such a change of direction is dangerous if the induction motor is used fo r
The transformers are static devices without having any rotating part and are totall y
cranes, hoists, lifts or in threading mills etc .
enclosed . Hence the chances of faults occurring on transformers are much rare as compare d
Thus to disconnect induction motor from supply if there is phase reversal, phas e to the faults occurring on generators . Similarly possibilities of running on abnorma l
reversal protection is provided . conditions are also less in transformers compared to the generators .
This protection is provided using motor driven disc working on electromagnetic But though the fault possibility is rare, if fault occurs, the transformer must be quickl y
principle . The secondaries of two current transformers connected in two lines drive th e disconnected from the system . The rare faults if not cleared quickly can get developed int o
motor to operate the disc . The arrangement is such that for a normal direction of motor, dis c the major faults which may be very serious for the transformer . Hence the protection mus t
rotates in a particular direction which keeps the auxiliary contacts closed . But if there i s be provided to the transformers against possible faults .
phase reversal then the torque produced reverses to rotate the disc in opposite direction .
The use of series fuses is very common in case of small distribution transformers instea d
Due to this auxiliary contacts get opened . This inturn either operates the circuit breaker o r
of circuit breakers . Hence it is not necessary to install any automatic protective relaying
de-energises starter coil to disconnect the motor from the supply . Thus phase reversal
equipments with the distribution transformers . But the power transformers having larg e
protection for the induction motor is achieved . Now a days solid state phase reversal relay
ratings always need some type of automatic protective relaying equipments, to give .
sensing the phase reversal is used .
protection against the possible faults .
Review Questions
10 .2 Possible Transformer Fault s
1. Explain abnormal conditions and possible failure of induction moto"rs .
2. Which type of protection is selected for various abnormal conditions ? The generators are subjected to the number of faults and abnormal conditions but th e
transformers are not . The various possible transformer faults are ,
3. Explain the overload protection using thermal relays used for induction motor.
1. Overheating 2. Winding faults
4. How earth fault protection is provided to the induction motors ?
3. Open circuits 4. Through faults
5. Explain single phasing in induction motors . How motor is protected from single phasing ?
5. Over fluxing
6. How phase faults protection is provided to the induction motors ?
7. What is phase reversal ? What is its effect ? How it is prevented in induction motors ? Let us discuss these faults .

10.2 .1 Overheatin g
❑❑❑
The overheating of the transformer is basically of sustained overloads and short circuits .
The permissible overload and the corresponding duration is dependent on the type o f
transformer and class of insulation used for the transformer . Higher loads are permissibl e
for very short duration of time . The overloading which continues for longer time i s
dangerous as it causes overheating of the transformer. Similarly the failure of the coolin g
system, though rare, is another possible cause of overheating . Generally the therma l
overload relays and temperature relays, sounding the alarm are used to provide protectio n
against overheating . Similarly temperature indicators are also provided . On th e
transformers, when temperature exceeds the permissible limits, the alarm sounds and th e
(243)

VTU - Switchgear and Protection 244 Transformer Protection
fans are started . The thermocouples or resistance temperature indicators are also provide d
near the winding . These are connected in a bridge circuit . When temperature exceeds th e
limiting safe value, the bridge balance gets disturbed and alarm is sounded . If the correctiv e
action is not taken within certain period of time then the circuit breaker trips .
10.2 .2 Winding Faults
The winding faults are called internal faults . These faults are,
i) Phase to phase faults
ii) Earth faults
iii) Inter turn fault s
The overheating or mechanical shocks cause to deteriorate the winding insulation . If th e
winding insulation is weak, there is a possibility of short circuit between the phases o r
between the phase and ground . Also the possibility of short circuit between the adjacent
turns of the same phase winding is also possible .
When such an internal fault occurs, the transformer must be quickly disconnected fro m
the system . If such a fault persists for longer time, there is possibility of oil fire . Th e
differential protection is very commonly used to provide protection against such faults . But
this protection is not economical for the transformers below 5 MVA for which an ove r
current protection is used . For the high capacity transformers in addition to mai n
differential protection, the overcurrent protection is also provided as a backup protection .
For earth fault protection, the restricted earth fault protection system, neutral current relay s
or leakage to frame protection system is used .
10 .2 .3 Open Circuit s
The open circuit in one of the three phases is dangerous as it causes the undesirabl e
heating of the transformer . A separate relay protection is not provided for the open circuit s
as open circuits are much harmless compared to other faults . In case of such faults, th e
transformer can be manually disconnected from the system .
10 .2 .4 Through Faults .
Through faults are the external faults which occur outside the protected zone . Through
faults are not detected by the differential protection . If the through faults persists for lon g
period of time, the transformer may get subjected to the thermal and mechanical stresse s
which can damage the transformer . The overcurrent relays with undervoltage blocking,
zero sequence protection and negative sequence protection are used to give protectio n
against through faults . The setting of the overcurrent protection not only protects th e
transformer but also covers the station busbar and portion of a transmission line . Such a
protection acts as a backup protection for the differential protection .
10 .2.5 Overfluxin g
The flux density in the transformer core is proportional to the ratio of the voltage t o
frequency i .e. V/f . The power transformers are designed to work with certain value of flu x
density in the core . In the generator transformer unit, if full excitation is applied befor e
generator reaches its synchronous speed then due to high V/f the overfluxing of core may
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 245 Transformer Protectio n
result. Higher core flux means more core loss and overheating of the core . The saturation o f
magnetic circuit is also the probable cause for the overfluxing operation . The V/f relay
called volts/hertz relay is provided to give the protection against overfluxing operation .
This relay does not allow exciting current to flow till the generator reaches to a synchronou s
speed and runs to produce voltage of proper frequency . The overfluxing relays with enoug h
time lag also can be provided .
Apart from these faults, some other faults like tap-changer faults, high voltage surge s
due to lightning and switching, incipient faults i .e . slow developing faults may also occur i n
the transformers . The Buchholz relay is used for oil immersed transformers to give th e
protection against incipient faults .
10 .3 Percentage Differential Protection for Transformer s
The percentage differential protection or Merz-Price protection based on the circulatin g
current principle can also be used for the transformers . This system gives protection agains t
phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults to the power transformers .
The principle of such a protection scheme is the comparison of the currents entering an d
leaving the ends of a transformer . The vector difference of currents I I - I 2 passes through th e
operating coil while the average current (I I + I2)/2 passes through the restraining coil . In
normal conditions, the two currents at the two ends of the transformer are equal and balanc e
is maintained . So no current flows through the operating coil of the relay and relay i s
inoperative . But when there is phase to phase fault or phase'to ground fault, this balance get s
disturbed . The difference current flows through the operating coil due to which rela y
operates, tripping the circuit breaker .
Compared to the differential protection used in generators, there are certain importan t
points which must be taken care of while using such protection for the power transformers .
These points are ,
1. In a power transformer, the voltage rating of the two windings is different . The high
voltage winding is low current winding while low voltage winding is high curren t
winding. thus there always exists difference in current on the primary and secondar y
sides of the power transformer . Hence if C .T .s of same ratio are used on two sides,
then relay may get operated through there is no fault existing .
To compensate for this difficulty, the current ratios of C .T .s on each side ar e
different . These ratios depend on the line currents of the power transformer and th e
connection of C .T.s . Due to the different turns ratio, the currents fed into the pilo t
wires from each end are same under normal conditions so that the relay remain s
inoperative . For example if K is the turns ratio of a power transformer then the rati o
of C .T.s on low voltage side is made K times greater than that of C .T.s on high voltage
side .
2. In case of power transformers, there is an inherent phase difference between th e
voltages induced in high voltage winding and low voltage winding . Due to this ,
there exists a phase difference between the line currents on primary and secondar y
sides of a power transformer . This introduces the phase difference between the C .T .
secondary currents, on the two sides of a power transformer . Though the turns rati o
of C .T.s are selected to compensate for turns ratio of transformer, a differentia l
current may result due to the phase difference between the currents on two sides .
VTU - Switchgearand Protection 246 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 247 Transformer Protectio n

Such a differential current may operate the relay though there is no fault . Hence it i s 10.3 .1 Merz-Price Protection for Star-Delta Transforme r
necessary to correct the phase difference .
To compensate for this, the C .T . connections should be such that the resultan t
currents fed into the pilot wires from either sides are displaced in phase by an angl e
equal to the phase shift between the primary and secondary currents . To achieve this,
secondaries of C .T.s on star connected side of a power transformer are connected i n
delta while the secondaries of C .T .s on delta connected side of a power transforme r
are connected in star. a
The Table 10 .1 gives the way of connecting C .T. secondaries for the various types o f a)
power transformer connections . N
C
m
Power Transformer Connections C. T. Connections
A
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary o
Star Delta Delta Star
m
Delta Delta Star Star Û - --------------- -

Star Star Delta Delta

Delta Star Star Delta

*o
o
Table 10 . 1 ô
O
With such an arrangement, the phase displacement between the currents get s
compensated with the oppositely connected C .T . secondaries . Hence currents fed to the
pilot wires from both the sides are in phase under normal running conditions and the rela y
is ensured to be inoperative .
IU
3. The neutrals of C .T. star and power transformer stars are grounded .
4. Many transformers have tap changing arrangement due to which there is a possibilit y
of flow of differential current . For this, the turns ratio of C .T .s on both sides of th e I
ô ô ô
power transformer are provided with tap for of C .T .s on both sides of the power l ô S $ I
O O O I
transformer are-provided with tap for théir adjustment . o 0 0

For the sake of understanding, the connection of C .T . secondaries in delta for star side of.
-
power transformer and the connection of C .T. secondaries in star for delta side of power -

transformer is shown in the Fig . 10.1 (a) and .(b) .

H t
Û( m
0 0

Fig . 10 .1
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 248 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 249 Transformer Protectio n

Let us study the Merz-Price protection for the star-delta power transformer . The
primary of the power transformer is star connected while the secondary is delta connected .
Hence to compensate for the phase difference, the C .T . secondaries on primary side must b e
connected in delta while the C .T . secondaries on delta side must be connected in star . Th e m

star point of the power transformer primary as well as the star connected C .T . secondaries
must be grounded . N
a
.2 %a
The circuit diagram of the scheme is shown in the Fig . 10 .2 (See Fig . on previous page) . •
a) -o
N
C C
C o
The restraining coils are connected across the C .T. secondary windings while th e o U
❑ 0)
operating coils are connected between the tapping points on the restraining coils and the ai
N
star point of C .T . secondaries . CO
With the proper selection of turns ratio of C .T .s the coils are under balanced condition a
C
during normal operating conditions . The C .T. secondaries carry equal currents which are i n a
m
O
phase under normal conditions . So no current flows through the relay and the relay i s C
C
inoperative . o O*
0
With an internal fault in power transformer windings, the balance in the C .T .s ge t *a)
N
disturbed . The operating coils of differential relay carry currents proportional to th e
difference of current between the two sides of a power transformer . This causes the rela y - -
operation which trips the main circuit breakers on both the sides of the power transformer .
The basic requirements of the differential relay are ,
-4eo
I o
I
e
e
e b
I ôo ôe o
o ,I
1. The differential relay must not operate on load or externaLfaults . I ô ô 0
°
o
2. It must operate on'severe -internal faults . ----------- -
The relay satisfying these requirements is used in Merz-Price protection . ill e
It is important to note that this scheme gives protection against short circuit fault s °
0,6
III
between the turns i.e. interturn faults also . This is because when there is an interturn fault , e
the turns ratio of power transformer gets affected . Due to this the currents on both sides o f
the power transformer become unbalanced . This causes an enough differential curren t
which flows through the relay and the relay operates . ri°
I

10.3 .2 Merz-Price Protection for Star-Star Transforme r

The Fig . 10 .3 (See Fig. on next page) shows the Merz-Price protection system for th e
star-star power transformer . Both primary and secondary of the power transformer ar e o
connected in star and hence C .T . secondaries on both the sides are connected in delta t o 44 4
compensate for the phase displacement . Û m
N
0 O
The star points of both the windings of the power transformer are grounded . The N
)
U
restraining coils are connected in the C .T . secondaries . The operating coils are connecte d
a
between the tappings on the restraining coil and the ground . The operation of the schem e C
N o .- N
remains same for any type of power transformer as discussed for star-delta powe r ti N o a)
C C N
3
transformer. N
0 oC)
o 0 o
} m
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 251 Transformer Protectio n
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 250 Transformer Protection
The same current flows through the star connected C .T . secondaries . Hence eac h
Ex . 10 .1 : A three phase power transformer having a line voltage ratio of 400 V to 33 kV is connecte d
in star-delta . The C .T.s on 400 V side have current ratio as 1000/5 . What must be the C.T. secondary of C .T . on the secondary side of transformer carries a current of 5 A .
ratio on 33 kV side . For the power transformer the apparent power on both sides must be same .
Assume current on 400 V side of transformer to be 1000 A . Primary apparent power = Secondary apparent powe r
e
Sol . : The arrangement is shown in the Fig . 10 .4. V J VLt ILl = N VL2IL2

* x 400x 1000 = .13- x 33000x I L 2

Star - delt a 400 x 1000
transformer
1LZ 33000
= 12 .12 A
- Joooo
• Ill Thus each primary of C .T .s connected in star carries a current of 12 .12 A while each
secondary of C .T .s connected in star carries a current of 5J A .

• "
I: 1iii
un
Hence the C .T . ratio on 33 kV side is ,
Primary current _ 12 .1 2
C .T. ratio
Ill Secondary current 5- Z
• . .. .
= 1 .4 : 1
This is the required C .T. ratio on 33 kV side .

I 10 .4 Problems Encountered in Differential Protectio n

The problems encountered in the simple differential protection are ,
1. Unmatched characteristics of C .T .s : Though the saturation is avoided, there exist s
difference in the C .T. characteristics--du e' to ratio error at high values of short circui t
53 A
currents . This causes an appreciable difference in the secondary currents which ca n
Ip
C .T. secondarie s operate the relay . So the relay operates for through external faults .
in sta r This difficulty is overcome by using percentage differential relay . In this relay, th e
5d A
difference in current due to ratio error exists and flows through relay coil . But at th e
same time 'the average current (Ir + I,/2) flows through the restraining coil whic h
produces enough restraining torque . Hence relay becomes inoperative for th e
through faults .
2. Ratio change due to tap change : To alter the voltage and current ratios between hig h
Fig . 10 . 4 voltage and low voltage sides of a power transformer, a tap changing equipment i s
On the primary side, which is 400 V side of transformer the current is 1000 A . used . This is an important feature of a power transformer . This equipment effectivel y
alters the turns ratio . This causes unbalance on both sides . To compensate for this
Hence C .T.s primary will carry current of 1000 A . effect, the tappings can be provided on C .T .s also which are to be varied similar to th e
The C .T . ratio is 1000/5 on the primary side hence the current in C .T . main power transformer . But this method is not practicable .
The percentage differential relays ensure the stability with respect to the amount o f
Secondaries which is phase current of delta connected C .T .s is ,
unbalance occurring at the extremities of the tap change range .
Ip = 1000x 5=5 A 3. Difference in lengths of pilot wires : Due to the difference in lengths of the pilo t
1000
wires on both sides, the unbalance condition may result . The difficulty is overcom e
This is shown in the Fig. 10.4 . by connecting the adjustable resistors in pilot wires on both sides .. These are calle d
IL In=5-\/ A
= ,‘,/ balancing resistors . With the help of these resistors equipotential points on the pilo t
This is because the C .T. secondaries are connected in delta . wires can be adjusted . In percentage differential relays the taps are provided on th e
operating coil and restraining coil to achieve balance .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 252 Transformer Protectio n VTU - Switchgear andProtection 253 Transformer Protectio n

4 . Magnetizing current inrush : When the transformer is energized, the conditio n In the latest method, the harmonic content of the magnetizing current flowing in th e
initially is of zero induced e .m .f . and it is similar to the switching of an inductiv e operating circuit is filtered out and passed through a restraining coil . This is called harmoni c
circuit . Due to this the transient inrush of magnetising current flows in to th e current restraint .
transformer . This current is called magnetizing current inrush . This current may b e
as great as 10 times the full load current of the transformer . This decays very slowly 10 .4 .1 Harmonic Restraint and Harmonic Blockin g
and is bound to operate differential protection of the transformer falsely . The high initial inrush of magnetizing currents consist of a high component of even an d
The factors which affect the magnitude and direction of the magnetizing current inrus h odd harmonics .
are, Table 10 .2 gives the typical values of harmonic contents in a magnetizing current .
a. Size of the transforme r
b. Size of the power syste m Order of harmonic content in magnetizing Amplitude as a % of fundamenta l
c. Type of magnetic material used for the core . curren t
d. The amount of residual flux existing before energizing the transformer . 2nd 63. 0
e. The method by which transformer is energized .
If the transformer is energized when the voltage wave is passing through zero, th e 3 rd 26.8
magnetizing current inrush is maximum . At this instant, the current and flux should b e
4 th 5.1
maximum in highly inductive circuit . And in a half wave flux reversal must take place t o
attain maximum value in the other half cycles . If the residual flux exists, the required flu x
5th 4.1
maybe in same or opposite direction . Due to this magnetizing current inrush is less or more .
If it is more, it is responsible to saturate the core which further increases its component . 6 th 3.7
This current decays rapidly for first few cycles and then decays slowly . The tim e
constant L/R of the circuit is variable as inductance of circuit varies due to the change in 7t h 2.4
,
permeability of the core . The losses in the circuit damp the inrush currents . Depending o n Table 10.2
the size of the transformer, the time constant of inrush current varies from 0 .2 sec to 1 sec .
The operating coil carries the fundamental component of the inrush current only . The
The waveforms o f
harmonic contents and fundamental together is passed through the restraining coil .
Phase R magnetizing inrush current i n
three phases is shown in th e Thus more the harmonic contents in the inrush current, more is the restraining torqu e
Fig . 10.5 . and the relay does not operate . .So use of percentage differential protection rather tha n
simple differential protection is preferred . The circuit used to compensate the effect o f

lrtRA A There are number of ways

ensuring immunity from th e
operation by magnetizin g
magnetizing current using harmonic restraint method is shown in the Fig . 10 .6.

Restrainin g
surges . Firstly the relay may
Phase Y coil s
be given a setting higher tha n

* 1 vU V t
maximum inrush current . X111 1111 o

U
Secondly the time setting ma y
be made long enough for th e
magnetizing current to fall to

Phase B
I lu « a value below the primar y
operating current before th e
relay operates . But thes e
simple remedies are
inconsistent with high spee d
and low primary operating
o
current .

Fig . 10 .5 Typical magnetizing inrush current waveforms Fig . 10 .6 Magnetizing current compensatio n
 VTU - Switchgear and Protection 254 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 255 Transformer Protectio n

The filter F1 is designed to pass the fundamental 50 Hz component which excites th e
operating coil Ro . The magnetizing current has large third harmonic component . There is an
additional restraining coil Rr . The filter F, is designed to pass the third harmonic componen t
which energizes the additional restraining coil Rr . The current passing through normal
restraining coil and current passing through additional restraining coil Rr produce sufficien t
restraining torque . This compensates for the differential current resulting due to the flow o f
magnetizing current .
The separate blocking relay in series with the differential relay is used . The operation of
this relay is based on harmonic component of inrush current . This relay consists of 100 H z
blocking filter in operating coil while 50 Hz filter in restraining coil . At the time of inrush
current, second harmonic component is maximum and thus blocking relay is blocked with
its contacts remain open .
In short circuit case, the harmonic component is negligible and 50 Hz component i s
dominant . Hence the blocking relay operates to close its contact . This principle is calle d
harmonic blocking .
10 .5 Frame Leakage Protectio n
This protection is nothing but the method of providing earth fault protection to th e
transformer . This protection can be provided to the metal clad switchgear .
The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 10.7 .
When there is an earth fault, then fault current leaks from the frame and passes throug h
the earth connection provided . Thus the primary of C .T . senses the current due to whic h
current passes through the sensitive earth fault relay . This operates the relay .
Such a protection is provided only for small transformers . For the large transformers ,
the differential protection is enough to sense and operate for the earth faults .
10.6 Buchholz Relay
The Buchholz relay is a gas operated relay used for the protection of oil immerse d
transformers against all the types of internal faults . It is named after its inventor, Buchholz .
The slow developing faults called incipient faults in the transformer tank below oil leve l
operate Buchholz relay which gives an alarm . If the faults are severe it disconnects th e
transformer from the supply .
It uses the principle that due to the faults, oil in the tank decomposes, generating th e
gases . The 70% component of such gases is hydrogen which is light and hence rises upward s
towards conservator through the pipe . Buchholz relay is connected in the pipe, as shown i n
the Fig . 10.8 . Due to the gas collected in the upper portion of the Buchholz relay, the rela y
operates and gives an alarm .

Units of metal clad switchgea r

Earth fault current

Earthin g
bus Earth faul t
C . T.
relay y
::
lrlrllllllil ' :: 1111 1
Concrete
foundation
Earthing

Fig . 10 .8 Basic arrangement of Buchholz rela y

Fig . 10 .7 Frame leakage protectio n
The metal clad switchgear is lightly insulated from the earth .
The frame of the switchgear i.e . enclosure is grounded . This is done through a primary
of current transformer in between .
The concrete foundation of switchgear and the other equipments are lightly insulate d
from the ground. The resistance of these equipments with earth is about 12 ohms .
The constructional features of Buchholz relay are shown in the Fig . 10 .9 .
(See Fig. 10.9 on next page .)
Under normal conditions, the Buchholz relay is full of oil . It consists of a cast housin g
containing a hinged hollow float . A mercury switch is . attached to a float . The float bein g
rotated in the upper part of the housing . Another hinged flap valve is located in the lowe r
part which is directly in the path of the oil between tank and the conservator . Another
mercury switch is attached. to a flap valve . The float closes the alarm circuit while the lowe r
flap valve closes the trip circuit in case of internal fault .
 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 257 Transformer Protectio n
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 256

Gas accumulate d
Float tilting with reduced oil level
closed . This energizes the trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker . Thus transformer i s
totally disconnected from the supply .
The connecting pipe between the tank and the conservator should be as straight a s
possible and should slope upwards conservator at a small angle from the horizontal . Thi s
angle should be between 10 to 11°.
For the economic considerations, Buchholz relays are not provided for the transformer s
having rating below 500 kVA .

10 .6.2 Advantages
The various advantages of the Buchholz relay are ,
1. Normally a protective relay does not indicate the appearance of the fault . It operates
when fault occurs . But Buchholz relay gives an indication of the fault at very earl y
stage, by anticipating the fault and operating the alarm circuit . Thus the transforme r
can be taken out of service before any type of serious damage occurs .
2. It is the simplest protection in case of transformers .

10.6 :3 Limitation s
The various limitations of the Buchholz relay are ,
1. Can be used only for oil immersed transformers having conservator tanks .
2. Only faults below oil level are detected .
3. Setting of the mercury switches can not be kept too sensitive otherwise the relay ca n
operate due to bubbles, vibration, .earthquakes mechanical shocks etc .
Fig. 10 .9 Construction of Buchholz rela y 4. The relay is slow to operate having minimum operating time of 0 .1 seconds an d
average time of 0 .2 seconds.
10 .6.1 Operatio n
There are many types of internal faults such as insulation fault, core heating, bad switc h 10 .6.4 Application s
contacts, faulty joints etc . which can occur . When the fault occurs the decomposition of oil in The following types of transformer faults can be protected by the Buchholz relay and ar e
the main tank starts due to which the gases are generated . As mentioned earlier, major indicated by alarm, :
component of such gases is hydrogen . The hydrogen tries to rise up towards conservator bu t 1. Local overheating
in its path it gets accumulated in the upper part of the Buchholz relay . Through passage o f 2. Entrance of air bubbles in oil
the gas is prevented by the flap valve . 3. Core bolt insulation failure
When gas gets accumulated in the upper part of housing, The oil level inside the housin g 4. Short circuited lamination s
falls . Due to which the hollow float tilts and close the contacts of the mercury switc h 5. Loss of oil and reduction in oil level due to leakag e
attached to it . This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm . Due to this operator
6. Bad and loose electrical contact s
knowsthat there is some incipient fault in the transformer . The transformer is disconnecte d
and the gas sample is tested . The testing results give the indication, what type of fault i s 7. Short circuit between phase s
started developing in the transformer . Hence transformer can be disconnected before faul t 8. Winding short circuit
grows into a serious one . The alarm circuit does not immediately disconnects the 9. Bushing punctur e
transformer but gives only indication to the operator . This is because some times bubbles i n 10. Winding earth faults .
the oil circulating system may operate the alarm circuit through actually there is no fault . Examples with Solution s
However if a serious fault such as internal short circuit between phases, earth faul t
inside the tank etc . occurs then the considerable amount of gas gets generated . Thus due to Ex . 10.2 : A 11 kV/132 kV power transformer is connected in delta-star . The C .T .s on the low
voltage side have turns ratio of 600/5 . Find the suitable turns ratio for the C .T.s on high
fast reduce level of oil, the pressure in the tank increases . Due to this the oil rushes toward s
voltage side.
the conservator . While doing so it passes though the relay where flap valve is present. Th e
flap valve gets deflected due to the rushing oil . Due to this the mercury switch contacts get Sol. : The connections are shown in the Fig . 10 .10.
VTU - Switchgearand Protection
258 Transformer Protection VTU - Switchgearand Protection 259 Transformer Protectio n
50
C.T . ratio on high voltage side =
(5/ 13-)
= 17.32 : 1
Ex. 10.3 : A 3 phase, 200 kVA,11 kV/400 V transformer is connected in delta-star . The C .T.s o n
low voltage side have turns ratio of 500/5 . Determine the C .T. ratio on high voltage side.
Also obtain the circulating current when the fault of 750 A offollowing types occur on th e
low voltage side :
i) Earth fault within the protective zone
ii) Earth fault outside the protective zone
iii) Phase to phase fault within the protective zon e
iv) Phase to phase fault outside the protective zon e
Assume balanced voltage .
Sol. : The connections are shown in the Fig . 10 .11.

Star-
C . T. H . V. Sid e
secondaries

Fig . 10 .1 0
Let the current on the primary i .e . low voltage side of power transformer be 600 A .
This current will flow through each line on primary of transformer .
Hence current in each secondary of star connected C .T. on.primary is the phase current
Ip as shown in the Fig . 10.10.
0
Ip = 600 x 6 0 = 5 A

The same in line current I L which is line current for the C .T.s connected in delta on
secondary of transformer .
Hence current in each secondary of C .T. which is phase current of C .T. is )/ times the
line value .
Ip = - A for C. T. secondary connected in delta

Now apparent power on both sid13s is same, Fig .10 .1 1

*" VL1 ILl = - VL2 IL2 On primary which is delta connected, C .T.s are connected in star while
-f x11000x600 = .x132000xI L2 On secondary which is star connected, C .T.s are connected in delta .
11000x 60 0 Let current on low voltage side be 500 A.
ILZ
132000 Now IL2 = 500 A
= 50 A C .T. ratio 500/ 5
This is the current flowing through each primary of delta connected C .T. Current through primary of C.T. on low voltage side
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 26 0 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 261 Transformer Protectio n
= IL2 =500 A

Ir = Current through each secondary of delt a

0}
connected C .T .s
=500x 5 =5 A
500
IL = Line current through pilot wires
= SI P
= 5J A
Same is the current through each secondary of star connected C .T . on high voltage side .
.. IP = 5I§ A on h .v . side C .T. secondarie s
Apparent power on both sides of transformers is same .
VL1 ILl = V L2 IL2

-13- x11000xI L1 =x400x50 0

400x50 0

IL1 11000
= 18.18 A
This is current through each primary of C .T .s connected in star .
Current ratio of C .T .s on high voltage side
_ 18 .1 8
5-13- ô
U
= 2 .099 : 1 a
To'
(i) Consider the earth fault within-the protective zone as shown in the Fig . 10.12.
(See Fig . 10.12 on next page . ) Q
Now IL2 = 750 A CD
N
Equating apparent power , a
Q) a
W
VL1 I L1 =N VL2 I L2
ô n
r
x11000xI L1 = fx400x75 0
0 N

ILl = 27 .27 A
a
This is the line current on h .v . side under fault condition . r
N

The C .T . ratio is 2.099 : 1 . Hence corresponding current through C .T. secondary on h.v . N
r
1
side is, = 27 .27 x = 12 .99 A
2 .099
N a
So 12 .99 A current will flow through the relay and relay will operate . m
)
C
(ii) Consider the earth fault outside the protective zone as shown in the Fig . 10.13 . Th e
line current on secondary is 750 A .
Secondary C .T . current = 750 x 500 7.5 A

Current in pilot wires = 75 x = 12.99 A as delta connected

VTU -Switchgear and Protection 262 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 263 Transformer Protectio n

The currents are shown in the Fig . 10.13. Due to such fault current will flow in two phases of low voltage winding but in all thre e
phases in high voltage winding as shown in the Fig . 10 .14 . This current on high voltage sid e
will flow through the relay and relay will operate .

So on both sides the current is balanced hence no current will flow through the relay an d
relay will not operate .
iii) Phase to phase fault in the protected zone on low voltage side . This is shown in the
Fig. 10.14.
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 264 Transformer Protection VTU -Switchgear and Protection 265 Transformer Protectio n
r
iv) Consider phase to phase fault outside the protected zone as shown in the Fig . 10.15. C .T .s on star connected side are delta connected hence current in secondary is equal t o
The various currents and corresponding distribution is also shown in the Fig . 10.15. current in pilot wires divided by -13- .
Assume 400 A is flowing in the lines on low voltage side i .e. 6.6 kV side .
Now primary apparent power = secondary apparent powe r
VL1 ILl = 3 V L2 I L2
x33x10 3 xIL, = Jx6 .6x103 x40 0
ILI = 80 A
This is primary current of C .T. on high voltage side .
On the delta side of transformers the C .T. secondaries are star connected . Their
secondary current is 5 A . Hence current fed in pilot wires from low voltage side is 5 A . Same
current is fed from C .T . connections on high voltage side which are delta connected .
Hence secondary current of C .T.s on high voltage side is 5/-, A .
Thus C.T . ratio on H .T. side is 80 : 5/' i.e. 27.712 :1 .
The connection diagram is shown in the Fig. 10.16.

C .T. C .T.
Secondarie s
Delt a
Secondaries
in sta r
1
in delta Sta r
0000' -* 0000'

e,. too '

Restraining coils

'0040

Operating coil s
As the currents on both sides are balanced, no current flows through the relay henc e O
relay will not operate .
Ex. 10 .4 : A 3 phase transformer rated for 33 kV/6 .6 kV is connected star/delta and the protectin g
1
current transformers on the low voltage side have a ratio of 400/5 . Determine the ratio of 1
the current transformers on H. V. side . Draw the connection diagram showing how th e
relay operates under fault conditions . Fig . 10 .1 6
Sol. : C,T.s on delta connected side are star connected . Hence the secondary phas e
currents are equal to currents in pilot wires .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 266 Transformer Protectio n

Review Question s
1 . State and explain the various possible faults in transformer . Why the faults are less in transformers than th e
11
generators .
2. What is overfluxing ? When it occurs ? What are the methods to overcome it ?
Carrier Aided Protectio n
3. Which are the important point to be taken care of while providing differential protection to the transformers ?
4. Draw explain the Merz-Price protection scheme for ,
and Static Relay s
i) Star-Delta transforme r
ii) Star-Star transformer
ii) Delta-Star transforme r 11 .1 Block Schematic of Carrier Aided Protectio n
5. State the problems encountered in a simple differential protection of transformers .
Carrier aided protection is used for the protection of transmission lines . The carrie r
6. Write a notes on , currents with high frequency range are transmitted and received with the help o f
i) Magnetic current in rus h transmission lines for protection . The schematic representation of carrier current protectio n
ii) Harmonic restraint and harmonic blocking is shown in the Fig . 11.1 .
iii) Frame leakage protectio n
7. Draw and explain the construction and working of Buchholz relay . Against which faults Buchholz relay gives Bus ba r
the protection ? State its advantages and disadvantages .
8 . Describe with the help of a neat diagram the connections of differential protection of a transformer . A 3-phas e
33/6 .6 kV star/delta connected transformer is protected by differential system . The C .T.'s on LT side hav e
ratio of 300/5 . Show that the C .T.s on HT side will have a ratio 60 : 53.
9. A 3 phase transformer of 220/11,000 line volts is connected in star/delta . The protective transformers on 22 0
V side have a current ratio of 600/5. What should be C .T. ratio on 11,000 V side ? (Ans . : 1 .385 :1 )
10 . A 3-phase, 2 2 0/11 000 V transformer is connected in star-delta and the protective transformers on the 22 0
V sides have a current ratio of 60% . What must be the ratio of the CT. s on the 11,000 V side and ho w

shall they be connected ? (Ans . : 12 : 5 )

11 . A three phase 66 kV/11 kV power transformer is connected in star/delta . The transformer is protected b y
Merz-Price circulating current system . Protecting current transformers on the low voltage side have a Carrier curren t
Carrier curren t
ratio of 250/5 . Find the ratio of the current transformers on high voltage side . (Ans . ;14.1 :1 ) transmitter, equipment
12. A three phase power transformer has a voltage ratio of 33/6 .6'kV and is star delta connected . The Receiver, Powe r
protective C.T.s on the 6.6 kV side have a current ratio of 100 . What must be the ratio of protective C .T.s amplifier, Line tunin g
unit, Master oscillator
on the 33 kV side ? (Ans . : 35 : 1 )

Fig . 11 .1 Schematic of carrier current protectio n

1. A 3 phase transformer rated for 33*V/6 .6 kV is connected star/delta and the protecting current transformer s The identical carrier equipments which include transmitter, receiver, line tuning unit ,
on the low voltage side have a ratio of 400/5. Determine the ratio of the current transformers on H .V. side.
master oscillator, power amplifier etc . are provided at each end of the transmission line . The
Draw the connection diagram showing how the relay operates under fault conditions .
description of various blocks in the schematic representation is given below .
(Aug .-2002, 10 Marks )
1 . Coupling capacitor
3. What are the problems encountered with differential protection ? Explain differential protection of powe r
transformers . (Feb .-2003, 10 Marks ) The various carrier equipments described above are connected to the transmission lin e
2. Write a short note on Buchholz relay (Aug : 2003, 5 Marks ) with the help of coupling capacitor . The capacitive reactance is given by C. Hence for
carrier frequency it offers less reactance while high reactance for normal power frequency . I t
❑❑❑
(267 )
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 269 Carrier Aided'Protection&Static Relays
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 268 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relay s

can be seen that the carrier current signals are allowed to pass through this capacitor an d
enter in carrier equipment while power frequency currents are blocked . The inductanc e
connected in series with the coupling capacitor reduces the impedance to further low value .
Thus a condition of resonance is achieved at carrier frequency .
2. Line Trap Uni t
This unit is between the busbar and the connection of coupling capacitor to the line . It
consists of parallel combination of inductance (L) and capacitance (C) acting as tuned circuit .
This circuit offers low impedance to power frequency currents while offers very hig h
impedance to carrier frequency currents which prevents the high frequency carrier to enter
in the neighbouring line and carrier currents flow only in the protected line .
3. Protection and Earthing of Coupling Equipmen t
Due to lightning, switching transients or faults, overvoltage surges are produced on th e
transmission lines . These overvoltages may produce stress on coupling equipment and lin e
trap unit. For protection purpose, the nonlinear resistors are connected across line trap uni t
in series with a protective gap . These resistors with protective gap is connected acros s
inductor in the coupling unit . The length of the gap is adjusted in such a way that, spark ove r
takes place at a set value of overvoltage . The earth rod is used is for earthing of coupling uni t
so as to get low resistance earth path . The relay room consists of carrier equipment pane l
which is connected to station earthing system .
4. Electronic Equipment s
Following electronic equipments are generally used at each end of the line ,
a) Transmitter uni t
b) Receiver unit
c) Relay unit
Normally the frequencies with range from 50 to 500 kHz are employed in variou s
frequency bands with each has specific bandwidth . The oscillator is used for the generatio n
of carrier frequency and it is tuned for a particular frequency which is chosen for particula r
application . Sometimes a crystal oscillator may also be used which gives particula r
bandwidth after selecting particular type of crystal . Voltage stabilizers are employed fo r
maintaining the oscillator output voltage constant . The losses in the transmission pat h
between transmitter and receiver at remote end of line are overcome with the help o f
amplifier which increases the level of the signal to be transmitted .
The attenuation in signal is due to losses in coupling equipment which are constant fo r
given frequency range . Depending on length of line, frequency whether conditions and th e
size and type of line, the line losses vary .
If weather is fairly reasonable then the attenuation is of the order of 0 .1 dB/kHz a t
80 kHz which increases 0 .2 dB/km at 380 kHz . If we consider 250 km line then the output o f
power amplifier is about 20 W . For a particular bandwidth the amplifier should giv e
maximum power . Depending on the type of protection required, various methods ar e
adopted for the control of transmitter . The interconnection between oscillator and amplifie r
is done through control circuit . The block diagram representation of transmitting unit i s
shown in the Fig . 11 .3 (b) .
Contro l
unit
Form _ To
rela y
unit
Oscillator Amplifier
H lin e

a) Transmitter Unit : Fig . 11 .3 (a) Transmitting uni t

The general representation of power line carrier equipments is shown in the Fig . 11 .2 . b) Receiving Unit :
The block schematic of receiving unit is shown in the Fig . 11 .3 (b) .
CT
Transmissio n
lin e Fro m Matchin g Bandpas s
lin e Attenuator element filter
Coupling coupler
Lin e capacito r
trap unit
P. T
Bu s o Amplifier
bar detecto r

Carrie r
Receiver receiver
Line tuning unit

Relay Power amplifier

uni t
Protectiv e
Master oscillato r relay

Fig . 11 .3 (b) Receiving uni t

Fig . 11 .2 Representation of carrier current protection unit
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 270 Carrier AidedProtection&Static Relay s
The signal is reduced to a safe value with the help of attenuator . The undesired signal s
which are signals from subsequent sections or spurious signals are prevented by using ban d
pass filter . The matching element matches the impedance of the transmission line an d
receiving section . The undesired signals are generated either by short circuits or radi o
interferences . The malfunctioning of this unit is avoided due to the noise signals by using th e
set value above 2 milliwatts which is above noise level . If the carrier signals have power leve l
of 20 W and receiver unit is set at higher level of 5 milliwatts then the operation is unaffecte d
by spurious signals . For avoiding the overloading, the signals should be attenuated befor e
applying - it to the amplifier detector .
c) Frequency Spacing : The subsequent line sections use various frequencies . The carrier
signals are prevented from entering into next section by wave traps . The filters fro m
receiving unit filters other frequencies . The frequency bands of various sections are properl y
co-ordinated .
d) High Frequency Signal Modulatio n
For modulation of power frequency signals, the modulator is used . The signal after
modulation is passed to the amplifier and then transmitted through coupling unit . From th e
half cycle line currents, the required blocks of carrier signals are generated with the help o f
oscillator . The level of line current at which .oscillator generates these carrier blocks shoul d
be theoretically constant but practically there is critical minimum current . The modulation
of line current into high frequency carriers is shown in the Fig . 11 .4.
11 .2 Phase Comparison Method of Carrier Current Protectio n
There are various methods of carrier current protection . Some of them are as give n
below
1. Directional comparison metho d
2. Phase comparison method
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 271 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s
The block diagram of the phase comparison method is shown in the Fig . 11 .5 .
C6)
Oscillator Modulato r Amplifie r
Summation
Starter
Comparato r Receive r
Tri p
relay
Fig . 11 .5 Block diagram of phase comparison metho d
In this method, the phase relation between the current entering in the protected zon e
and current leaving the protected zone is compared without comparison of magnitudes o f
currents . It does not provide back up protection which is to be additionally provided but i t
acts as main protection.
In this method the signals are sent from each end of the line while they are received at th e
other end . The signals are obtained from C .T . secondaries and are related to the current flo w
in the main line .
In the absence of any fault on the line, the signal is sent for alternate half cycles from eac h
end resulting in continuous signal on the line . For external fault the same condition hold s
good . If there is an internal fault, the current in one of the lines reverses in phase and remain s
below fault detector setting resulting in sending the carrier only for half the time . The relay i s
arranged to sense the absence of signal in the line . When the phase angle between the tw o
signals reaches to a certain set value, the tripping occurs .
For internal fault condition, the transmitted signals and received signals are almost i n
phase with each other . The comparator compares these signals . For alternate half cycles, the
signal is absent so the comparator gives output which operates to trip=relay . Various signal s
in primary circuit, secondary circuit : transmitter, receiver comparator during external fault
are shown in the Fig . 11 .6 . (See on ne xt page .)
Carrier signals are transmitted to the line from both ends . If fault is external then th e
effect of sum of the two signals is similar to that obtained with continuous high frequenc y
carrier available on line . Protection is designed to remain stable under this condition .
If fault is internal then sum of these two signals produces effects similar to periodi c
suppression of such a continuous carrier . The time span between the each suppression i s
proportional to the phase displacement between the primary current at both the ends . .
Normal angle for which designed protection operates is about 30° below which th e
protection remains stable . This angle is known as stabilising angle of protection . The high
frequency signals are generated by the process of modulation .
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 272 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection 273 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relays

End 1 End 2
11 .3 Advantages of Carrier Current Protectio n
With carrier current protection, very fast fault clearing is obtained . The tripping o f
Primary curren t circuit breakers at both ends of the line takes place in about one to three cycles . Due to thi s
stability of power system is improved . The other advantages of this protection are give n
below
1. Simultaneous reclosing of circuit breaker is possible as reclosing signal is sent
Secondary signa l simultaneously .
2. It prevents shock to the systems as faults are cleared rapidly .
3. It gives easy discrimination for simultaneous faults .
Transmitted signa l 4. During synchronizing power surges, tripping does not occur .
5. For operation of circuit breaker to be fast, faster relaying is necessary which is
achieved through carrier aided protection.
Signal fed to receive r
The carrier current equipments are used in other applications apart from protection
which include communication between two stations . The receiving stations and substations
Current in comparato r
are provided with telephones which are connected to carrier current equipment an d
conversion of signals is done with the help of carrier current communication . The remote
control of power station equipment is possible through carrier equipments using carrie r
signals . It is also used in telemetering which consists of various electronic equipments tha t
End 1 End 2 convert the data obtained from transducers into desired form (analog or digital) an d
transmits it to the control room for its processing using computers .

Primary curren t 11 .4 Static Relay s

It is seen that the conventional electromagnetic relays use moving parts such a s
armature in their control circuitry . The relays which do not use moving parts and use th e
Secondary signal solid state electronic components such as diodes, transistors etc are called static relays . Th e
circuits such as comparators, level detectors, zero crossing detectors etc, designed usin g
electronic components are used in the static relays for measurement and comparison o f
electrical quantities . The static relay, is designed in such a way that whenever a quantit y
Transmitted signa l under consideration exceeds a particular level, the static circuit produces a response withou t
any moving parts such as armature . This response is then manipulated and given to a
tripping circuit which may be electronic or electromagnetic . Thus static relay respons e
Received circuit does not have moving parts and made up of electronic components but its tripping
signa l circuit may be electronic or electromagnetic . Let us study the basic elements of a stati c
relay . .
Signal fed to comparato r

Current i n
comparator
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 274 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 275 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s

11 .5 Basic Elements of a Static Rela y The main functions of such devices in the protection are ,
1. To produce final tripping signal to the circuit breaker .
The Fig. 11 .7 shows the block diagram of a static relay indicating its basic elements .
2. To produce signals to perform supplementary functions such as alarming ,
Feed element D .C . powe r suppl y
intertripping etc .
3. To act as intermediate switching stages in a complex protection scheme .
b. Critical Measuring Function :
Output Trippin g This device is a sort of on-off controller . It activates when the input signal reaches t o
Input Measurin g elemen t
element element amplifie r circuit some critical level decided by the protection scheme . Such a device is shown in the Fig .11 .9 .
Relayin g
quantity
Rectifier Comparator Transistor a s
an amplifier Input Instantaneou s Instantaneou s
R critica l noncritica l
Fig. 11 .7 Block diagram of a static rela y
11 .5 .1 Input Elemen t
Fig. 11.9 Instantaneous critical functio n
The relaying quantity can be the output of C .T. or P .T . or it may be the output of a
transducer or it may be combination of various signals . Thus an electronic circuit such a s Thus when input R is greater than some critical value P, it operates . While for reset ,
rectifier is required as an input element to get the input signal in a convenient form befor e input R must be less than kP (k 1) .
applying it to a measuring element . Some mixing circuits such as op-amp adder may also b e It has only one output and switching gain need not be high . The output of such device
required as an input element . then can be connected to instantaneous noncritical to obtain multiple outputs .
The various requirements of critical function devices are ,
11 .5 .2 Measuring Elemen t
This is the heart of the static relay . It compares the output of an input element with a se t 1.High accuracy.
value and decides the signal to be applied to the output element which ultimately drives th e 2. Long term consistency .
tripping circuit . Thus measuring element is a deciding signal generator . 3. Fast and reliable operation .
Measuring element can be classified as , 4. High controllable reset ratio .
1. Single input devic e c. Definite or Fixed Time Function :
2. Two input device This is nothing but a delay function element .
3. Multi-input devic e T Itproduces a define time delay between its inpu t
The single input devices, depending on the protection and control schemes are furthe r and the output . The delay may be provide d
Fixe d between the application of input and activatio n
classified as , time Output
Input delay signa l of output or between removal of input and j
a . Noncritical Repeat Function (All or Nothing Relay) : resetting of output. It is shown in the Fig .
R
As the name suggests, these device s
are completely unenergized or The input is noncritical type i .e . either i?r o
Many energized much higher than the Fig . 11 .10 Definite time functio n or too high than the marginal requirement .
Input Instantaneou s outputs Practically charging time of a capacitor is
R noncritical (contracts) marginal condition. required, to produc e controlled to obtain fixed time delay .
very fast response It can be represente d
as shown in the Fig . 11.8 . The input R is d.Input Dependent Time Function :
Fig. 11 .8 Noncritical repeat function either zero or too higher than th e This function depends on the input characteristics and decides the time accordingly .
marginal operating level . Such devices The common form of input dependent time function characteristics is ,
are instantaneous with response time less than 20 ms . The switching power gain associate d t = f(Rn ) where R = inpu t
with them is generally 10 3 . Such devices have multiple output contacts .
and n = negativ e
 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 277
VTU - Switchgear and Protection 276 Carrier Aided Protection &Static Relays

The function and its characteristics are shown in the Fig . 11.11 . 11 .6 .1 Advantages of Static Relay s
The various advantages of static relays are ,
t 1. The moving parts are absent . The moving parts are present only in the actua
l
tripping circuit and not in the control circuit .
2. The burden on current transformers gets considerably reduced thus smalle
Inpu t Input r
dependen t C.T.s can be used .
R time functio n i -R 3. The power consumption is very low as most of the circuits are electronic .
4. The response is very quick .
Fig . 11 .11 Input dependent time functio n
5. As moving parts are absent, the minimum maintenance is required
As n is negative, as the input increases the operating time decreases . So operating time i s . No bearing
friction or contact troubles exist .
inversely proportional to some power of the input . The examples of such relays are invers e
definite minimum time lag overcurrent and earth fault relays . 6. The resetting time can be reduced and overshoots can be reduced due t
o
The two input devices are very common such as comparators, level detectors etc . whil e absence of mechanical inertia and thermal storage .
multiple input devices are extension of two input devices to extend the range o f 7. The sensitivity is high as signal amplification can be achieved very easily .
characteristics . 8. The use of printed circuits eliminates the wiring errors and mass production i
s
possible.
11 .5 .3 Output Elemen t
The signals obtained from the measuring element are required to be amplified befor e 9. As electronic circuits can be used to perform number of functions, the wid
e
applying to the tripping circuit . Thus output element is an amplifier . Sometimes this range of operating characteristics can be obtained, which almost approach t o
element not only amplifies the signals but multiplies them or combines them with othe r ideal requirements .
signals to delay them . 10. The low energy levels required in the measuring circuits make the relay
s
smaller and compact in size .
11 .5 .4 Feed Element
The measuring element uses electronic circuits consisting transistors, diodes etc . The 11. The testing aid servicing is simplified .
output element uses transistor as an amplifier . All these components, circuits alongwith th e 11 .6 .2 Limitations of Static Relay s
tripping circuit require d .c . supply for the proper functioning . The feed element provide s
the d .c . voltage required by the various elements . Inspite of various advantages, the static relays suffer from the following limitations ,
1. The characteristics of electronic components such as transistors, diodes etc
s . are
11 .6 Comparison of Static and Electromagnetic Relay temperature dependent. Hence relay characteristics vary with temperature and
ageing.
The conventional electromagnetic relays use the moving parts such as an armature, dis c
e
etc . Thus they are bulky in size . These relays are robust and highly reliable . These ar ' 2. The reliability is unpredictable as it depends on a large number of smal
l
subjected to differential forces under fault conditions and hence required to have delicate components and their electrical connections .
setting of small contact gaps, special bearing arrangements, clutch assemblies etc . Thu s 3. These relays have low short time overload capacity compared t
there are lot of manufacturing difficulties and problems related to mechanical stabilit y electromagnetic relays .
o
associated with electromagnetic relays . The current and potential transformers ar e
subjected to high burdens in case of electromagnetic relays . 4. Additional d .c. supply is required for various transistor circuits .
The static relays are commonly using the transistor circuits and called transistor relays . 5. Susceptable to the voltage fluctuations and transients .
This is because transistor can be used as an amplifying device as well as a switching device . 6. Less robust compared to electromagnetic relays .
Hence any functional characteristics as per the requirement can be obtained by the static i
Now a days effect of temperature on the semiconductor devices can be compensated b y
relays . The transistor circuits can perform functions like summation, integration, compariso n careful design of the circuits .
etc.
 278 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection 279 Carrier Aided Protection &Static Relay s
VTU -Switchgear and Protection
11 .8 Static Time Current Rela y
11 .7 Semiconductor Devices used in Static Relay s
The various electronic components, devices and circuits which are commonly used i n This is nothing but instantaneous overcurrent relay . The Fig. 11 .12 shows the bloc k
static relays are , diagram of static time current relay .
1. Semiconductor diodes : This includes the conventional p-n junction diode, zene r
diode, avalanche diode and the circuits using these diodes such as rectifiers, regulators , Fro m
Inpu t
Overloa d
C .T. Rectifie r Timin g
references etc . summation ---►
wit h unit leve l Leve l Amplifie r
C .T. circui t detector filte r
detector
2.Transistors : This includes bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field effect transistor s filter
(FET) . The transistors are used as amplifiers or as switches in the static relays . The direc t
coupled amplifiers using transistors are also used in the static relays .
3. Unijunction transistor : The device UJT having negative resistance characteristics i s Trippin g
often used to obtain relaxation oscillator, the output of which is used to trigger SCR . circui t

4. Thyristor family : This includes various two and three terminal and four laye r
electronic devices such as silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), triac, diac, silicon controlle d
switch (SCS) . Such devices are used in static relays to obtain high speed switchin g
characteristics .
5. Logic circuits : Most of the relays are bistable devices i .e. they are operated in tw o
stable states either ON or OFF . The logic circuit also has two states high i .e. ON and low i.e.
OFF . Hence logic circuits play an important role in the static relays .
6.Filter circuits : The RC and LC filters are also used in static relays after rectifiers t o
obtain smoothing of d .c. voltage generated . To obtain fast smoothing instead o f
conventional capacitor filter, the phase splitting before the rectification is used in stati c
relays.
7. Multivibrators : The various multivibrators using transistors are used to produc e
square waveforms in static relays . The diode clippers also can be used to obtain squar e
waveforms.
8.Time delay circuits : The variety of time delay circuits such as delay lines, RC circuits ,
timer circuits, resonant circuits using transistors, thyristors and ICs are used in static relays .
Depending upon the requirement of time delay, the particular circuit is chosen . The delay
Fig. 11 .12 Block diagram of time current static relay
The secondaries of line C .T .s are connected to the summation circuit. The output of
summation C .T . is given to the input C .T . The input C.T. is called auxiliary C .T. which has
taps on the primary for selecting the required pickup and current range . Then the output o f
auxiliary C .T . is rectified and smoothened . It is then applied to overload level detector an d
RC timing circuit . When the voltage across the timing capacitor reaches to a critical valu e
then it triggers the level detector . The output of the level detector is amplified as per th e
requirement and given to the tripping circuit . This operates the output device . The chargin g
of capacitor in a timing c ircuit is achieved by a voltage derived from CT current. This voltag e
is obtained across a nonlinear resistor by passing rectified current through it . The proper
selection of nonlinear resistor and RC timing circuit allows to obtain desired shape of tim e
current characteristics of the static relay .
The current at which the level detector trips is called threshold current denoted a s
I threshold . Thus for an overcurrent relay ,
when I;n < 'threshold , level detector does not trip

lines are used for shorter delays while RC charging and discharging circuits are used fo r when Tin 'threshold' level detector trip s
longer delays . The time delays of the order of micro secs to hours can be achieved using suc h
time delay circuits . 11 .8 .1 Static Time-Current Characteristic s
9.Level detectors : In static relays, it is necessary to detect the operating levels of variou s The time-current characteristics is inverse type of characteristics and given by th e
signals and used it to produce the necessary actuating signals . The level detector circuit s expression,
using the diodes, rectifier and RC elements are commonly used in static relays . t = K(TMS)
10.Analog circuits : The op-amp available in IC form is very common in building analo g In -In
circuits such as adder, subtractor, differentiator, integrator, inverting amplifier , where t = Time of operation in second s
noninverting amplifier etc. Op-amp also can be used to obtain the circuits like zero crossin g
detector, Schmitt trigger etc . All such circuits are used in various types of static relays . K = Design constant of relay
TMS = Time multiplier settin g
I = Tap current multiplie r
Ip = Multiple of tap current at which pickup occur s
n = Characteristic index of relay
 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 281 Carrier Aided Protection &Static Relays
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 280 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relays

The shape of the characteristics and degree of inverse nature is standardized . Accordin g
to British standards ,
For standard inverse characteristics (IDMT) , a v).
K x (TMS) = 0.14, n = 0 .02 and I p = 1 A 0

For standard very inverse characteristics , a

U O
Kx(TMS) = 13 .5; n=1 and I p =1 A
For extremely inverse characteristics ,
K x (TMS) = 80, n = 2 and I p =1 A
o
The characteristics are shown in the Fig . 11 .13.

o
o

a) MNVV
m
E E
. g a_ Nei
N
Fig . 11 .13 Inverse time-current characteristics
0.o
It can be seen that the curve is asymptotic about both the axes . Due to this, there exists
minimum pickup current below which relay can not be operated . While there exist s o
o
minimum definite time of operation below which it can not be reduced . 0
1 U
N
11 .8.2 Static Instantaneous Overcurrent Rela y m
U
The detailed circuit diagram of instantaneous static overcurrent relay is shown in th e 4
Fig. 11 .14. (See on next page .)
The auxiliary transformer gives output voltage proportional to the fault current . The
main circuit is protected from the voltage surges by using R1 C 1 circuit at the input . This is
surge protector . The output voltage from the transformer is then rectified and smoothene d -------------- -
m S
m ô
using capacitor filter C 2 . The level of this voltage is compared with the voltage level decide d ma)
by zener diode ZD1 . This zener limits the rectified voltage to a safe value though the faul t Û u7 ) a
ô
current is very high . Part of this voltage, as decided by the potentiometer P is compared with ------------------ -

the breakdown voltage of another zener diode Z D2 . When the rectified voltage is greater
than voltage of Z D2 , the transistor Q 1 conducts . This increases drop across R 2 due to which
Q 2 conducts . This energizes the trip coil Tc of the relay . When the trip coil opens, it develop s
high reverse voltage (back e.m.f.) . To protect Q 2 from such a high back e.m.f., a diode D is
connected across the trip coil . With the help of potentiometer P different pick up values can xw 00000000 ,-I
= N
CII
be obtained . Q *

Fig . 11 .14 Static overcurrent rela y

 VTU -Switchgear and Protection 283 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relays
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 282 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relays

Under normal conditions, Q l gets biasing from d .c. supply applied through R4 and P2
11 .8 .3 Inverse Time-Current Rela y and conducts . Hence capacitor C is short circuited . When fault current exceeds the pick up
The Fig . 11 .15 shows the circuit diagram of static inverse time-current relay . value set by the potentiometer P2 and selector switch then the transistor Q 1 becomes OFF .
. The capacitor C starts charging through R3 and P1 by the voltage developed across Rl . Thi s
C.) a.
charging time varies as per the severity of the fault . More severe is the fault, more is th e
Cu,
o voltage developed across R1 and less is the time for charging capacitor C to a critical level .
When voltage across the capacitor reaches to a predetermined level set by th e
o
C
0 potentionmenter P3 then the transistor Q 3 conducts . This energizes the trip coil and th e
oooo, circuit breaker opens . The diode D protects the transistor from the high reverse voltage .
o"
Thus more is the fault current, less is the time required to operate relay hence it is invers e
time-current relay.
I-o
11 .9 Directional Static Overcurrent Rela y
The directional relay is nothing but a directional power relay which operates when th e
power in the circuit flows in a particular direction. Thus it requires to sense the syste m
voltage as well as the system current .
The Fig . 11.16 shows block diagram of the directional static overcurrent relay .

Input I

A o-0-
Auxiliary
CT

Phase Time r Leve l

comparator Amplifie r
o circuit .detector

Directiona l
uni t Tri p
Phas e circuit
go ► shifter
O
Input V

Fig . 11 .16 Directional static overcurrent rela y

The input A is proportional to the system current supplied to a directional unit through
auxiliary transformer . The input B is proportional to the system voltage, supplied to a
directional unit through phase shifter .
The phase comparator compares the phase angle between the two inputs . Let this angle
a)
is 4 while the relay characteristics angle is O . Let I p be the current setting magnitude . The n
oN the relay operates when,
Ip 5 I cos ((I) - 8)
ôs The output of the phase comparator is applied to a level detector through timer if tim e
; 2
delay is required . The output of the level detector is amplified and given to the trip circuit .
N- N
The phase comparator is generally of two types ,
1. Hall effect generator which is popularly used in Russian countries .
2. Rectifier bridge type comparator which is popularly used in European countries .

Fig . 11 .15
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 284 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 285 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s

The static directional overcurrent relays are very sensitive and directional unit can b e Bridge rectifie r
made reliable down to 1% of the system voltage . comparato r

11 .10 Static Differential Rela y C .T. C .T.

Equipmen t
A differential relay is the relay which operates when the phasor difference of two o r to be protected U
more similar electrical quantities exceed a predetermined value .
In static differential relay, two similar quantities either voltages or currents ar e
compared. The comparator measures the vector difference between the two similar inpu t
signals . The rectifier bridge type comparator is generally used in the static differential relay . o
o 1
The block diagram is shown in the Fig . 11 .17.
4 1
Inpu t
A o
r 000000-U0
-
Comparato r Amplifie r Tri p
circui t
Inputo
B

Fig . 11 .17 Static differential relay Operating

In normal conditions, the two quantities balance each other and the comparator outpu t Restrainin g
is zero and the relay is inoperative .
Fig . 11 .18 Static differential relay schem e
For any internal fault conditions, the comparator senses the phase difference betwee n
the two quantities and produces the output . This is amplified and given to the trip circuit
Measurin g
which operates the relay . IL circui t
This scheme is used for protection of the generators and transformers against any typ e
of internal fault.
The various advantages of static differential relay over electromagnetic differential rela y Comparator Amplifier Tri p
circuit
are, highly sensitive, compact, very fast in operation, low power consumption, less burde n
on input CTs and inrush current proof characteristics .
VL
The basic static differential relay scheme is shown in the Fig . 11.18. (See on next page . ) Measurin g
circui t
Let n o and n r be the number of turns of operating and restraining coils respectively .
Then the relay operates when,
Fig . 11 .19 Basic static distance relay schem e
K1 n o I o >K2 nr I r +K '
The line voltage V L and line current I L are given as the inputs to the two measurin g
where k 1 and k2 are design constants while K' is the spring control torque . circuits . The circuits produce the outputs S l and S 2 depending upon their characteristics .
Thus,
11 .11 Static Distance Rela y
5 1 = K1 V L +K 2 I L
In the distance relay, the operation is dependent on the ratio of the voltage and current , S2 = K 3 V L +K 4 I L
which is expressed interms of an impedance . The relay operates when the ratio V/I i .e . where K1 , K 2 , K 3 and K 4 are to be selected according to the requirement of th e
impedance is less than a predetermined value . The distance relays include impedance , characteristics .
reactance and admittance relays as discussed earlier . In static relays the comparison o f
voltage and current is achieved by electronic comparator circuits . Now depending upon whether the comparator is amplitude or phase comparator an d
The basic block diagram of static distance relay is shown in the Fig. 11.19 . the constants K1 to K 4 , the various characteristics of the distance relay can be obtained .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 286 Carrier Aided Protection & Static Relay s VTU -Switchgear and Protection 287 Carrie r Aided Protectio n & Stati c Relay e

The various types of derived voltages S l and S, for amplitude and phase comparator s AND function :
to obtain particular characteristics are given in the Table . 11 .1 . The block schematic of AND function and the truth table is shown in the Fig . 11 .21. In the
Distance relay
truth table 1 indicates high while 0 indicates low . AND is nothing but a multiplication .
N . Amplitude comparator Phase comparator
scheme
Operating Restraining Operating Restrainin g A B C=AAND B

L Directional 0 0 0
1 L V V IL V Ao
- -L
ZR
IL +- IL 0 1
ZR ZR AN D C=A• B 0
Bo
1 0 0
2 IIL I VL I L ZR- VL
IL Z R +V L Impedanc e
1 1 1
ZR

(a) Block schematic (b) Truth tabl e

3 VL I L ZR - VLsin IL ZR Reactance
VL e
IL - -
XR XR
functio n
Fig . 11 .21 AND
4 IIL I VL IL V L Mho The diode AND gate is shown in the Fig . 11 .22 (a) while the AND operation using relay s
ZR -V L is shown in the Fig . 11 .22 (b) .
IL ZR

Table 11 .1 +V
o
The characteristics of various schemes as obtained from above Table 11 .1 are shown i n
the Fig. 11 .20. o A•B=AAND B

Ao Ia Ao Bo
7
Bo K o C=A•B 1
(a) Diode AND (b) AND with relays

Fig. 11 .22
OR function :
The block schematic of OR function and the truth table is shown in the Fig . 11 .23 . The OR
Fig . 11 .20
function is nothing but an addition.
The static distance relays are used popularly for protection of medium and lon g
transmission lines, parallel feeders and interconnected and T connected lines .
A B C=AOR B
11 .12 Microprocessor Based Relay 0 o 0
Ao
0 1 1
Let us see the relay logic which is very important in understanding the microprocesso r Bo
OR o C=A+ B
based relay . The relay can be ON or OFF i .e . it has two stable states . Similarly output of a 1 0 1
logic function is ON i.e . high or OFF i .e. low. The three basic logic functions are, 1 1 1
1. AND 2 . OR 3. NOT
(a) Block schematic (b) Truth tabl e

Fig . 11 .23 OR functio n

VTU -Switchgear and Protection 288 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relays VTU -Switchgear and Protection 289 Carrier Aided Protection&Static Relay s

The diode OR gate is shown in the Fig . 11 .24 (a) while the OR operation using relays i s All these functions can be achieved using transistors also . It is called .transistor transisto r
shown in the Fig . 11 .24 (b) . logic (TTL) .
The Fig . 11 .26 shows the block diagram of microprocessor based relay .
Ao DI o C=A+B

Circui t
o A+ B breake r
CT
Lin e
Ao a !i ce
c w'
Tripping signa l

ME
D/A converte r

(a) Diode OR (b) OR with relay s

Signa l AID Microprocesso r
processing converter
Fig . 11 .2 4
NOT function :
The NOT function is inverting function of the input . So if input A is 0 then output is 1
and viceversa . The output is denoted as A . It is shown in the Fig. 11.25 . Data o Data
Plu g
logger reques t
setting

C =A

Ao NOT -o C= Â 1 Fig . 11 .26 Microprocessor based overcurrent rela y

0
The output of line CT is given to the input receiver block where signal is processed . Th e
signal processing includes surge protector, rectifier, smoothening filters, auxiliary CT etc .
depending upon the requirement. This signal is an analog signal . The A/D converte r
(a) Block schematic (b) Truth table converts this to a digital signal which is accepted by the microprocessor . The microprocesso r
is a decision making block . The digital signal received is compared with the reference t o
generate the proper tripping signal . This is a digital signal which is converted to analo g
Fig . 11 .25 NOT functio n
again to operate the tripping coil . This is achieved by the D/A converter . The data logger
By using NOT function with basic AND and OR two more logical functions can b e captures the data and feeds it to the microprocessor when there is a request from th e
obtained which are NAND and NOR . microprocessor . The information can be displayed with a proper display device by takin g
The truth tables for NAND and NOR are given in the Table . 11 .2 . signal from the microprocessor .
The main advantage of such relay is that it is programmable . The programme can take
A B NAND NOR
care of on line calculations and take the decision accordingly . Another important advantage
0 0 1 1 of microprocessor based relay is that one microprocessor unit can perform the relayin g
operation of several systems .
0 1 1 0 Thus various advantages of microprocessor based relay are ,
1 0 1 0 1. Very efficient and reliable .
2. Highly accurate .
1 1 0 0
3. Very fast in operation .
Table 11 .2 4. Programmable in nature .
VTU -Switchgear and Protection 290 Carrier Aided Protection &Static Relay s

5. One unit can perform relaying of several systems .

6. Economical for large systems .
7. Useful for centralley co-ordinated back up protection .
Only are must be taken that the microprocessor unit must be properly shielded as it get s
Index
affected by external interferences and environment . Proper care of earthing must also b e
taken . Arc shield 58
100% earth fault protection 211 Arc splitter ducts 68
Review Question s 4 pole structure 153 Arc splitter plates 49
1. Draw and explain block schematic f carrier aided protection . Generators 200 Arc splitters 34
2. Which electronic equipments are used at each end of the line ? Arc voltage characteristics 4
3. Explain the transmitting unit used in carrier aided protection . Arcing contacts 49
4. Explain the block diagram of phase comparision method . A .C . circuit breaking 5 Arcing 1 2 t 98
5. State the advantages of carrier current protection . A.C . component 7 Arcing phase 35
6. Explain the basic elements of static relays . Abnormal behaviour 114 Arcing time 5,41,9 8
Abnormal running conditions 198 Armature reaction
7. Compare static and electromagnetic relays. 8
Action of differential relay 168 Armature slots
8. State the advantages of static relays . 19 7
Adequateness 121 Armature
9. Which are the various semiconductor devices used in static relays ? 14 4
Admittance relay 186 Artificial current zero interruption
10. Draw and explain the block diagram of static time-current relay . 31
Admittance 123,176 Atmospheric surge voltages 19 9
11, Draw and explain the circuit diagram of static instantaneous over current relay .
Advantages of a HRC fuse 107 Attracted armature type relay 14 4
12. Draw and explain circuit diagram of static inverse time over current relay .
Advantages of fuse 103 Automatic circuit breaker 42
13. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of static directional overcurrent relay .
Advantages 137 Auxiliary equation 6
14. Draw and explain the circuit diagram of static dif ferentical relay . Air blast circuit breakers 30,42,48 Auxiliary switch 140,12 6
15. Write a note on static distance relays . Air'reservoir 42 Auxiliary relays 12 4
16. Write a note on microprocessor based relay . Angle impedance relay 186 Average restraining current 20 2
Anode 2 Axial blast type 45
Applications of HRC fuse 108 Axial blast type circuit breaker
❑0 ❑ 45
Arc column 36 Axial explosion type 66
Arc core 50
Arc energy 65 B
Arc extinction 3,31 Back stop 15 3
Arc extinguishing medium 48 Bock up protection 19 2
Arc formation 33 Backelised paper 70
Arc furnace duty 48 Backup protection 11 7
Arc horn 54 Baffle 10 9
Arc interruption theories 35 Balanced beam 12 2
Arc resistance 2,11,180 Balanced earth fault proleclion 20 9
Arc resistant material 54 Basic action of a circuit breaker 40
Arc runners 34,48 Basic arrangement of buchhol : relay 255

(2 9 1 )
 80 Chemical properties 52 Current bias
Basic short circuit test 181 Diffused ar c 59
139 Chopped current 60 Current chopping
Basic trip circuit operation 26,57 Diffusion 33
200 Chopping level 60 Current curves 147
Bearing currents Digital computers 11 8
58 Circuit breaker ratings 75 Current differential relay
Bellows 167 Directional characteristics 16 1
169 Circuit breaker time 120 Current interruption in A .C . circuit breakers 9
Biased beam relay Directional element 16 0
202 Circuit breaker 1,114 Current interruption
Biased differential protection 92 Directional impedance relay characteristics 18 1
201 Circuit breaking chamber 70
Biased differential protection scheme Current rating of fuse 95 Directional impedance relay 18 0
50 Circulating current principle 213,245 Current setting
Blow out coils 124 Directional induction type overcurrent relay 15 9
118 Classification of circuit breakers 41 Current surges
Breaker backup protection 197 Directional power relay 15 8
124 Classification of distance relays 190 Current transformer
Breaker time 127 Disadvantages of a HRC fuse 10 7
94 Classification of protective relays 122 Current transformers
Breaking capacity cartridge fuse 142 Disadvantages of fuse 10 3
98 Clearing 1 2t 98 Current zero interruption
Breaking capacity 31 Discrimination 110,11 9
11 Coefficient of expansion 99 Current zero method
Breaking current 3 Distance protection 18 1
80 Commissioning tests 81 Current zero phase
Breaking test 35 Distance relays 17 6
155 Complementary solution 6
Bridge socket Current-time characteristics 145 Distance time impedance relay 19 2
90 Complete solution 7
Brown Bover i ' s synthetic testing circuit Cut-off Characteristics 105 Distributors 1
245,255 Composite testing station 82 Cut-off current
Buchholz relay 96,105 Double blast type 45
62 Compressed air circuit breaker 42 Cut-off characteristics
Bulk oil circuit breakers 96 Double break oil circuit breaker 63
257 Compressed air system 47 Cylindrical rotor
Bushing puncture 199 Double frequency transient 16
Conduction of heat 33
Double induction loop structure 15 3
C Conservator 256 D
Double'pressure type S F 6 circuit breaker 56
Constant slope percentage differential relays 17 0
Cable charging current switching test 80 D .C . circuit breaking 3 Double winding structure 15 2
Contact corrosion 57
Cancelling current 17 D .C . component 6 Doubling effect 77
Control cabinet 14 0
Capacitive current switching 25 D .C . converter 83 Doubly wound armatures 21 3
Control signal 44
Capacitive current switching tests 80 Dashpot 148 Driving torque 13 9
Control source 118
Capacitive currents 11 Dead spot 116 Drop-out fuse 94
Control spring 153
Capacitor banks 11 Definite distance type impedance relay 191 Dropout or reset 12 4
Convergent divergent nozzle 54
Capacitor switching 60 Degree of ionisation 2
Cooling of arc 34 E
Capacitor 85 Degree of overloading 198
Cooling system failure 20 0
Carbon tetrachloride solution 109 Deionising force 27 Earth fault protection
19 6 148,24 0
94 Cooling systems Deionization
Cartridge fuse 27,32 Earth fault relays 21 4
Copper band 151
Cassie's theory 36 Demagnetizing armature reaction 15 Earth fault 126,24 4
Core bolt insulation failure 257
Cathode spots 61 Demagnetizing effect 83 Earth leakage induction type relay
256 15 4
2 Core heating Development tests
Cathode 81 Earthing resistance 20 5
Critical current tests 80
Central control 118 Dielectric medium 32 Eddy currents
53 15 3
118 Critical pressure Dielectric properties
Centrally controlled backup protection 52 Edison 92
Cross blast type 44
Centrally co-ordinated backup protection 118 Dielectric strength 11 Effect of armature reaction 15
Cross differential principle 21 3
Characteristics of HRC fuse 104 Dielectric stress 11 Effect of earth resistance 20 6
Cross jet explosion pot 67
Characteristics 106, 155 Differential operating current 202 Electric discharge 31
Cross-section of arc 2
Chemical charge 109 Differential relay 123 Electrical bias
153 12 1
Cup type rotor

(292) (293 )
Electrical breakdown in high vacuum 58 Free path movement 3 I Length of arc 2
Electrode gap 52 Frequency of transient recovery voltage 13 Lengthening the arc 34
Impedance rela y 176
Electrodes 31 Functions of protective relaying 114 Lenz ' s law 4
Impedance Z 176
Electro-dynamic forces 82 Fuse constant 101 Lightning surges 60
Impedanc e 176
Electromagnet 144 Fuse element material 98 Line of defence 11 7
Impulse excitatio n 82
Electromagnetic attraction relays 144 Fuse element of HRC fuse 107 Liquid director 109
Incipient fault s 245,255
Electromagnetic attraction 145 Fuse low 101 Liquid fuse 94,10 9
107 Increasing slope percentag e Liquificotion temperature
Electromagnetic force 146,147 Fuse link 51
95 differential relays 170 Load capacitance
Electronegative gas 51 Fuse wire 24
Indirect testin g 86 Load flow
Electronegativity 54 Fuse 92 11 8
Indoor circuit breake r 42
Element testing 86 Fusing current 95 Loss of excitation characteristics 21 5
Induction cup type rela y 152
Energy balance theory 35,36 Fusing element 92 Loss of excitation 19 9
Induction generato r 199 Loss of oil
Energy meter 148 Fusing factor 95 25 7
Induction moto r 148 Loss of synchronism
Equivalent generator impedance locus 21 5 19 9
G Induction type negative sequence rela y 220 Low oil circuit breaker
Eutectic alloy 99 69
Induction type relay s 148 Low resistance interruption 31
Excitation systems 196 Gas operated relay 124
Initiation of arc 2 Low resistance method
Exponentially decaying component 6 Generating stations 1 3
Instrument transformers 12 7
Expression for restriking voltage 18 Generator faults 196
Insulating housin g 58
Expulsion fuse 93 Generator protective scheme 126
Insulation faul t 256
Externally generated pressure breaker 69 Gravity closed circuit breaker 42 Magnetic blast circuit breaker 42
Inter-locking i s 108
Externally generated pressure oil circuit Gravity opened circuit breaker 42 Magnetising current 23
Internal faults 244
breakers 62 Magnetising currents 57
H Interrupting mediu m 42
Extinction chamber 46 Magnetizing current compensation 25 3
Interruption of capacitive current s 24
Extinction voltage 5 Magnetizing current inrush 25 2
Hand reset multicontact auxiliary relay 204
Interruption of low magnetizing curren t 25
Harmonic blocking 253,25 4 Magnitude relays 14 8
F Inter-turn fault s 197
Harmonic restraint 253 Main contacts 49
Inverse laplace transfor m 29
Failure of prime mover 199 Heat content property 52 Maintenance of an arc 2
Inverse time characteristic s 155
Fault clearing time 120,124 High resistance arc interruption methods 33 Making current 11
Ionization by collisio n 32
Field emission 2,32 High resistance interruption 31,48 Making device 85
Ionization of gases 32
Field type testing station 82 High resistance method 3 Making test 80

Filter circuits 121 High rupturing capacity fuse 94 K Marble dust 10 4

Fire hazards 48 High voltage test 80 Master breaker 82
Kinetic energ y 2 Master circuit breaker
First pole to clear factor 20 Holding relays 12 4 84

Flap valve 255 Horizontal break circuit breaker 42 Maximum torque angle 16 3
L
Flemings left hand rule 150 Hot spo t 58 Measurement of insulation resistance 82
Flow 118 94, 103 Laboratory type testing statio n 82 Measurement of resistance 80
HRC fuse
Force blast oil circuit breakers 62,68 Laplace transform equivalen t 28 Measurement of travel 81
HRC fuse with tripping device 108
Formation of an arc 1 Largest machin e 206 Mechanical operation tests 80
Hum 147
Frame leakage protection 254 198 Layout of a short circuit testing statio n 82 Mechanical stresses 41
Hydraulic generators
Free electrons 32 Leakage reactance 84 Mechanical tests 80
Hydrogen circuit 200

(294) (295)
Melting time 97 Oil immersed transformers 24 5 Photoemissio n 32 Prospective voltage 27
Mercury switch 25 5 Oil-blast fus e 94 Physical properties 51 Protection against interturn faults 21 2
Merl-price protection - star-sta r Oil-break circuit breaker fus e 94 Pickup curren t 14 5 Protection against loss of excitation 21 5
transformer 247, 24 8 Oil-expulsion fus e 94 Pickup torqu e 17 6 Protective covering 11 6
Mea-price protection 20 2 Open circuit s 24 4 Pickup valu e 124,20 1 Protective relay 12 4
Metal clad switchgear 25 4 Open fuse 94 Picku p 124 Protective relaying scheme 11 4
Metal enclosed switchgear 61 Opening tim e 41 Pilot cable capacitance s 16 9 Protective relaying 11 4
Methods of backup protection 11 8 Operating coi l 185,20 1 Pilot cable s 16 8 Protective scheme 1
Mho relay 18 6 Operating sequence tests 80 Pilot wire s 202,25 1 Protective system 12 6
Mho 17 6 Operating time-breaking current Plain break oil circuit breake r 62 Protective zone 115,11 6
Millivolt drop test 80 characteristic s 69 Plain explosion po t 66 Puffer cylinder 55
Minimum oil circuit breaker 62,6 9 Operating torqu e 17 6 Plain impedance rela y 18 0 Puffer principle 55
Modification in air blast circuit breaker 46 Operation tim e 12 3 Plaster of pari s 10 4 Pulsating component 14 8
Moment of inertia 15 3 Opposed voltage metho d 171 Plug bridg e 12 4
Moving iron 14 6 Oscillogra m 9 Plug setting bridg e 15 4
Multipoint switch 14 0 Out of phase switching test s 80 Plug setting multiplie r 12 5 Quartz sand 94
Outdoor circuit breake r 42 Plunge r 109,122,14 4
Overfluxin g 24 4 Pneumatic valve 47 R
Negative phase sequence filter 22 3 Overheatin g 24 3 Polarizing coi l 18 5 Radial blast type 45
Negative sequence currents 198,22 1 Overload margi n 56 Polarizing windin g 18 6
Rate of rise of TRV 16
Negative sequence relays 21 6 Overloadin g 19 8 Pole slipping conditio n 19 9
Rated duration of short circuit 76
Negative torque region 17 9 Over-reach 12 6 Positive sequence currents 22 0 Rated insulation level 75
Negative torque 17 6 Overspeedin g 19 8 Positive torque region 17 9 Rated operating sequence 78
Neutral earthing 16 Overvoltag e 199 Positive torqu e 17 6 Rated peak withstand current 77
Neutral earthing connection 20 3 Possible transformer faults 24 3
P Rated pressure of compressed gas 79
Neutral molecules 3 Post arc phas e 35 Rated short circuit breaking current 76
Non-automatic circuit breaker 42 Panel mounted circuit breake r 42 Post zero resistanc e 36 Rated short circuit making current 77
Nondirectional element 16 1 Parallel arcs 59 Potential transformers 14 2 Rated TRV for terminal faults 78
Nondirectional induction type Parallel current injection metho d 87 Power frequency voltage test s 81 Ratio change 25 1
overcurrent relay 15 4 Particular solutio n 6 Power frequency voltag e 1 1
Ratio relays 17 6
Non-homogeneous differential equation 5 Paschen's la w 52 Power shortag e 19 6 R-C surge suppressors 19 9
Non-ionized gas 32 Peak restriking voltag e 16 Power swing s 18 0 Reach 12 6
Non-puffer type SF6 breaker 53 Percentage differential protectio n 24 5 Pre-arcin g 25 Reactance relay 18 4
Normal service voltage 10 5 Percentage differential rela y 16 9 Pre-arcing let 98 Reactance 123,17 6
Nozzle 45 Permanent magnet moving coil rela y 12 4 Pre-arcing tim e 97 Reactive power surges 83
Phase facto r 20 Primary protectio n 11 7 Reactor current switching tests 80
Phase fault 12 6 Prime movers 19 6
Reactors 84
Phase to earth fault s 194,19 7 Principle of an electromagnetic induction 12 2
Oil blast explosion pot 68 Recombination 33
62 Phase to phase fault s 194,197,24 4 Proper discrimination 11 1
Oil circuit breakers Recovery rate theory 35
Phase unbalance relays 21 6 Properties of S F6 ga s 51
Oil decomposition 65 Recovery strength characteristics 61
Prospective current 96,105

(2 97 )
 Small inductive current breaking tests 80 Thermal relay 12 3
Recovery voltag e 11, 14, 64,10 5 s Solenoid and plunger type relay 145 Thermionic emission 2
Rectifier rela y 12 4 Solenoid 122 Three phase faults
Saturation effect 14 6 194
Refractory material s 60 Speed 120 Throat 66
Saturation of C .T .s 20 5
Reigintio n 1 1 Spiral spring 155 Through faults 24 4
Schematic arrangement of admittance relay 18 7
Relay backup protectio n 11 8 Splitting of arc 34 Time - current characteristic 99,10 5
Schematic arrangement of reactance relay 18 4
Relay coi l 13 9 Spring loaded jaw 155 Time delay 12 4
Schwartz and James 10 2
Relay tim e 120,12 4 121 Time lag 14 8
57 Stability
14 2 Sealing problem
Relay with break type contac t Static devices 243 Time setting dial 15 5
Sealing relays 12 4
Rela y 114,13 9 Static relay 124 Time 12 0
Secondary emission at contact surface 32
Relays based on timin g 12 3 Stator core 197 Time/P .S .M . curve 12 5
Selection of HRC fuse 10 8
Relays with make type contact 14 1 Stator faults 196 Time-current characteristics 15 5
Selectivity 11 9
Reliability test s 81 197 Time-setting multiplier 12 6
Self blast oil circuit breakers 62 Stator inter-turn faults
Reliabilit y 11 9 Steady state reactance 9 Top chamber 70
Self compensated explosion pot 67
Remote backup protectio n 11 8 Steady state 9 Torque equation 149,17 7
Self generated pressure oil circui t
Requirements of circuit breake r 40
Steam turbine blades 199 Total operating time 98
breaker 62,6 6
Reset torqu e 17 6 Striker fuse 94 Traction system 48
Semienclosed fuse 93
Reset valu e 12 4 Subtransient reactance 8 Transient reactance 9
Sensitivity 12 1
Residual flu x 25 2 Subtransient state 9 Transient recovery voltage 1 1
Sequence switch 83,8 5
Resistance switchin g 27 Sulphur hexafluoride (S Fb ) circuit breaker 51 Transient state 9
Series current injection method 89
Resistor s 85 70 Transients 120,14 8
Series tuning circuit 18 7 Supporting chamber
Restraining coi l 185,20 1 199 Transmission line protection 18 1
Shaded pole type induction relay 15 0 Surge arresters
Restraining torqu e 139,17 6 Surge capacitors 199 Transmission line 1,17 6
Shading ring 15 1
Restricted earth fault protectio n 20 4 Switch fuse 94 Trial solution 6
Shaft distortion 19 7
Restrik e 12 Switch 92 Trip circuit 126,13 9
Short circuit generator and drive motor 83
Restriking voltag e 1 1 92 Trip coil 40
Short circuit in R- L series circuit 5 Switchgear
Reverse power protectio n 19 9 199 Tripping schemes 14 0
Short circuit test layout 82 Synchronous generator
Rewirable fus e 93 Synthetic test circuits 87 Tripping springs 72
Short circuit testing plants 82
Rotating magnetic fiel d 153,19 8 Synthetic testing 86,87 Truboalternators 19 9
Short circuit transformers 84
Rotational torqu e 15 5 Turbine governor 19 8
Short line fault tests 80
Rotor earth fault protectio n 198,21 3 T Turbogovernor 19 8
Short time current test 80
Rotor faults 19 7 Turbulator 70
Shunt resistance 28 Tap change 251
Rotor stamping s 19 8 Type tests 80
Shunt-wire 10 9 Terminal-bushings 62
Rotor temperature indicators 19 8 Typical relay circuit 14 0
Single blast type 45 Test cubicles 85
Routine tests 80
Single break oil circuit breaker 62 Testing authorities 80
RRRV 16
80
U
Single frequency transient 15 Tests of temperature rise
Rupturing capacity 10 8
Single phase short circuit test 80 Thermal conductivity 60 Unbalanced loading 19 8
Russel l 102
Single phasing 10 9 Thermal electron emission 2 Under-reach 12 6
R-X diagra m 215,178,21 5
Single pressure puffer type SF6 C .B . 55 Thermal emission from surface of contacts 32 Undervoltage trip coil 14 3
R-X plane 178
Sinusoidal 7 Thermal Ionization 32 Unit protection 126

Slepian's theory 35

(299 )
(2 9 8 )
Unit testing 86
Universal relay torque equation 164
Unmatched characteristics 25 1
Unprotected 20 6
Unrestricted earth fault protection 20 8
Unsymmetrical faults 19 9
r-
V

V shaped insulators 46
Vaccum circuit breakers 57
Vacuum chamber 58
Vapourization temperature 99
Voltage balance differential relay .l71
Voltage gradient 2
Voltage rating 98
Voltage regulators 19 6
Voltage restrained directional relay 18 7
Voltage restrained overcurrent 17 6
Voltage stress 27
Voltage tests 81
Voltage-current characteristics 3

w
W . H . Preec 10 1
Watthour meter type induction relay 15 2
Weak link 10 9
Winding faults 24 4

Z
Zero point extinction 35
Zero point interruption technique 9
Zero sequence current transformer 24 0
Zero torque line 16 2
Zone-refined copper 61

(3 0 0 )