CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
The B-2 stealth bomber, with its unique flying wing configuration and low-observable,
radar-evading, or “stealth,” technology is a versatile multi-role bomber, capable of
delivering both nuclear and conventional munitions. The sleek structure is reminiscent of
the B-35, developed by Northrop during the 1940s, and uses advanced composites, such
as resin-impregnated graphite fiber, rather than metal. With its precision, stealth, long-
range capability and payload capacity, the B-2 Spirit is one of the most versatile
airframes in the Air Force’s inventory. The combination of its unique capabilities enables
global reach and allows the Air Force to bypass the enemy’s most sophisticated defenses.

1.1Motivation

With only 21 B-2 Spirits produced, this highly complex aircraft is a colorful bird. Each
individual B-2 Spirit has its own distinct personality, and its own unique maintenance
needs. Bombers are almost always designed with range in mind, but the unique design of
the B-2 Spirit lends itself to extreme long-range operations. Without refuel, the B-2 Spirit
has a range of over 6,000 miles. Also, the B-2 relies on a mix of over 200 chemicals,
sheets of composite material, and high-tech paints which all together makes it a stealth
aircraft. While the focus of the B-2 Spirit’s design is to fool radar, it also works to fool
the human eye. The B-2 Spirit is indeed a flying optical illusion. Viewed from one angle,
and the aircraft is a thin line—a ‘flying wing’, as the design is called. Viewed from a
slightly different angle and the whole thing becomes a bulbous flying torpedo. This
makes the B-2 difficult to spot in the skies, and potentially difficult to identify. As its
missions are most often classified, the ability to disappear or distort visually gives the B-
2 Spirit a hefty advantage over its competition.
These all facts about B-2 motivated us to work over this project with our all full interest
and power.
1.2 Some Important Remarks

We started our this project with the aim of making a working scaled model of B-2
bomber aircraft and we also decided to some research work over the designing and
structural factors of the aircraft and in the end of this project we finally included those
modification in our model.
Our main motive was to modify the existing version B2 SPIRIT.

FIG 1.1

2
CHAPTER 2 RELATED WORK

During this process we have gone through many research papers. As our main motive
was to redesign and modify the existing version of B2 SPIRIT aircraft. The main factor
of consideration was to design a scaled model but with single engine configuration. So
for that we reviewed research papers on B2 aircraft and we found following data, our
main factor of consideration was: -
1. Geometry
2. Cg location
3. Span loading of wing
4. Lift variation at different altitudes
5. Lift to drag ratio
6. Take off and landing parameters
7. Thrust to weight ratio
8. Control surface

2.1 Geometry

As it was scaled model of B2 so we have to consider its geometry for reducing the scale
as when we reduce any dimension we have to consider the variation of dimensions for
proper scaling

Platform
Area:
 5118.55

ft2


Mean
 Aerodynamic
 Chord: 
 
39.47

ft


X‐Centroid:
 
40.21

ft


Span wise
position 
of 
MAC:
 
 29.53

ft


X‐Leading 
Edge
 of 
MAC:
 
20.47

ft


Quarter
 Chord 
of 
MAC:
 
30.34

ft


Aspect 
Ratio:
 
5.78


Average
 Chord: 
 
29.76

ft


Taper 
Ratio:
 
0.00


LE
S weep: 
 
34.74

deg


The above-mentioned values are the values of original B2 aircraft which were considered
during designing our aircraft.

3
2.2 Cg Location
CG 
location 
was
 calculated
 by 
looking

At 
the 
side 
profile 
of 
the 
B‐2.


Assuming
a
15°
angle
 between 
the
 landing 
gear 
ground
 contact
 and
 the
 cg
 location 
and

assuming 
the 
cg 
was
 located 
forward 
of 
the 
landing 
gear, 

The
 cg 
was 
calculated 
to 
be 
around
 33.2 
feet
 aft 
of 
the
 reference 
datum
 line.

Neutral
Point:

32.98
ft 
aft 
of 
nose
 Static
Margin:

0.22
ft

Above mentioned data is of actual B-2 spirit aircraft, this was taken as reference to
calculate centre of gravity of scaled model of B-2 spirit.

FIG 2.1

2.3 Span loading

Span loading is defined as the ratio of the weight of the airplane to its wingspan
loading also the ratio of gross weight of an airplane to some factor determining its
lift. We calculated the total of aircraft and wingspan of aircraft and we compared the
results with the actual value of span loading of B-2 aircraft

4
 FIG 2.2
2.4 Lift variations at different altitudes
Lift changes with altitude but there is more than just the height above the sea level.
The physical quantity which affects the lift as we change altitude is the density of
air. Air density itself decreases with increase of altitude.
As the ceiling altitude of our scale model is 2 km so in this range there is very less
variation of air density.

FIG 2.3

5
2.5 Lift to drag ratio

Lift to drag ratio is defined as the amount of lift generated by a wing of airfoil compared
to its drag. The lift\drag ratio is used to express the relation between lift and drag and it’s
determined by dividing thee lift\drag coefficients, ratio of L\D indicates airfoil efficiency.
By reducing the drag we got optimum value of lift to drag ratio.

FIG 2.4

6
2.6 Takeoff and Landing Parameters
Aircraft can have different ways to take off and land. Conventional airplanes accelerate
along the ground until enough lift is generated for takeoff and reverse the process to land,
some aircrafts can take off at low speed this being a short take off.
We calculated the takeoff and landing distance which was enough and normally takeoff
and landing on both paved and unpaved runways.
Ground
 effect of scaled B2 Spirit: 

1.   Large
 area
 flying
 wing


2. Smooth Landing
3. Due to high glide ratio landing is bit difficult but easier than F-15 aircraft.
4. Due to its stealth designed it provides us unique design and performance parameters.

2.7 Thrust to weight ratio

The thrust ratio is often the maximum static thrust at sea level divides by maximum
takeoff weight in cruising flight the thrust to weight ratio of an aircraft is the inverse of
lift to drag ratio because thrust is equal to drag and weight is equal to lift.

2.8 control surfaces

•  B‐2
 has 
4
 pair’s 
of 
control 
surfaces 
on
 the 
wing
 trailing 
edge.

1) 
Split
 drag 
rudders 
on 
outer 
wing

2) One 
elevon 
on 
outer 
wing

3) 
Two 
elevons 
on 
inner 
wing

4) Beaver 
tail

•  Outer
 elevons
 provide 
primary 
pitch
 and 
roll 
control.

•  2
 inner 
elevons 
considered
 secondary
 control 
surfaces 
 (used
 at
 low speed).


•  Beavertail 
works 
constantly 
to
 alleviate 
gust 
loads.


FIG 2.5

7
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY AND EXP. SETUP

3.1 Design of Model

In order to manufacture any kind of aircraft its design is one of the main factors as proper
design provides us greater efficiency while designing our main motive was to have
proper aerofoil for wing in this model aircraft we have used NACA 0018 Aerofoil

3.1.1 Airfoil
In this aircraft we have used NACA 0018 symmetrical aerofoil, as this aircraft is high
speed aircraft thus it is having capability of doing aerobatics thus for doing so we have to
use symmetrical aerofoil , thus after performing experimental analysis of different
symmetrical aerofoil’s we selected NACA 0018 , due to some following factors we have
selected this aerofoil
1. Good Glide Ratio
2. Boundary layer separation is very less (results in less drag)
3. More efficient in terms if take off and landing parameters\
Experimental analysis was done of this aerofoil out of which we obtained following data
at 6-degree angle of attack.

FIG 3.1

8
FIG 3.2

FIG 3.3

9
FIG 3.4

FIG3.5

10
3.2 Dimensions

FIG 3.6
By scaling down all the original dimensions of actual B2 Spirit aircraft to 43 times we got
following dimensions of aircraft

1. Wingspan 1200mm
2. Height 118 mm
3. Length 515mm

FIG 3.7

11
3.3 Material used
After designing material plays an important role in manufacturing process as for an
aircraft the material used should have high strength and less weight another major factor
of consideration is to have such material which is easy to mould in any required shape
and size. Thus, after doing research on different materials for manufacturing and we
selected following materials
1. Epo
2. Balsa wood
3. Carbon Fiber

3.3.1 EPO

EPO (Expanded Polyolefin), EPO is commonly used as the main construction material in
electronically powered RC airplane and toy planes industry. The mostly used EPO
material brand is called PIOCELAN (http://www.piocelan.com/en/piocelan/index.html).
The normal foam density used for making RC airplanes are 30P (30g/L), 34.5P (26g/L),
40P (22.5g/L) and 55P (16g/L).

EPO advantage:
-EPO is a lightweight and durable foam material.
-EPO has a much better surface finish than even perfectly molded EPP and EPS, meaning
a glossier and more aerodynamic surface.
-EPO is compatible with a wide range of glues and paints, both of which are important to
building and repairing of the airplane.
-EPO does not require pre-expansion or post-curing, molding company can take less time
to manufacture all of the foam sets.
PMPF Company is the leading manufacturer of molded EPO airplane kits and EPO foam
toy planes in China; we are able to provide the service from design to production.

FIG 3.8

12
3.3.2 Balsa wood
Ochroma is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae, containing the
sole species Ochroma pyramidale, commonly known as the balsa tree. It is a large, fast-
growing tree that can grow up to 30 m tall. Balsa wood is a very lightweight material
with many uses. Balsa trees are native to southern Brazil and northern Bolivia, north to
southern Mexico. Because it is low in density but high in strength, balsa is a very popular
material for light, stiff structures in model bridge tests, model buildings, and construction
of model aircraft; all grades are usable for airworthy control line and radio-controlled
aircraft varieties of the aero modeling sports, with the lightest "contest grades" especially
valuable for free-flight model aircraft. However, it also is valued as a component of full-
sized light wooden airplanes most notably the World War II de Havilland Mosquito

FIG 3.9
3.3.3 Carbon fiber
Carbon fibers or carbon fibers (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fiber)
are fibers about 5–10 micrometers in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms.
Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low
weight, high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion.
These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering,
military, and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However, they are
relatively expensive when compared with similar fibers, such as glass fibers or plastic
fibers.

FIG 3.10

13
3.4 Shaping and manufacturing

Basic cutting of sheet into design Aerofoil shape by sanding

Final fitting of components Temporary fitting of EDF

Covering and strengthening Final finished model

FIG 3.11
From the above figures we can visualize the shaping and manufacturing of model aircraft
as initially by following our design with the help of hot wire cutter and sand paper an
aerofoil shape delta wing was manufactured and then we refined the shape and finally we
got our desired shape and controls surfaces.

14
3.5 Control surfaces and assembly of elec. components

3.5.1 Control surfaces

B2 spirit is equipped with elevon configuration and split rudder configuration we
installed all the control surfaces as per the requirements of design and we fitted servo
motors and checked the working of all the control surfaces and ensure that the direction
of all the controls are working in proper direction.

3.5.2 Electrical components fitting

All the electronics components are placed in such a manner so that it receives all the
required cooling.
One unique feature of this aircraft is that it is equipped with EDF unit which provide us
high amount of thrust and efficiency. Electrical components which used are
1. EDF (Electric Ducted Fan 70mm)
2. ESC 70 AMP
3. Servos assembly
4. Autopilot system and GPS installation

3.5.3 EDF UNIT

A ducted fan is a unit that comprises an electric motor coupled to a multi -bladed
impeller. The motor spins the impeller at very high RPM (revs/minute). As it
spins, the impeller draws air in through one or more forward -facing air intakes in
the fuselage of the jet, and then forces the air down a cylindrical thrust tube and
out the back of the jet. A lot of thrust can be generated by an EDF, although this is
obviously going to vary from unit to unit.
EDF units are generally powered by high Kv brushless motors (high RPM) and
need a high capacity/high discharge rate lithium polymer battery pack (Li -Po)
because of the high current that they draw

In this model we have used EDF having configuration of 70mm diameter and 6
blade motor configurations which provide us thrust of approximate value of 1. 8 kg

. FIG 3.12 (a) FIG 3.12(b)

15
3.5.4 ESC (electronic speed controller)
An electronic speed control or ESC is an electronic circuit that controls and regulates
the speed of an electric motor. It may also provide reversing of the motor and dynamic
braking. Miniature electronic speed controls are used in electrically powered radio-
controlled models. Full-size electric vehicles also have systems to control the speed of
their drive motors
An electronic speed control follows a speed reference signal (derived from a throttle
lever, joystick, or other manual input) and varies the switching rate of a network of field
effect transistors (FETs). By adjusting the duty cycle or switching frequency of the
transistors, the speed of the motor is changed. The rapid switching of the transistors is
what causes the motor itself to emit its characteristic high-pitched whine, especially
noticeable at lower speeds.
Different types of speed controls are required for brushed DC motors and brushless DC
motors. A brushed motor can have its speed controlled by varying the voltage on its
armature. (Industrially, motors with electromagnet field windings instead of permanent
magnets can also have their speed controlled by adjusting the strength of the motor field
current.) A brushless motor requires a different operating principle. The speed of the
motor is varied by adjusting the timing of pulses of current delivered to the several
windings of the motor.
In our project we have used 70-80 amp esc (red bricks esc)

FIG 3.13
3.5.5 Servo Assembly
Servos (also RC servos) are small, cheap, mass-produced servomotors or
other actuators used for radio control and small-scale robotics.
Most servos are rotary actuators although other types are available. Linear actuators are
sometimes used, although it is more common to use a rotary actuator with a bell
crank and pushrod. Some types, originally used as sail winches for model yachting, can
rotate continuously.
we added metal gear digital servo, so that we can get the smooth movement of control
surfaces which would be very accurate.

16
3.5.6 Autopilot system and GPS system
To control all the equipment on-board, we used a flight control board made by
ARDUPILOT, it consists of 6-axis gyroscope and accelerometer and barometer on-board.
To make it fly more accurately in airspace we added a GPS which would tell the flight
board its exact location on earth, the GPS used has a cold start time of 2to4 mins
depending upon the start position.
A camera with video transmitter is added to get a live feed. There is a large battery hatch
in which we can install any size of battery as required by the mission.
This aircraft is also capable of flight a low light condition even in dark, adding to it the
craft has got, auto take off and landing features which provides us better efficiency of
takeoff and landing
While performing different flying patterns we have successfully performed the auto take
off and landing parameter.
Along with this autopilot system helps us to hold altitude and airspeed for particular
mission.

FIG 3.14(a) FIG 3.14(b)

FIG 3.14(c) FIG 3.14(d)

17
 FIG 3.15

3.6 Experimental and Performance parameters

As our main modification was reducing the no of engines on this aircraft thus for doing
so we have to select such engine which can provide us better thrust and more efficiency
in terms of endurance of flying such aircraft thus after doing experimental analysis of
different EDF units by checking their amount of thrust generated and power consumption
we obtained one EDF unit which was suitable with airplane data that unit is having 70
mm diameter with 6 blade configuration with 30-60 degree pitch angle of fan blades and
high speed BLDC motor. We obtained following performance parameters by using this
EDF unit our aircraft.
Maximum speed: 110 km/hr
Cruise speed: 80 km/hr
Range: 2 km/hr expandable up to 7 km (with range extender)
Wingspan: 1200mm
Thrust/weight: 1:1
EDF RPM: 80 m/s
Thrust: 1.8 kg

FIG 3.16

18
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
After manufacturing our model, we compared our all the scaled down values and
performance parameters and we found that our all values are coming under same ratio in
which we reduced our scale. And also, with the help of GPS and autopilot system we
were able to take off and land automatically and we achieved our flying parameter of
flying
This aircraft at its maximum speed at maximum altitude and also, we did flying course of
low terrain flying also along with this some modifications were made in this aircraft
which was
1. Use of single engine instead of 4 engines
2. Use of composite material for manufacturing
3. Highly precise and accurate GPS system was used in these aircraft

If we see the comparison of both actual and rc model we can see that the design ratio is
almost similar

FIG 4.1

FIG 4.2

19
 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE

Finally, we conclude our project and present the working scaled model of the project to
Dept. of Aerospace engineering Chandigarh University. Also, we would like to thank to
our project coordinator SABHIHA PARVEEN, SQN LDR J.S. SANDHU and
KHOKHAR HOBBY TECH that helped us to work in their workshop to complete our
project successfully

5.1 Future scope

As aviation industry is continuously growing day by day thus lots of improvements are
made in all aircrafts in terms of every aspect whether its design or performance so
specifically if talk about our project we have following considerations which we think
that if these are implied in real life then we can set an benchmark in this stealth category
of aircraft
1. High speed and high capacity of payload
2. The experimental data can be used to design and manufacture new aircraft of this
category
3. In UAV also we can use this technology to make new aircraft

20
FIG 5.1

FIG 5.2

21
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deployment-20-years-ago-heres-why-its-still-one-of-the-most-feared-aircraft-in-the-
sky/articleshow/63061845.cms
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_B-2_Spirit
6. "Stealth Aircraft." Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Centennial of Flight
Commission, 2003. Retrieved: 5 November 2012.
7. Gosnell, Mariana. "Why contrails hang around." Air & Space magazine, 1 July 2007. Retrieved:
13 September 2009
8. "B-2: The Spirit of Innovation" (PDF). Northrop Grumman Corporation. Retrieved 4
February 2015
9. Vartaebedian, Ralph. "Defense worker loses job over his ties to India".Archived 7 November
2012 at the Wayback Machine Los Angeles Times, 16 February 1993.
10. Atkinson, Rick. "Unraveling Stealth's 'Black World';Questions of Cost and Mission Arise Amid
Debate Over Secrecy Series: Project Senior C.J.; The Story Behind The B-2 Bomber Series
Number: 2/3." Washington Post, 9 October 1989.
11. AP. "Stealth bomber classified documents missing." The New York Times, 24 June 1987.
Retrieved: 13 September 2009.

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