Review of arcing phenomena in low voltage current

limiting circuit breakers

J.W.McBride and PM.Weaver

Abstract: Low voltage current limiting circuit breakers referred to as miniature circuit breakers
(MCBs) are widely used for electrical fault protection in domestic and light industrial installations.
Modern designs employ current limiting technology where the arc is forced rapidly away from the
contacts through an arc chamber and into a set of splitter plates. The motion of the arc is dependent
on a complex interaction of the anode and cathode root and the arc plasma motion. There is a large
volume of published research work relating to the study of arc phenomena. The paper presents a
selective review of the significant work relevant to the study of arc phenomena in MCBs under short
circuit conditions. Studies of arc column, arc root and arc electrode effects, and the physics of arc
motion as well as developments in the study of arc motion and arc control in MCBs, are reviewed.

1 Introduction First, an overview of the operating principles and techni-

cal requirements for an MCB is presented. This is followed
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are widely used in by a review of the published scientific work relating to the
domestic, commercial and light industrial installations with arc, arcielectrode phenomena, and arc motion studies of
supply voltages in the range 200-500V AC for the protec- relevance to the MCB. Studies relating to the arcing char-
tion of circuits rated up to lOOA from overload and short acteristics in MCBs and specific short circuit arc phenom-
circuit faults (103-104~). ena are then reviewed.
Much development in the physics of switching arc phe- arc
nomena has been concerned with the study of switching
arcs in medium and high voltage circuit breakers. The bulk
of the applied work is of limited relevance to MCBs. Also,
Stack \
given the extreme unpredictability and variety of conditions
and behaviour displayed by the electrical arc, some of the
scientific studies [l, 21, whilst being indispensable back-
ground material, offer little specific information of use in
the area of low voltage switching.
diverging
Despite the emphasis on high voltage work, there has runners
been a steady development in the technology of miniature
devices. Improvements in performance and reductions in
size and cost have been made possible by research and
development work both on an empirical design level as well
as more fundamental research. The published work in this Fig. 1 Typiculminiature circuit hreoker (MCB) urrmg~ment
field has grown steadily since the early 1970s. Much of the Arc moves away from contact region into arc stack
work has been of an empirical nature with arc measurables
studied over limited sets of conditions, which may be diffi- 2 MCB -function and operating principles
cult to extrapolate to the broader operating requirements.
There has been a growing recognition that a more funda- The MCB combines protection against moderate overload
mental understanding of the arc phenomena relevant to arc conditions, where a time delayed response is required, with
motion in MCBs is required to provide research work that very rapid operation in the event of a more serious fault
can embrace the full range of operating conditions of [3, 41. The operating characteristic of interest in this review
interest. is the rapid operation under high current fault conditions
typically up to 16kA. The operation of the MCB is
acheved by means of a sensor to detect the flow of a high
~ ~~~~

0IEE, 2001
IEE Proceedings online no. 20010185
DO? IO. 1049/ip-smt:20@10185
Paper fmt received 17th March and in revised form 31st July 2000
J.W. McBride is with the School of Engineering Science, University of South-
ampton, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 IBJ, UK
P.M. Weaver is with PBT Ltd., 1 Astra Centre, Edinburgh Way, Harlow,
Essex, CM2O 2BN, UK
ZEE Proc.-Sci. Meci~.Teclziiol., Vol. 148. No. 1, Junirary 2001
current - conventionally an electromagnet coil, and an
actuator to control the contact mechanism - typically an
electromagnet plunger. Most modern designs employ the
current limiting principle, where the arc voltage works
against the system voltage to drive the current towards
zero. The result of this is a significant decrease in the peak
current passing through the circuit and reduction in the
total energy admitted to the circuit being protected. Per-
fomance is dependent on the rapid motion of the arc gen-
erated between opening contacts. Fig. 1 shows a schematic
diagram of a typical MCB arrangement. The arc must be
forced away from the contacts and into a set of splitter
plates called the arc stack. The motion of the arc is depend-
ent on a complex interaction of the anode and cathode root
and the arc plasma motion. Idealised short circuit current
and voltage characteristics are shown in Fig. 2. The con-
tacts open after the period t& which corresponds with a
step in the arc voltage. After contact opening, the arc
remains in the contact region for a period t,. The conduc-
tors of the MCB are arranged to create a self-blast mag-
netic field which forces the arc along the diverging arc
runners (period t,) towards the arc stack. When the arc
reaches the arc stack it is split into multiple arcs in series,
resulting in a high total arc voltage Vs required for effective
current limitation. Fig. 3 shows a typical response from an
experimental apparatus providing typical values of the arc
voltage, arc current and the duration of the event.
*
. .
td
Fi .2 Typical arc voltage and arc current clurracteristic wuier coditiota of
---
a s%rt circuit event in az M c B
-v
I
rCod = contact opening delay, 1, = arc immobilitytime, rr = arc running, f,s = arc in
arc stack
400
> 300
ai
m has a field strength of about 2.5kVim. The material of the
5 200
100
0
time, ps I
Fig. 3 Arc voltage and OK current memured iu&r short circuit conditiuar
3 High current arc
The high current arc can be described in terms of the arc
roots and the arc column. The arc roots can be character-
ised by hgh electric fields, high thermal gradients and high
current densities relative to the arc column [l]. At the nega-
tive electrode there is a cathode fall region, known as the
cathode root, with a voltage drop of 8-20V, most of which
is across a distance of about l@3-10-2mm [5].The voltage
drop depends on the ionisation potential of the gaseous
material in the cathode region, and the contact material.
The cathode current has a minimum value of about 30 mA
at atmospheric pressure but there is no upper limit to the
, IEE Proc.-Sci. Meas. Techno/., Vol. 148. Nu. I , Jmtrcir.v 2001
current that can flow. At the positive electrode there is an
anode fall region of a similar size to the cathode fall region
with a voltage drop of 1-12V [l]. Despite extensive
research, the processes occurring at the anode and the cath-
ode are by no means well established. As an indication of
the complexity, a review paper written by Guile in 1984 [2]
covers 617 papers written on electrode processes alone. The
arc current, voltage, contact materials and surrounding
environment all have an effect on the energy transport
mechanisms that occur at the electrodes. It is likely that dif-
ferent emission mechanisms coexist in the arc roots.
3. I Arc column
The conductive arc column consists of high temperature
ionised gases and vapours, known as a plasma [6, 71, with
the bulk of the current carried by the electrons [8]. The arc
is a region of high luminescence,though in theoretical stud-
ies the arc is often regarded as a temperature distribution,
with the position of the arc deiined as the position of the
temperature maximum [9]. There is evidence that tempera-
tures in the arc chamber are sufficiently high for the gas to
be significantly electrically conductive away from the lumi-
nous region [IO].
The plasma may contain vaporised contact material,
ablated gases from the arc chamber wall and atmospheric
gases. The ionisation of the gas can occur both from ther-
mal dissociation of the hot gas molecules, and impact ioni-
sation from the collisions of accelerated electrons. The
pressure in the arc chamber will be greater than 1 bar.
Under these conditions the arc structure will be typical of a
high pressure arc [I 11 and the arc column will be ‘collision-
dominated’ [12].
The conductivity of the arc column is affected mainly by
temperature, which is about 6000K in open arcs, but may
reach 25000K in high power circuit breakers at current
maximum [13]. The current density is a dominant factor in
determining the pinch pressure produced by the self mag-
netic field of the arc. The pinch pressure drives the convec-
tive flow withm the arc and determines the arc radius and
temperature 1141. Belbel and Lauraire 1151 calculated the
average field strength of the arc during the contact opening
period in a circuit breaker to be considerably higher than
for a stable arc in air - between 11.9 and 18.7kV/m for a
range of contact materials. A free burning 20kA arc in air
conductor affects the field strength, reflecting the fact that
the arc column plasma includes ions from the metal as well
as from air. Lee and Slade [13] also report much higher
field strengths in the chamber of MCBs. The thermal and
electrical structures of the arc column are also strongly
influenced by the plasma column motion [12].
3.2 Cathode root
The spatial stability of an arc has been observed to be
dependent on the nature of the cathode material. Arcs
drawn on high melting point (refractory) electrodes such as
tungsten, molybdenum and carbon are generally stable
with stationary arc roots. When low melting point materi-
als (cold cathode) such as copper and silver are used as
electrodes in the absence of a driving magnetic field the
cathode root is a mobile spot which moves over the surface
in an irregular fashion. These reported differences have led
to the classification of arcs into two main types: refractory
arcs and cold cathode arcs [l, 21.
Electrons can gain sufficient energy to escape from the
surface of the conductor through heating (thermionic emis-
sion). This only occurs sigificantly above lOOOK [16],
i.e. in the boiling point range of the metals typically used in
the contact system (Ag boiling point 243513). Significant
thermionic emission can therefore usually only be sup-
ported on cathodes of refractory materials such as carbon
or tungsten, which have boiling points > 4000K. There are
no theories of a single emission mechanism that satisfacto-
rily explain the high current densities estimated at the cath-
ode root [8]. However, a number of theories of ‘non-
thermionic’ emission have been proposed, and it is proba-
ble that these can occur simultaneously at the cathode root
on a cold cathode material [l]. It is thought that the domi-
nant emission mechanism then determines the behaviour of
the motion of the whole arc [17, 181.
3.3 Anode root
In most situations the anode cannot emit positive ions
[I, 191 and is considered to be less dominant in determining
the characteristic of the arc. The anode functions as an
electron acceptor with the current carried almost entirely by
electron flow, unlike the cathode where the current may be
carried by both electrons and positive ions. As at the cath-
ode, a contraction region and increase in current density
has been observed between the arc column and the positive
electrode. There is also a voltage drop across a very narrow
region close to the electrode due to the space charge. Esti-
mates of the anode fall voltage vary from 1 or 2V at high
current to 12V at low currents.
3.4 Plasma and vapour jets
Vapour and plasma jets occur when the electrodes get so
hot that rapid evaporation occurs and high velocity jets of
metal vapour form [13]. The constrictions at the roots of
non-thermionic arcs give rise to high current densities, neg-
ative pressure gradients and strong magnetic fields. These
interact to drive plasma jets away from the constriction.
The direction of the plasma jet is approximately normal to
the surface at the place where the arc root is attached. If
thls direction does not correspond with the path of the
shortest distance between the electrodes then the actual arc
path will follow the direction of the jets for a short dis-
tance, and then bridge between the two jets to complete the
current path. As the arc roots wander over a surface, the
direction of the jets can fluctuate violently [20].
3.5 Arc movement
It has been widely noted that the arc roots influence arc
motion and can create a ‘surface drag’ [21]. Sloot and
Bosch [17] identified that a solid conductor model of arc
motion was only applicable when the arc was moving at
high velocity, when the electrode effects did not dominate,
Jones and Fang [12] concluded that for arcs less than
50” long moving at less than 5 O d s electrode effects
needed to be considered. Guile [2] concluded that at cur-
rents in excess of lOOA the increases in magnetic fields near
the surface of the conductors were not negligible. In this
regime the arc motion may be governed by the magneti-
cally driven movement of the cathode emission site and the
formation of vapour jets due to magnetic constriction of
the plasma.
The magnetic field acts on the charged particles in the
plasma of the arc column. At pressures around atmos-
pheric the electromagnetic force is transmitted to the gas as
a whole through multiple collisions of the charged particles
with the other particles in the plasma. This deflects the arc
column like a flexible current carrying conductor [22].
In an MCB the conductors are arranged in such a man-
ner that the current produces a magnetic field transverse to
the arc. The resultant force directs the arc away from the
Mens Teclinof , Vof 148 No I January 2001
1EE Piu6 -21
contacts into the arc stack. Despite this, immediately after
arc ignition under high current conditions, the arc roots
may be immobile, or moving at a very low velocity. Sloot
and Bosch [17] proposed that this was due to the arc roots
having been formed on contact surfaces already melted by
thermal effects during initial contact separation. The mol-
ten surface will affect the arc root mobility. The arc would
be maintained by field emission of electrons in the metal
vapour above the molten pool. A region of space charge
from ionised metal vapour is required to maintain the high
electric field, so the arc can only move at the velocity of the
temperature front in the conductor. This explains the mol-
ten tracks on arc runners that occur during periods of
reduced arc motion. Around the molten region the oxide
layer on the surface of the conductor would be damaged by
the high temperatures at the arc root, preventing significant
oxide layer emission [17, 181.
If, however, the magnetic force caused the flexible arc
column to bend forward it is conceivable that the oxide
layer away from the molten root region could become
charged with positive ions from the discharge. If the oxide
layer beyond the molten region is brought to sufficiently
high emission efficiency a new cathode root site could
form, with the arc maintained by oxide layer type field
emission. This arc could then move at high velocity, limited
only by the charging time of the oxide layer. When the arc
moves at high velocity the surface damage to the oxide
layer by the heat of the arc root would be minimised, and
hence high velocity oxide layer motion could be main-
tained
4 Arc motion research
Consideration is now given to arc movement in devices and
in particular under conditions applicable to the low voltage
current limiting circuit breaker (MCB). Initial consideration
is given to the arc drawn between opening contacts.
/ ’area defined as contact
region
Fig.4 Details ofregions in vicinity ofMCB contacts where delays ir? arc root
motion can occur
A - fixed contact ignition site, B - moving contact ignition site, C - edge of fixed
contact, D corner in fixed contact arc runner, E - moving contact tip, F - moving
contact arc runner
4. I Arc contact time
It has been demonstrated both experimentally [151 and
theoretically [12] that short arc contact times are critical for
obtaining optimum current limiting performance in an
MCB and minimising contact erosion. Fig. 4 identifies
regions (A-F) in the vicinity of the switchmg contacts that
can lead to delays in arc motion. The term ‘arc immobility’
has been used in the literature to describe a number of
different effects, and some care in the definition of terms is
required. The following definitions are used in this paper:
arc immobility - both roots of the arc are immobile; arc
3
contact time - the total period during which the arc is in the
contact region, between D and F in Fig. 4. It ends when
both arc roots have moved away from the contacts on to
the arc runners. It is this period that most researchers refer
to as ‘arc immobility’; initial arc root immobility - occurs at
the ignition site where the arc is drawn between the open-
ing contacts, A and B, in Fig. 4; m c root commutation
deluy - any period of delay caused by an arc root commu-
tating from one surface to another, for example between E
and F; further arc root immobility - arc root immobility
that occurs away from the initial ignition site, for example
at corner D.
‘Switching arc effects’ is a term that applies to the specific
arcing conditions caused by an arc ignited between opening
contacts. This is characterised [23] by conduction through
asperities on the contact surface, which form a molten
metal bridge as the contacts separate. The metal vaporises
and ionises to form a drawn arc. Alternatively, for experi-
mental studies the arc can be ignited by high voltage break-
down of the airgap 124271or by rupture of a fusewire. The
‘immobility times’ reported from this type of investigation
are not equivalent to the times obtained from opening con-
tacts.
ti
a
b rent and magnetic flux density in the arc chamber. The
Fig. 5 Arc Uiiages in arc clunder of a circuit breuker
U Arc just moving from contact region
b Arc moving along arc ninners
Anode is on diverging runner. Image times correspond to points marked in Fig. 6
Circles correspond to optical fibre positions
Optical methods of investigating arc motion have
recently been improved with the advent of solid state high
speed imaging using optical fibre arrays to monitor the arc
motion [28-331. Traditional methods using high-speed
photography do not have sufficient time resolution for a
detailed study of arc motion, as the event period of concem
here is 1-5ms, as shown in Fig. 3. Solid state imaging using
CCD arrays is also not able to offer the required time reso-
4 I E E Proc.-Sci. Meus. Techno/., Vol. 148, No. I , January 2001
htion. Recent advances have employed optical fibre arrays,
coupled with modern light detection and digital recording
circuitry to obtain image resolutions of 1 million pictures
per second [28, 291, i.e. 1000 images of the arc per ms over
the period of interest. Images of the arc are reconstructed
by computational processing of the optical data. Typical
examples are shown in Fig. 5, where the motion of the arc
through the chamber of an MCB is illustrated.
The optical data can be analysed to provide comprehen-
sive data on the movement of the arc [30]. By selective
analysis of regions of the image, the movement of the arc
roots can be identified [32, 34-36] as shown in Fig. 6. In
this case the moving contact time was defined as the time
difference between the start of the arc and the point where
the root passes 10 mm displacement. This corresponds to
the root moving off the moving contact. The fixed contact
time was defined as the period between the ignition of the
arc and the start of the root motion. These parameters can
be clearly identified and easily measured in the arc root dis-
placement plots shown in Fig. 6.
40 > , 600
:a :b
time, ps
Fig.6 Anode root (AR) c u d catlwde root (CR) trajectories ~Uzcisimultune-
ow urc voltuge meusurenznts for a short circuit urc in U miniature circuit
breuker
y = 0 position corresponds to arc ignition site on contacts as shown in Fig. 5
Points marked U and 6 correspond to the iniagcs shown in Fig. 5
The availability of such comprehensive optical data per-
mitted new direct measurements of arc root dynamics [34].
It is now possible to measure both anode and cathode arc
root contact times on fixed and moving contacts 130, 341.
The insights gained [35, 361 have clarified the definition and
measurement of the arc contact time (see Section 4.1), lead-
ing to improved assessment of the effects of design varia-
bles on circuit breaker performance. This makes possible a
more direct approach to circuit breaker design optimisa-
tion, leading to improved performance 1331.
4.2 Influence of contacts on arc contact time
Much early work concentrated on the critical contact gap
required for the end of arc contact immobility. However,
Rieder [24] surmised that this also depends on the arc cur-
opening velocity and contact opening delay also have an
effect. While the arc is immobile, changes occur to the sur-
faces of the contacts and conductors, which can further
prolong the arc root immobility. Rieder [25] arranged the
current feed symmetrically from either side of the contact
position so that the magnetic forces on the arc due to the
magnetic field of the fault current were eliminated. An
external magnetic field was applied after a delay to allow
time for changes in the surface conditions. Using the same
method, Poeffel [27] measured the arc position using an
optoelectronic device on long flat parallel copper elec-
trodes. The main observations were that in a magnetic field
of B > I O x 10-2 T the arc moved, but under some condi-
tions at low velocity (< lads), causing damage to the con-
tacts. Periods of low velocity arc motion were termed
‘reduced arc motion’. This is in broad agreement to the
work of Sloot and Bosch [l?, who proposed that when the
arc is ignited the cathode spot is often acting on a molten
area, which does not provide the conditions for high veloc-
ity arc movement.
The cathode and anode roots have been shown experi-
mentally to exhibit quite different mobility characteristics
[37]. Although the dynamics of the cathode root is thought
to dominate the arc motion [8], the anode root can also
affect arc mobility in some situations [35, 361.
A general investigation of the effects of the contact open-
ing speed and contact material on the arc contact time
(referred to as ‘arc immobility time’) was carried out by
Belbel and Lauraire in 1985 [15]. The time referred to here
as ‘immobility time’ is the sum oft, and t, in Fig. 1. Belbel
and Lauraire showed a requirement for a high opening
velocity (1Oms-’), but more recent studies [35, 361 on arc
root motion using optical fibre arrays to provide a more
detailed analysis show that t h s may not be necessary.
Belbel and Lauraire found that increasing the current
increased the arc contact times. Arc contact times were
generally lower on copper contact materials than on silver
or silver cadmium oxide contact materials. At contact
opening velocities below 6ms-* wider sidewall separation
led to lower arc contact times, whilst at 6ms-’ the sidewall
separation appeared to have little affect on the arc contact
time.
In an earlier investigation Lindmayer [38] also used the
arc voltage to measure the arc contact time (referred to as
‘arc staying time’), in conjunction with high-speed cine pic-
tures. Even after a few fractions of a millisecond parts of
the plasma column had reached the arc stack, even though
the arc roots remained on the contacts. The arc then either
jumped straight into the arc stack or moved on to the arc
runner and then into the arc stack. Lindmayer also found
that copper contacts gave the lowest arc contact times, fol-
lowed by silver, nickel, cadmium, silver nickel alloys and
silver cadmium oxides. Silver graphite produced the longest
arc contact times. The times were higher than those
recorded by Belbel and Lauraire [15]. Lindmayer also
recorded that a higher magnetic blast field could reduce arc
contact times. Despite the poor immobility characteristics,
silver graphite is widely used for its anti-weld characteristic
[39, 401.
Later Behrens [41] used a single optical sensor that trig-
gered when the front of the arc grew to reach a point 22
mm from the contacts, a period that he called the ‘growing
time’. This is approximately equivalent to the arc contact
time measured from the arc voltage. Again the conclusion
was that, increasing contact velocity, and the use of iron
behind the contact pieces to increase the magnetic flux den-
sity, resulted in lower arc contact times. In a recent study
[35, 361, high opening velocity of the moving contact was
also shown to facilitate arc movement, but contact velocity
could be reduced by optimal design of the arc chamber,
allowing for the application of new types of actuator.
4.3 Arc chamber geometry and material
The arc chamber wall material is usually either a nongas-
sing ceramic or an ablative polymer. The material chosen
can have a significant effect on the mobility of the arc. The
depth of the arc chamber and sidewall separation is also
critical.
Rieder [42] concluded that, for Cu contacts, although no
significant influence of the wall material was observed,
IEE Proc -Scr MeaJ Tethnol, Vol 148, No I Janunry 2001
there was a critical wall separation, dependent on both the
contact material, wall material and current. Wall separation
below this critical value prevented arc motion. Gassing
walls were more likely to impede arc motion under unfa-
vourable conditions than nongassing ones.
Lindmayer and Paulke [43] used a one dimensional fibre
optic array to measure the light signals in a simplified arc
chamber for arcs up to 4kA. The technique showed that
the front of the arc moved away from the contact region
before the rear of the arc. At low currents low sidewall sep-
aration increased arc contact times, but as the current
increased the sidewalls had less effect.
Steps, changes in geometry, venting and contact velocity
all affect both anode and cathode motion [35, 361. This cre-
ates a complicated interdependency requiring a structured
approach to the investigations. A full Taguchi analysis of
effects of arc chamber parameters has been conducted [MI.
This concluded that the venting of the arc chamber had a
major influence on the arc motion or commutation from
the moving contact on to the fixed arc runner, between E
and F in Fig. 4.
4.4 Arc root commutation
Arc commutation is the transfer of the arc roots from one
surface to another accompanied by a change of materials
or surface geometry. Experimental studies [37] show that
under comparable conditions the arc commutes faster
across an obstacle on the anode root than on the cathode,
although there are some exceptions. It was also noted that
the cathode root crosses steps by moving continuously
along the surface. When it reaches the edge or gap, the root
climbs downwards along the vertical edge. When the cath-
ode root crosses a wide gap, the root again moves down
the vertical face, until the column touches the opposite cor-
ner of the gap. Narrow gaps, however, can be crossed with-
out the root climbing down into the gap. The anode root
jumps gaps and steps without the anode root climbing
down the vertical face. Arc commutation across steps and
gaps can be facilitated by increasing the magnetic flux den-
sity of the driving field, decreasing the height of the step,
choice of suitable step geometry, increasing the width of the
contact gap, and reducing the gap depth in case of a cath-
ode gap. The venting condition of the arc chamber has a
major influence on the commutation of anode and cathode
from the moving contact on to a futed arc runner [35, 361.
4.5 Arc running
During arc running the arc roots have been shown to move
differently along plain electrode surfaces [45, 461. The cath-
ode root moved in a continuous motion, whilst the anode
moved in discrete steps. The cathode roots tend to run
along the edges and stay on corners of an electrode, whdst
the anode root is not attracted to the edges.
It is uncertain whether the running velocity of the arc is
dominated by a balance of the electromagnetic and aerody-
namic forces on the arc column or by the behaviour of the
arc roots. Experimental data have shown that the surface
condition can affect the arc running velocity and it has
been suggested that the ‘surface drag’ at the arc roots is
probably related to the electron emission characteristics of
the cathode surface. Although most authors share the opin-
ion that the phenomena at the cathode root dominate the
arc mobility, there have been some observations that cer-
tain aspects of arc mobility depend on the anode rather
than the cathode material.
The gas in the arc chamber is air mixed with metal
vapours from the hot contacts, and also can include
5
ablated organic vapours if the arc chamber sidewalls are
manufactured from polymer materials. The pressure in the
arc chamber is initially atmospheric and has been measured
to rise as the gases are heated [33].These gases are usually
exhausted through vents so there is gas flow through the
chamber, an effect that is sometimes enhanced by the use
of recirculating arc venting [33].
4.6 Arc restrike
For effective current limitation the high arc voltage across
the arc stack should be maintained, for a period t,$ in
Fig. 2. Hot gases in the arc chamber can reduce the dielec-
tric strength leading to the arc reforming across the con-
tacts. This reduces the arc voltage and allows the current to
commutate into a new arc in parallel to the original arc
[30, 471. More damage to the contacts is caused, and as the
arc voltage falls the effectiveness of current limitation is
reduced. Arc restrike can occur during the first half cycle of
the short circuit fault, or in subsequent AC cycles.
5 Conclusions
A body of work relating to arc physics of relevance to arc
control in MCBs is presented in assimilated form. The sig-
nificant work relating to the arc column, arc root and elec-
trode effects, and arc motion is presented. Recent
developments in the study of arc motion and arc control in
MCBs are reviewed.
There exists a significant body of work relating to basic
arc phenomena, and the general principles are well under-
stood. However, the huge range of arc properties encoun-
tered in real applications means that results relating to ideal
conditions are often not applicable to real devices and
sometimes apparently contradictory results are presented.
Studies of arcing conditions in real devices or test config-
urations reproducing these conditions are still at a stage of
empirical description of macroscopic arc measurables. They
are capable of providing only a limited amount of design
data applicable to generalised conditions. There is a gap
between these empirical studies and the underlying physics
of the arc phenomena. Realisation of this fact has grown
over recent years and some progress has been made to
bridge the gap. However, as the processes governing arcing
phenomena in MCBs are complex with a large number of
interrelated factors, there is much work still to be done.
There is little doubt that much more work is required to
improve understanding of the fundamental processes gov-
erning arc motion, particularly given the varied conditions
applying to these devices. However, new and improved
experimental and analytical approaches need to be devel-
oped that can embrace the variety and complexity of the
physical processes involved. These are needed to provide
improved design data applicable to a wide variety of condi-
tions encountered in everyday engineering applications.
6 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank P. Jeffery and K.
Pechrach for their contributions and C. Chalk for his tech-
nical support.
7 References
1 GUILE, A.E.: ‘Arc electrode phenomena’, IEE Rev., 1971, 118, (9R),
pp. 1131-1 154
2 GUILE, A.E.: ‘Electric arcs: Their electrode processes and engineering
applications’, IEE Proc. A, 1984, 131, (7), pp. 45W69
3 IEC 60898 (1995-02): ‘Ekctrical accessories - Circuit-breakers for
overcurrent protection for household and similar installations’
6 I E E Proc.-Sci. Mecis. Teclmol., Vol. 148, No. I , January 2001
4 SLADE, P.G.: ‘Medium to high current switching’ in ’Electricdl con-
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