POLITICS
 Includes institutions other than those of
ARENA VS PROCESS
- Narrow interpretation – where (venue)
- Broad interpretation – how (activity/process)
- Arena
o Formalistic conception
 Limits politics to the state and all its
instrumentalities & related institutions
 Hierarchy of offices and personnel, laws, and
policies
 Activities and actions (ex: elections)
 Within formal institutions of the state
 Political behaviour effects or outcomes of
processes engaged by the state, gov’t, and
related institutions
 Elections
 Citizens are involved
 Right of suffrage and perform their civic duty
as citizens
 Substantive exercise of a right
 Vote-buying
→ Voting misses its true purpose
→ Token form of citizen participation
- Process
o Comprehensive view
o Not limited to formal political institutions
o Institutions within the society
 Family, church, etc
o Adrian Leftwich
 Compromises all the activities of cooperation
and conflict, within and between societies
 Human species
 Organising the use, production, and
distribution of human, natural and other
resources
o How decisions are made and executed for a
society
o Role and interactions of both formal and informal
institutions
o Processes in decision-making
o Corridors of power
 Formal political arena and the informal
processes
o Two broad types of actions or activities that are
encompassed
 Authorized by the state
 Challenge the state
o Organized protest, rebellion, and other activities
that are outside the constitutional and legal
framework
 Sanctioned by the state
 Aims to contest the powers of the state
o Decision-making and outcomes
 Lead to actual laws and policies that are
binding to all
o Power over or power to or both
POLITICS AS GOVERNANCE
- Politics
o Authoritative allocation of values for a society
(Easton)
- Study of politics
o Understanding how authoritative decisions are
made and executed for a society (Lasswell)
- Politics as about governing
o Government
 Describe the formal institutions
 People ruled or governed
 Persons and organizations that make, enforce,
and apply political decisions for a society
o Governing
revolution
government that are involved in governing
 Labor, trade unions, corporations, church
organizations, etc
→ Setting rules or conventions
o Governance
 Refers to the web of formal or informal
institutions, rules, norms, and expectations
 Govern behaviour in societies
 Customs, norms of behaviour, unwritten rules,
or agreed ways
- Politics as “The Authoritative Allocation of Values
for a Society”
o Politics
 Complex set of interactions between inputs and
outputs
 Internal and external environments
 Feedback and the political system
o Inputs
 Demands and supports
 Fed into the political system
o Output
 Decisions and policies
 Result out of the political system
 Could also mean no decision or no action
o Demands
 Want or ask their government to provide or
respond to
 Jobs, transport system, clean air, etc
 Could also come from within the political
system
o Supports
 Form of favourable political environment
 Enabling laws and rules, openness of the
political system, public support, etc
o Both internal and external
 Fed into the political system and how the
system processes them into decisions and
policies
 Political System
 Has the right and discretion to screen
demands and to process only the most
urgent and salient
 Can’t avoid being influenced by
developments within and outside its own
territory
 Exception: Authoritarian
→ In control of all powers
→ Must heed to public opinion, otherwise it
will invite opposition and resistance
o Internal environment
 Geopolitical, physical, and territorial boundaries
o External environment
 Confluence of foreign influences, forces, and
dynamics that lie beyond the boundaries of the
state
o Feedback loop
 Means to communicate
o If the public is satisfied, then there is or there
could be no further action, if not then a new input
(demand and support) will enter
o Not all demands get fed into the political system
 Only when:
 Demands have supports
 Demands become issues that merit
government’s resources and response
o System breakdown
 Too much demands and supports
 Can elicit negative reactions from the larger
society
 Public dissatisfaction of the state’s
performance
 Further opposition and even rebellion or
 How to avoid
 Must be decisive on the kinds of demands
 Maintain a level of equilibrium
 Balance what gets in and gets out
o Politics as “Who Gets What, When, and How”
 Those who get the most are elite; the rest are
mass (Lasswell)
 Politics functions as a battlefield
 Political actors try to subdue each other
→ For public good or private gain
 Some end winners and reign supreme while
others lose and join the opposition or the
mass
 The elite can only exercise its influence only up
to a point where it can defend itself from any
attempts
 Political dynasties
 Elite in society can perpetuate its influence
in the society for as long as it wants
 Lack of a national law
 Advantage a few and discriminate against
the many
 Lead to a personalized system of political
and corporate relationships that easily lead
to corruption
 Preserving family wealth and status
POWERS
- Decision-making
o A has a power over B to the extent that A can get
B to do something that B would not otherwise do
o The most powerful actors in society are those
whose opinion holds sway in the decision-making
arena
o Involves a focus on behaviour in the making of
decisions
o Observable conflict (subjective)
o Actions or decisions of A produce an effect on B
by altering B’s choices, decisions, or behaviour to
comply with A’s actions and with B knowing that
his compliance is contrary to his own preferences
- Agenda-setting
o Conditions from which decision outcomes arise
are affected
o Limiting the scope of the decision-making
- Preference-shaping
o Arbitrary, unrealistic, and myopic
o Shaping their perceptions, cognitions, and
preferences
POLITICAL IDEOLOGY
- Tends to be used in a neutral sense, to refer
to a developed social philosophy or world-
view, it has in the past had heavily negative
or pejorative connotations.
- ‘Science of ideas’ (French philosopher Destutt
de Tracy)
- Uncover the origins of conscious thought and
ideas
- For Marx, ideology amounted to the ideas of
the ‘ruling class’, ideas that therefore uphold
the class system and perpetuate exploitation.
LIBERALISM
 Belief in the value of social and political
change in order to achieve progress
  Political doctrine that takes protecting and
enhancing the freedom of the individual to be
the central problem of politics
 The idea of liberalism was built back during
the 18th century “enlightenment” but was
developed during the 19th century in Europe
and the United States.
 Notable individuals who contributed to the
idea of liberalism include John Locke, Jean-
Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David
Ricardo.
ELEMENTS
- Individualism
o Central idea or theme of liberalism
o Interests/welfare should be given primacy
over all other values
o Presumptions: individuals are reasonable
and do not harm others
o Individuals are capable of doing their job
o It reflects a belief in the supreme
importance of the human individual as
opposed to any social group or collective
body.
o The liberal goal is therefore to construct
a society within which individuals can
flourish and develop, each pursuing ‘the
good’ as he or she defines it, to the best
of his or her abilities.
o Lays down a set of rules that allow
individuals to make their own moral
decisions.
- Freedom
o Without it, an individual will simply be a
unit without dignity
o Liberals do not advocate for unrestricted
freedom because unrestricted liberty will
do more harm
o In fan of chained or restricted freedom
o Restriction is for the welfare of the
community (John Stuart Mill)
o This arises naturally from a belief in the
individual and the desire to ensure that
each person is able to act as he or she
pleases or chooses.
- Reason
o Liberalism and reason are inseparable
o As product of enlightenment, man is
guided by reason and rationality
o Real progress could only be achieved
through individual initiative and outside
interference
o This inclines them to place their faith in
the ability of individuals
o To make wise judgements on their own
behalf, being, in most cases, the best
judges of their own interests.
o It also encourages liberals to believe in
progress and the capacity of human
beings to resolve their differences through
debate and argument, rather than
bloodshed and war.
- Toleration
o Different opinions, beliefs, religion,
community must side together peacefully.
o Various ideologies and opinions make a
COUNTRIES
society diverse and diversities should be
side by side.
o One community has no right to impose
decision or belief of another. Only in
authoritarian community.
o A guarantee of individual liberty and a
means of social enrichment
o Ensuring that all beliefs are tested in a
free market of ideas
o A balance or natural harmony between
rival views and interests, and thus usually
discount the idea of irreconcilable conflict
- Consent
o Liberal thinkers declare that every
law/policy must be based on the consent
of those for whom it is made
o Consent of all/majority constitute the
basic structure of society
o Authority and social relationships should
always be based on consent or willing
agreement
- Constitutionalism
o Two meanings: narrow and broad
 Narrow: certain limitations upon the
government specified by constitution
 Broad: implies values, principles
which guides to the government
o Basic principle of liberalism
o Must follow certain basic rules and
procedures
o Believe in limited government
o This goal can be attained through:
 The fragmentation of government
power, by the creation of checks
and balances amongst the various
institutions of government.
 The establishment of a codified or
‘written’ constitution embodying a
bill of rights that defines the
relationship between the state and
the individual.
- Equality
o Religious and moral principle
o According to religious minded people:
everyone is born equal
o Liberalism has built up a nexus with
religion
o An ideology of a practical world
o Equality of opportunity (a ‘level playing
field’) that gives all individuals an equal
chance to realize their unequal potential.
o Formal equality
 Legal equality “equality before the
law”: law should treat each person
equally showing no regard to race,
gender, age etc.
o Foundational equality
 Ideas arose out of ‘natural rights’
theories. ALL people are equal by
virtue of a shared human essence.
o Equality of opportunity
 Provides a meritocratic society in
which BOTH success and failure are
personal achievements
- Justice (Wala ‘to sa binigay na source ni miss
pero in case)
o Declared policy: individual will have his
due share and none can deprive other of
the share
o Most important form of equality are legal
equality and social equality.
- Switzerland
- Denmark
- Norway
- Australia
- Canada
- Costa Rica
- Sweden
o Free education from preschool until
university
o Lowest unemployment rate (8%) which
proves that they value the freedom and
equality of the people in terms of
education
MORE STUFF
Individualism: The individual takes priority over society.
Freedom: Individuals have the right to make choices for
themselves. This freedom is not absolute, and some
behaviors, such as murder, are prohibited. Freedom of
religion is a particularly important freedom to come out of
liberalism because so many governments at the time
were very closely tied to a particular religious creed.
Equality: No person is morally or politically superior to
others. Hierarchies are rejected.
Rationalism: Humans are capable of thinking logically
and rationally. Logic and reason help us solve problems.
Progress: Traditions should not be kept unless they have
value. New ideas are helpful because they can lead to
progress in the sciences, the economy, and society.
The free market: Liberalism and capitalism go hand in
hand. Liberals like the free market because it more easily
creates wealth, as opposed to traditional economies,
which often have extensive regulations and limits on
which occupations people can hold. These basic
characteristics of liberalism have led liberals to argue in
favor of a limited government, which draws its power
from the people. In practice, this has meant favoring a
democratic government.
People living in more liberal countries are happier on
average than those in less liberal countries, but
individually, conservatives are happier than liberals no
matter where they live, according to a study of people in
16 Western European countries.
Liberal governments tend to do more to shield citizens
against certain hardships, such as unemployment and
poverty, which can make people feel happier overall,”
said the study’s lead author, Adam Okulicz-Kozaryn
CLASSICAL OR EARLY LIBERALISM
- Negative liberalism
o No control from the government
- Modern liberalism – Positive liberalism
o Some intervention from the government
o Everyone has their right to freedom and
equality
PROPONENTS
1. JOHN LOCKE
- Father of classical liberalism
- He made foundational contributions to
modern theories of limited, liberal government
- He advanced a theory of the self as a blank
page, with knowledge and identity arising only
from accumulated experience
- His political theory of government by the
consent of the governed as a means to
protect “life, liberty and estate” deeply
influenced the United States’ founding
 documents.
2. JOHN STUART MILL
- Influenced the shape of nineteenth century
British thought and political discourse.
- A British philosopher, economist, and moral
and political theorist.
- Disagreed: High taxation, Regulations, and
tariffs Free markets and free trade (laissez-
faire) Against Monopolies, government
intervention in economics, and mercantilism
Capitalism made the west the most
prosperous civilization
3. ADAM SMITH
- Touted as the world's first free-market
capitalist
- The father of modern economics and a major
proponent of laissez-faire economic policies
- “On Liberty”
- Tyranny of the majority &despotism of custom
- Social opinion should be a law for individuals
– “The only legitimate restriction to individual
freedom was harm to others”
- Central thesis remains the classic statement
of the case for individual liberty
CONSERVATISM
- Derived from the Latin "conservare" (meaning to
"protect" or "preserve") and from the French
derivative “conservateur”
- Favors traditions
- Preserves status quo
- Critical of proposal for radical social change
- Emerged in the late 18th century and early 19th
century
- Arose as a reaction against events surrounding the
French Revolution (growing pace of economic and
political change)
- Autocratic and reactionary, rejecting out of hand
any idea of reform
- More successful form of conservatism developed in
the UK and the USA, characterized by Edmund
Burke’s belief in ‘change in order to conserve’
- 19th century to embrace the cause of social reform
under the paternalistic banner of ‘One Nation’
- 1950s — the Conservative Party came to accept
the postwar settlement
- 1970s onwards — result of the emergence of the
New Right
TYPES
1. Cultural Conservatism
- Supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or
culture, usually by the adaptation of norms handed
down from the past.
2. Social Conservatism
- Subset of cultural conservatism where the norms
may also be moral (e.g opposition to
homosexuality, covering of women’s faces, etc.)
3. Religious Conservatism
- Preserve the teachings of particular religious
ideologies, either by example or by law
4. Fiscal Conservatism
- Arguing that a government does not have the right
to run up large debts and then throw the burden on
the taxpayer
5. Paleo-Conservatism
- Specifically opposes illegal immigration,
communism, authoritarianism, social democracy,
and entitlement programs
6. Neo-Conservatism
- Emphasizes an interventionist foreign policy, free
trade and free market economics and a general
disapproval of counterculture
7. Bio-Conservatism
- Stance of hesitancy about technological
development, and a scepticism about medical and
other biotechnological transformations of the living
world (e.g cloning, genetic engineering), especially
if it is perceived to threaten a given social order
OPPOSED THE IDEAS OF
- Liberalism
o Consider individual liberty to be the most
important political goal, and emphasize
individual rights and equality of opportunity
o Most Liberals would claim that a government is
necessary to protect rights, different forms of
Liberalism may propose very different policies.
- Socialism
o Socio-economic system in which property and
the distribution of wealth are subject to control
by the workers, either directly through popular
collectives such as workers' councils, or
indirectly exercised on behalf of the people by
the state, and in which Egalitarianism or
equality is an important goal.
o The means of production are owned by the
state, community or the workers.
ELEMENTS
- Tradition
o Desire to conserve
o Central theme
o Perceived virtues of tradition, respect for
established customs, and institutions that have
endured through time
o Accumulated wisdoms of the past
o Institutions and practices have been tested by
time
o Preserved for the living and for generations yet
to come
o Promoting a sense of social and historical
belonging
- Pragmatism
o Abstract principles and systems of thought are
therefore distrusted, and instead faith is placed
in experience, history and, above all,
pragmatism
o Action should be shaped by practical
circumstances and practical goals
o Conservatives have thus preferred to describe
their own beliefs as an ‘attitude of mind’ or an
‘approach to life’, rather than as an ideology
- Human Imperfection
o Human beings are limited, dependent, and
security-seeking creatures, drawn to the
familiar and the tried and tested, and needing
to live in stable and orderly communities
o Individuals are morally corrupt: they are
tainted by selfishness, greed and the thirst for
power
o The roots of crime and disorder therefore
reside within the human individual rather
than in society
o The maintenance of order therefore requires a
strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and
stiff penalties.
- Organicism
o Viewed society as an organic whole, or living
entity
o Fabric of society (families, local communities,
the nation, etc)
o Individuals contributing to the health and
stability of the society
o Shared (often ‘traditional’) values and a
common culture are also seen as being vital to
the maintenance of the community and social
cohesion
- Hierarchy
o Gradations of social position and status are
natural and inevitable in an organic society
o Hierarchy and inequality do not give rise to
conflict, because society is bound together by
mutual obligations and reciprocal duties
o A person’s ‘station in life’ is determined largely
by luck and the accident of birth
o The prosperous and privileged acquire a
particular responsibility of care for the less
fortunate.
- Authority
o Authority is always exercised ‘from above’,
providing leadership, guidance and support
for those who lack the knowledge, experience
or education to act wisely in their own interests
o The virtue of authority is that it is a source of
social cohesion, giving people a clear sense of
who they are and what is expected of them.
o Freedom must therefore coexist with
responsibility; it therefore consists largely of a
willing acceptance of obligations and duties.
- Property
o Vital
o Gives people security and a measure of
independence from government, and it
encourages them to respect the law and the
property of others
o Property is also an exteriorization of people’s
personalities, in that they ‘see’ themselves in
what they own
o Property ownership involves duties as well as
rights.
o Inherited or may be a value to future ones
(heirloom)
PROPONENTS
1. EDMUND BURKE
- Father of the Anglo-American conservative tradition
- Argued that wisdom resided largely in experience,
tradition, and history
- He held that the French monarchy was, in part,
responsible for its own fate since it had obstinately
refused to ‘change in order to conserve’
- Evolutions, along with their revolutionaries, destroy
time-tested institutions like: tradition and inherited
values without any assurance to replace them with
something better; he theorized that a changing
society would only lead to terror and dictatorship
- Believes in the idea of inheritance or to the handing
down of traditions, cultures, etc. from generations
to generations
- Burke viewed colonialism as bad, radicalism as
dangerous, and democracy as a threat to social
stability
- Rejected evolution for the sake of traditional
liberties
2. JOSEPH DE MAISTRE
- Rejected change for traditional authority which
pertains to the authority of the monarch and the
church
- Convinced of the need of Christianity and
understands the role of both sovereign and the
pope.
- Rejected the whole idea of Enlightenment
- Human beings as essentially emotional and
naturally evil unless they are controlled within a
tight and strict political structure run by rulers and
priests, with the threat of public executioners
- Removing a public executioner in the system would
pave way to chaos, toppling of thrones, and
disappearing of societal order
- Emphasizes the importance of hierarchy in the
system
COUNTRIES
- Britain
- France
- Germany
SOCIALISM
• Major industries are controlled by the
Government rather than the individual people
and companies
• Believes in “Social Equality”
• a political and economic theory of social
organization that advocates that the means of
production, distribution, and exchange should
be owned or regulated by the community as a
whole
• Socialist believes in utopian visions of a better
society.
ELEMENTS
- Community
o It highlights the degree to which individual
identity is fashioned by social interaction
and membership of social groups and
collective bodies.
o Socialists are inclined to emphasize
nurture over nature, and to explain
individual behavior mainly in terms of social
factors rather than innate qualities.
- Fraternity
o This encourages socialists to prefer
cooperation to competition, and to favor
collectivism over individualism
o In this view, cooperation enables people to
harness their collective energies and
strengthens the bonds of community,
while competition pits individuals against
each other, breeding resentment, conflict
and hostility.
- Social Equality
o Socialists emphasize the importance of
social equality, an equality of outcome as
opposed to equality of opportunity.
o They believe that a measure of social
equality is the essential guarantee of
social stability and cohesion,
encouraging individuals to identify with
their fellow human beings.
o It also provides the basis for the exercise
of legal and political rights.
- Need
o The classic formulation of this principle is
found in Marx's communist principle of
distribution: 'from each according to his
ability, to each according to his need'.
o This reflects the belief that the
satisfaction of basic needs is a
prerequisite for a worthwhile human
existence and participation in social life.
o Clearly, however, distribution according to
need requires people to be motivated by
moral incentives, rather than just
material ones.
- Social Class
o Socialism has traditionally been associated
with the interests of an oppressed and
exploited working class (however
defined), and it has traditionally regarded
the working class as an agent of social
change, even social revolution.
o Nevertheless, class divisions are
remediable: the socialist goal is either the
eradication of economic and social
inequalities or their substantial
reduction.
- Common Ownership
o The socialist case for common ownership
is that it is a means of harnessing
material resources to the common good,
with private property being seen to promote
selfishness, acquisitiveness and social
division.
o Modern socialism, however, has moved
away from this narrow concern with the
politics of ownership.
COUNTRIES
- China
- Republic of Cuba
- Lao People’s Democratic Republic
- Socialist Republic of Japan
PROPONENTS
1. KARL MARX
- Was the foremost Socialist intellectual. His
work Das Capital forming the basis of
Marxism. With Frederich Engels, he published
‘The Communist Manifesto’ – a radical
agenda for Communist revolution.
2. ROBERT OWEN
- Early socialist pioneer. His New Lanark
factories were a model for giving workers
better conditions. He also advocated a form of
utopian Socialism and co-operative
communities.
3. FREDERICH ENGLES
- Engels was a great supporter and collaborator
of Karl Marx. He helped write and publish the
Communist Manifesto. His own work ‘Conditions
of the working classes’ was a landmark study into
the industrial proletariat.
PROS OF SOCIALISM
1. Fair System
 Everyone gets equality, regardless of color,
origin, religion or economic status.
2. Lower Disparity
 Close the gap between rich and poor.
3. Higher Mortality
 Socialism improves morality within the nation.
4. Cares for Everyone
 Providing them with equal opportunities and
proper health and wealth distribution
5. Improves Living Standards
 Everyone gets good amounts of money,
allowing financial freedom to be easier to
CONS OF SOCIALISM
1. Stops economic growth
 Since socialism taxes wealthy entrepreneurs,
they aren’t able to generate large amounts of
wealth and as such
2. Poverty is maintained
 Economic growth is damaged and as such,
there is actually less wealth to distribute
meaning that either society prospers and
everyone has a lot of money
3. Living Standards Might Not Increase
 Since there isn’t a lot of wealth, everyone will
be sinking together instead off prospering.
4. Boost Laziness
 Socialism provides the poor with higher
amounts of income even though they don’t
work any harder for it.
MARXISM
- Marxism has also been seen as the major enemy of
western capitalism, at least in the period 1917–91.
- This highlights the importance of economic life and
the conditions under which people produce and
reproduce their means of subsistence.
- Marx held that the economic ‘base’, consisting
essentially of the ‘mode of production, or economic
system, conditions or determines the ideological
and political ‘superstructure’
- A communist society will be both classlessness and
statelessness
- As a system of ‘commodity production’ gives rise to
one based on ‘production for use’ and geared to the
satisfaction of genuine human needs, ‘the free
development of each would become the
precondition for the free development of all’
PROPONENTS
1. KARL MARX
- Feudal lords, land owners and capitalists were
pitted against the ruled working class
- Demise of capitalism through a workers' revolution
that would lead to a utopian “classless society"
- “People work according to their ability and get
according to their needs” and "in which the free
development of each is the condition for the free
development of all."
2. FRIEDRICH ENGELS
- “To be human is to be a creative worker. This is the
humanity we have been alienated from.”
THEORIES
- Alienation Theory - Attitude of giving full interest in economic, social, PROPONENTS
o Proletariat are alienated from and military power to a dominant race
 Productive acitivity - Statist, authoritarian and totalitarian 1. WILLIAM GODWIN
 Product - Right-wing
 Other human beings - founder of modern anarchist theory
 Potential creativity PROPONENTS - the first to formulate the political and economical
 Bourgeoisie are alienated from their fellow conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not
human beings 1. BENITO AMILCARE ANDREA MUSSOLINI give that name to the ideas developed in his work
- Labor Theory of Value - peaceful evolution
o The value of a commodity can be objectively - Italian politician, journalist, leader of the national - Focus: Enquiry concerning political justice
measured by the average number of labor fascist party
hours required to produce that commodity - Prime Minister of Italy 2. PIERRE-JOSEPH PROUDHON
- Scientific Socialism - .Opposed Egalitarianism
o “To demonstrate that throughout the course of - Dictator - first self-proclaimed anarchist in 1859
human history, a profound struggle has - “II Duce” (The Leader) - Father of Anarchism
developed between the “haves” and the “have- - Joined Italian army in 1915 - “Property is theft" and “God is evil.”
nots.” - “Black Shirts” march in Rome - Distrust of the State and his teaching of the need
- “Pact of Steel” for world federation take on a new importance in a
BASIC PRINCIPLES - Avanti (forward) world that is threatened by explosive rivalries of
- Killed 1945 great nationalistic States.
- Social Life: Conflict of Interest
o Bourgeoisie control the means while the 2. ADOLF HITLER 3. MIKHAIL BAKUNIN
Proletariat sell labor power
- Social Class - German Politician - chief propagator of 19th-century anarchism
o How and why societies change - Leader of the Nazi - Debated with Karl Marx
- Political Theory - Initiated World War II - Believes that human beings are:
o Expose of political economic contradictions - Deeply influenced by Mussolini o naturally social
natural in capitalism - Turned Germany into a Fascist state o are more or less equal
o Towards communist society o want to be free
- Human History: 3. GIOVANNI GENTILE - Focus: Corruption of power
o Ownership of Means
o Primitive Communism - “The Philosopher of Fascism” CHARACTERISTICS
 Holds everything in common - Ghostwrote A Doctorine of Fascism (1930) for his
o Ancient Epoch counrty’s prime minister, Benito Mussolini - Liberty
 Slavery and the means were owned by - The individual had no freedom to protest in Hitler's o Anarchism - most extreme form of belief in
aristocratic elite Germany freedom or liberty
o Feudal Society o Essential for the full flowering of human
 Land is the most important means of CHARACTERISTICS intelligence, creativity, and dignity.
production o Domination stifles innovation and personal
o Capitalist 1. Powerful and continuing nationalism responsibility, leading to conformity and
 Technology used by the Bourgeoisie for 2. Disdain for the recognition of human rights mediocrity.
private gain 3. Identification of enemies/scapegoats as a o Maximizes the growth of individuality
o Hegemony unifying cause o Will necessarily be based on voluntary
 “leadership with the consent of the led” 4. Militarism association, not coercion and authority
 Force > army 5. Rampant sexism - Equality
 Ideology > media 6. Controlled mass media o Without equality, liberty becomes a mockery
o Spheres of Influence 7. Obsession with national security o Not in favour of so-called "equality of outcome.“
 Economic base/ Infrastructure 8. Rampant cronyism and corruption o It is equal opportunity to satisfy them that
 Political and Ideological superstructure 9. Religion and state are intertwined constitutes true equality (The ABC of Anarchism)
o Total Critique of Capitalist Society 10. Power of corporation is protected o Social equality: "that which touches all, is
 Social life is produced through a combination 11. Power of labor is eliminated decided by all.“ (Proudhon)
of economic, political and ideological conflicts. 12. Disdain for the intellectual and the arts - Solidarity
o Social Structure 13. Obsession with crimes and punishment o Key idea of Anarchism
 Individuals are only as significant when they 14. Fraudulent elections o Associating together as equals in order to satisfy
are together as a class common interests and needs
o False Consciousness COUNTRIES o "Unions" with other people is a natural need
 A working class is falsely conscious of his true o Voluntary, decentralized, and non-hierarchal
class position when he fail to see themselves - Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, o “Solidarity is the means by which we ensure that
as a member of an exploited, oppressed, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, our liberty is strengthened and defended from
class Poland, Romania, Spain those in power who want to rule us” (Max
o Alienation Stirner)
 Capitalist society degrades bourgeoisie and ANARCHISM - Organization
proletariat o Based on horizontal relationships between
- Having power without government themselves rather than vertical ones between
COUNTRIES - Comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία (anarchia), themselves and an elite, the "authority" is non-
which combines ἀ (a), "not, without" and ἀρχή hierarchical
- Ethiopia (arkhi), "ruler, leader, authority." Thus, - Direct Democracy
- Kenya the term refers to a person or society "without o Every single law bill or issue of justice is voted
- Angola rulers" or "without leaders.“ on by all people
- Senegal - Believes that the government is evil therefore they o Live with others in fraternal agreement in the
create their own laws interests of the greatest good of all
FASCISM - “Chaotic” kind of ideology o (be an associate)
- People are believed to be more powerful than the
- Militaristic dictatorship laws given
 o Individuals express themselves, practice critical
thought and self-government
o Rules can always be modified or repealed
COUNTRIES
- Spain
- France
- Russia
- Mexico
TYPES
- Individualist anarchism
o Anarchist movement that emphasizes the
individual and their will over external
determinants
- Mutualism
o Advocates a society where each person
might possess a means of production
- Agorism
- All relations between people are voluntary
exchanges by means of counter-economics
STATES, NATION, AND GLOBALIZATION
- Nation
o Cultural entities
o Groupings of people bound together by shared
values and traditions
o Share common language, religion, history, and
usually occupy the same geographical area
o Exist in varied contexts and have distinct
histories that makes the task of identifying
shared commonalities among its people
applicable to almost all cases difficult if not
impossible
o The cultural entity that is central to nations lacks
objective criteria
o Can only be defined subjectively
o Exclusive
 Ethnic unity and a shared history
o Inclusive
 Civic consciousness and patriotic loyalty
o Psychocultural
- State
o Political, legal concept
o Community of persons
o Four essential elements
 People
 State is obliged to protect and provide
services to
 Citizen who enjoys and exercise rights
authorized by the state and mandated by
the constitution and law
 Territory
 Land, rivers, lakes, air space above it,
mineral resources, and the twelve miles of
the sea beyond the state’s coastlines
 Physical and geographic boundaries
wherein the state reigns supreme
 Government
 Agency through which the will of the state
is formulated, expressed, and carried out
 Formal institutions through which people
are ruled
 Sovereignty
 Absolute or supreme exercise of power
expressed either as unchallengeable legal
authority or unquestionable political power
 Supreme power of the state to command
and enforce obedience to its will from the
people
- Nation-state  Shared by every member, who would be
o When state and nation coincide stronger than an individual living
- Globalization independently in the state of nature
o Emergence of borderless world  Force Theory
o Transcending traditional boundaries between  “Might awakes right” (?)
nations and states  The state came into existence out of
o Growth of supraterritorial relations between conquest, force, or coercion
people  Patriarchal Theory
o Physical geography becomes less relevant  The state arose through a process of
o Economic development evolution
o Increasing independence of markets and  Family to community to state
production in different countries through trade in  Instinctive Theory
goods and services, cross-border flows of  People have an instinct to make a state
capital, and exchanges of technology - Duties of the state
 Results in an increase in the international o Minimal state
division of labor, achieved by an international  Protective body
fragmentation of production  Provides a framework of peace and social
o Economic globalization order within which citizens can conduct their
 Characterized by the internalization of lives as they think best
markets, trade, finance, investment; o Developmental State
privatization, deregulation and pro-market re-  State intervenes in economic life with the
regulation; as well as rapid integration of specific purpose of promoting industrial
trade, finance, and investment growth and economic developmental
o Carries both opportunities and threats o Social Democratic States
o Effects  State intervenes with a view to bringing about
 Could weaken the nation-state broader social restraining, usually in
 Free Trade accordance with principles such as fairness,
 Create a marketplace governed not by equality, and social justice
the states but by undemocratic o Collectivized States
international monetary institutions  State being the entirety of economic life under
 Contributed to the growth of insular, ethnically state control
or racially-based forms of nationalism o Totalitarian State
 By weakening the nation-state and so  Most extreme form of intervention
undermining civic forms of nationalism  The influence of the state penetrates every
 Political nationalism aspect of human activities
 Linked to self-determination -
 May become redundant
 A world in which nation-states operate in
post sovereign conditions
 Strengthening of cultural, ethnic, and religious
nationalism
 By the state is losing its capacity to
generate political allegiance and civic
loyalty
- Theories
o Divine Right Theory
 Merged politics with religious beliefs
 Presents the view that the state was created
by God and authority to govern the people
was ordained by Him upon the rulers
 Monarches used this to justify their absolute
rule
 Reduced the incidence of over violence and
revolutionary change
o Social Contract Theory
 17th and 18th century
 State formed by means of a social contract of
men who lived in a state of nature
 Thomas Hobbes
 Man as nasty and brutish
 People submitted themselves to an
absolute monarch to pressure
themselves
 John Locke
 Men rational beings
 State
 To promote and preserve their natural
rights to life, liberty, and property
 Government could overthrown
 Jen Jacques Rousean
 General will