Unit-I

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Communication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill.

However, while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate
well unless they make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often,
we take the ease with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we
sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes
place when we are supposedly at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other
interlocutors. Common forms of communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using
pictures and broadcasting. Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-
verbally, but what is understood.

What is Communication?

Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which means
‘to make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended meaning to
another person through the use of mutually understood signs and language. Communication is
the art of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another.
Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of
communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message
encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally
interpretation of the message by the recipient.

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another. When
you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be communicating with your friend.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Meaning and Definition of Communication

The word communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that means to share, to make
common, to impart, to participate, to convey or to transmit. As such communication may be defined as
the sharing or exchange of messages, facts, opinions, ideas or attitudes and emotions between a sender
(manager) and receiver (employee) or between two or more people. In other words, communication is the
process through which two or more persons come to exchange ideas and understanding among
themselves.Thus, it may be interpreted as an interchange of thought or information to bring about
understanding and confidence for good industrial relations. It brings about unity of purpose, interest, and
efforts in an organization.

According to Newman and Summer, “It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or
more persons’’.

According to Peter Little, “Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between
individuals and/or organizations so that an understanding response results’’.
Business Communication is the flow of information and understanding from one person to another at the
same level or at different levels. It is a process which enables management to allocate and supervise the
work of the employees.

Though business communication is a specialised branch of general communication, there is no basic

difference between the two. The process is the same and so are the principles that regulate them. The
difference lies in their application to situations. Whereas general communication plays diverse roles,
business communication is specifically concerned with well-defined business activities.

Features/Nature of Communication
Features/nature of communication is as follows:
1) Universal: Communication is universal phenomenon. All living creatures (human beings, birds, etc.)
communicate through their
own symbols and signs.

2) Communication is Unavoidable: Communication is always an existing and unavoidable

phenomenon. Not only facial expressions,
positive gestures and other behavioural ways, even silence also conveys a lot about the persons
attitude.

3) Continuous Process: Communication is not an art or event of time rather; it is a continuous process
incorporating various events and
 activities that are interrelated and interdependent.

4) Two-Way Traffic: Communication is not complete unless, the receiver understands the message. To
ensure that the receiver has understood the message, there should be some sort of feedback. Thus, the
communication is two-way and not one-way traffic.

5 ) Short-Lived Process: The process of communication is complete as soon as the message is received
and understood by the receiver in the right perspective; hence it is a short lived process.

6) Needs Proper Understanding: There may be numerous media of communication but the main
purpose of conveying the message is a proper understanding of the message by the other party. For this
purpose, it should be clearly and concisely worded.

7) Leads Achievement of the Organisational Objective: Effective communication leads to the

achievement of the organizational objective by creating the sense of object orientation in the organization.

8) Dispels Misunderstanding: It provides clear understanding between persons and thus, builds a bridge
of companionship among people.

Scope of Communication

The scope of communication is as follows:

1) Information Sharing: The main purpose of communication is to transmit information from a source
to target individuals or groups. Various types of information are transmitted in the organization, etc.
There may be need for fast diffusion of some information in the organisation, e.g., special rewards and
awards given, settlements with the union, and major changes in the organisation.

2) Feedback: There is a need to give feedback to the employees on their achievements, on their
performance, and to the higher management on the fulfilment of goals and difficulties encountered in the
communication. Feedback helps in taking corrective measures and making necessary adjustments and it
motivates people in developing challenging and realistic plans.
3) Influence People: Our purpose of communication is to influence people. The manager communicates
to create a good working environment, right attitudes, and congenial working relationships. All these are
examples of influencing.

4) Problem-Solving: In many cases, communication aims at solving problems. Communication between

the management and the unions on some issues (negotiation) is aimed at finding a solution. Many group
meetings are held to brainstorm alternative solutions for a problem and to evolve a consensus.

5) Facilitating Change: The effectiveness of a change introduced in an organisation depends to a large

extent on the clarity and spontaneity of the communication. Communication between the managers and
employees helps in recognizing the difficulties in the planned change, and in taking corrective action.

6) Gate Keeping: Communication helps to build links of the organisation with the outside world. The
organisation can use its environment to increase its effectiveness.

Objectives of Communication

Following are the main objectives of communication:

1) To Give and Receive Information: In an organisation, the management uses communication to keep
the employees well-informed about the goals, policies, and rules. Meetings, telephone, notices, employee
handbooks, and bulletins are used to convey necessary information to employees. The information may be
given or received orally or in writing.

2) To Convey the Right Message: The main objective of communication is to convey the right message
to the right person, i.e., to the person for whom it is meant. And the person should also understand that
message.

3) To Provide Advice: Advice may be given on person or official matters. In business, supervisors advise
workers in handling machines and equipment in factory or office. Managers need specialised advice from
experts in matters like taxation, project finance, quality control, engineering, etc.

4) To Receive Suggestions: Employees and customers are a useful source of new ideas for business as
they are in direct touch with operations and procedures of banking. Suggestions flow upwards as
feedback and represent a mild and subtle form of communication.
5) To Persuade People: Persuasion is an important objective of communication and it requires the ability
to speak and write effectively. Persuasion is more effective when face-to-face conversion is used with
tact.

6) To Motivate People: Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation
is the process of inducing people to work hard for achieving organisational goals. An atmosphere of
security and mutual cooperation and trust is essential for this purpose. Communication is a very effective
means of building friendly and trustful environment.

7) To Issue Orders and Instructions: In order to get things done, a manager issues orders and
instructions to his subordinates. An order is a directive to do something whereas an instruction indicates
how to carry-out the order. Order involves assignment of task while instruction specifies the way the task
is to be performed.

8) To Impart Education and Training: Education involves formal communication over a long period so
as to widen the knowledge and skills.

9) To Issue Warning and Notice: Warning is a forceful form of communication because it carries a
sense of urgency. Warning may be given orally or in writing but it should be confidential. A written
warning is known as memo.

10) To Improve Discipline: Rules and regulations are made known to employees through written and
oral communications. Suggestions and grievances from employees help mangers to make necessary
changes in disciplinary rules and procedures.

Importance of Communication

Communication is important due to following reasons:

1) Basis of Managerial Functions: Communication runs through the entire process of management. It is
essential not only in directing but in all the management functions. Planning cannot be sound unless the
plans are formulated in consultation with the subordinates. Communication is required in motivating,
supervising and directing the subordinates. Thus, communication is an indispensable component of the
management process.

2) Efficient Functioning: Communication is as vital to the efficient functioning of an organisation as the

circulation of blood in the human body. Communication is the link that unites superior and subordinates
and brings about mutual understanding among them.
3) Stimulates Initiative and Creativity: ‘Group’ action or teamwork is not possible without
communication. A two-way communication system stimulates initiative and creativity among the
subordinates. Through communication sub-ordinates are encouraged to find new solutions and implement
them in efficient way.

4) Job-Satisfaction and Good Morale: Morale is the human element that motivates a man to work in the
right spirit. Good communication removes the possibility of misunderstanding among the parties
concerned. It increases the morale of the workers and each worker will have job satisfaction.

5) Building Human Relations: Effective communication is indispensable for building-up sound human
relations. Sharing of ideas and information creates a sense of belonging and unity of interests.
Communication is equally important in public relations for developing and maintaining a favourable
image of the enterprise in society.

6) Avoid Illusion: While passing through various stages information may be distorted by interested
parties, and may create illusion and misunderstanding among persons. Illusion is the great enemy of
communication. An efficient system of communication aims at removing illusions and misunderstanding
by communicating facts and figures.

7) Maximum Production at Minimum Cost: Employees work more enthusiastically as an effective

communication reduces their misunderstandings and confusion towards their role in organisation. Thus,
it helps the companies in increasing its productivity by reducing the wastage of time and scraps and cost
of production.

8) Prompt Decision and its Implementation: Information must be received promptly to implement the
decision effectively, its communication to subordinates concerned is essential. Thus, decision-making and
its implementation require an effective system of communication.
3.1.6. Essentials of Effective Business Communication
It is necessary to understand the essentials of good communication skills and work towards achieving
them:

1) Clarity of Purpose: An effective communication must be clear about what he wants to say. It can be
done only be careful planning.
Communication does not take place by chance. As George Bernard Shaw says, “the major mistake in
communication is to be believe that it happens’’.

2) Shared Activity: Effective communication is the responsibility of all the people, managerial or non-
managerial, in an organisation working towards a common goal. It means that all of them have a share,
directly or indirectly, in many different ways, in the process of communication. Whether communication
is effective can be judged on the basis of the intended results. And the results are the responsibility of the
entire organisation. It has, therefore to be group-responsibility.

3) Common Set of Symbols: The encoding and decoding of the message should be done with symbols
that are familiar to the sender and the receiver. It is an immutable condition of communication that the
code or set of symbols be mutually understood/ intelligible. One must, therefore, use simple language and
avoid jargon.

4) Focus the Needs of the Receiver: It should be our endeavour to see that whatever we communicates
should be of value to the receiver, both in the short run and in the distant future. Our awareness of the
needs if the receiver will make him more receptive.

5) Use Feedback: Communication is complete only when the message is understood by the receiver.
Sender can how whether communication/message is understood only when he/she gets feedback.
Misunderstandings and inaccuracies are less likely to occur when the ‘feedback loop’ is utilized in the
communication process. We can achieve this target by asking questions, requesting a reply to a letter, and
encouraging the receiver to give his reactions to the message/information.

6) Active Listening: Active or ‘participative’ listening is as important as any other element in the process
of communication. It shows that communication is a joint responsibility of both the sender and the
receiver.
7) Controlling Emotions: Emotions play an important role in interpersonal relationships between
supervisors, subordinates and colleagues in an organisation. An important function of communication is
control-not just top-down control but also self control. It means that a successful communicator must
learn/train himself to exercise restraint on his emotions, especially anger.

8) Politeness: In communication, the tone of voice, the choice of language and the congruency or logical
connection between what is said and how it is said influence the reactions of the receiver. That is why
managers are advised to shun authoritarianism, or in other words, to exercise authority with grace.
Everybody knows that politeness pays, and it is reflected so very ‘loudly’ both in words and actions. In an
organisation, politeness encourages participative communication involving people at all levels, leading to
lateral and diagonal communication from the conventional, hierarchically structured downward
communication.

9) Eliminate Noise: Every possible effort must be made to eliminate the element of noise that distorts
communication at the transmission stage. Any disturbance in the transmission line is bound to defeat the
very purpose of communication.

10) Clarify Assumptions: Effective communication can never be based on as assumptions. The sender of
the message must first clarify his assumptions and then proceed with proper encoding of the message.

11) Avoiding Connotations and Ambiguities: The language of effective communication is simple,
relying more on denotations than on connotations. Care must be taken to see that the receiver of the
message does not have to go beyond the text of the message. A sender should, therefore, use denotative
words and expressions in preference to connotative ones. It is also necessary to avoid all ambiguity that
means using words with double meaning.

12) Socio-Psychological Aspect: Communication can be effective only when both the sender and the
receiver are well informed about each other-cultural and socio-psychological backgrounds. As a golden
rule for effective communication one must remember. “First understand, then be understood”. An
effective communication is an informed communication.

13) Completeness: A message must be complete leaving, as far as possible, no scope for guesswork.
Incomplete communication annoys the receiver as a result of which proper feedback will not come.
 14) Conciseness: An effective communication is concise and crisp. It should not include unnecessary
details is diversions. The sender should be clear headed and properly focused in his vision.

7 Cs of Communication

Effective communication is the pathway to build a strong relationship but unfortunately it is so often
overlooked. This article will provide some basic principles and tips for effective communication. To
compose effective oral as well as written message you need to apply certain specific communication
principles. They tie closely with the basic concepts of the communication process and are important for
both written and oral communication. There are certain essentials/principles of effective business
communication called the “seven Cs”

They are –
1. Completeness
2. Conciseness,
3. Consideration,
4. Concreteness,
5. Clarity,
6. Courtesy,
7. Correctness.

1) Conciseness: In business communication, you should be brief and be able to say whatever you have to say
in fewest possible words without sacrificing the other ‘C’ qualities. A concise message is complete without
being wordy. Conciseness is a prerequisite to effective business communication. A concise message saves
time and expense for both sender and receiver. Conciseness contributes to emphasis; by eliminating
unnecessary words, you let important ideas stand-out. When combined with a “you-view”. concise messages are
inherently more interesting to recipients. Finally, concise messages show respect for recipients by not cluttering
their professional lives with unnecessary information.

2) Correctness: The term ‘correctness’ as applied to business messages means right level of language,
accuracy of facts, figures and words. If the information is not correctly conveyed, the sender will lose credibility.
Transmission of incorrect information to superiors will vitiate decision-making process and to the outsider will
spoil the public image of the firm.Correct use of grammar, message composition and appropriate words, and
adapting the right level of communication to suit the receiver's level, determine the correctness of
communication. Adapting the right tone for conveying a message is basic to the success of communication.
Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in favour of vague and abstract expression.

3) Concreteness: Concreteness of message is an essential requirement of effective communication. It means

being specific, definite and vivid rather than vague and general. In oral communication, we can’t draw tables,
diagrams, or graphs to make our statements vivid, but we can choose precise words to convey the correct
message and support it by relevant facts and figures. If the message is specific, there would be increased
likelihood that the message is interpreted by the receiver as intended by the sender.

4) Clarity: The principle of clarity implies both clarity of thought and clarity of expression. The process of
communication begins with the generation of a thought in the mind of the communicator. The idea or the
message to be transmitted should be clearly worded so that it may be interpreted by the receiver in the same
sense in which it is communicated. There should be no ambiguity in the message. For this purpose, the idea to
be communicated should be very clear in the mind of the sender. It should be kept in mind that the words do not
speak themselves, but the speaker gives them in the meaning. If the message is clear, it would evoke an
appropriate response from the other party. It is also necessary that the receiver must be conversant with the
language, the inherent assumptions, and the mechanics of communication.

Clarity of thought means the communicator must be fully clear in his mind about what they wants to
communicate (the message), why they wants to communicate (the objective of communication), to whom they
wants to communicate (the receiver), when they wants to communicate (the timing), and how should they
communicate (the most suitable media).

5) Completeness: A business message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the
desired reaction. Incomplete messages keep the receiver guessing, create misunderstanding and delay the actions.
Every person should, therefore, be provided with all the required facts and figures. When you answer a letter,
reply all the questions rose in the letter. Thus, only a complete message can be an effective message.

Completeness offers numerous benefits:

1) Complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results without the expense of additional messages.
2) They can do a better job of building goodwill. Messages that contain information the receiver needs show
concern for others.
3) Complete messages can help avert costly lawsuits that may result if important information is missing.
 4) Communications that seen inconsequential can be surprisingly important if the information they contain is
complete and effective.

6) Consideration: Generally consideration is the act or process of considering. In order to communicate

effectively, think and look from the receiver’s angle. The sender should adopt a humane approach and
understand the emotions and sentiments of the receiver. He should understand and focus on the needs of the
receiver. The socio-psychological background of the receiver must be understood.The golden rule “First
understood then be understood” should be followed.

Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind and try to put yourself in his
or her place. Try to visualize your readers (or listeners) – with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions,
and probable reactions to your request. Then handle the matter from their point of view. This thoughtful
consideration is also called “you- attitude”, empathy, the human touch,and understanding of human nature.

7) Courtesy: Courtesy means a friendly and helpful behaviour towards others. Polite manner facilitates
communication. Politeness encourages participative communication. This is more important and advantageous in
business writing than it is in face to face communication or conversion. Courteous messages help to strengthen
present business relations, as well as to make new friends. It is a goodwill building. Courtesy stems from sincere
you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertions of “please” and “thank you.”

Once the credibility of the sender has been established, attempts should be made at being courteous in
expression. As the word suggests, it expects the speaker/writer to be aware of the listener’s/reader’s feeling. In
business communication, we not only pass on information but we also share and try to create a harmonious
understanding for business to grow and develop and retain goodwill. Courtesy is not merely expressing per se the
much used phrases thank you and please, but it is a sincere and genuine expressions that stems out of respect
and care for others. In the business world, almost everything starts with the ends in courtesy. Much can be
accomplished if tact, diplomacy and application of people are woven in the message.
Unit -II
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Types of Media of communication evolved as the human brain developed and became more receptive to the
sounds and the events around him. Over a period of time, the historic records will show that types of
communication have evolved very gradually, be it written, oral or pictorial communication. Communication can
be categorised into two basic types. Each has its own advantages, disadvantages, and even pitfalls:

1) Verbal Communication: All the messages said or written in words make part of the verbal communication.
This way, all that appears as text in books, magazines and newspapers is part of verbal communication.

2) Non-Verbal Communication: Part of human communication involving other than written or spoken words is
referred to as non-verbal communication. It involves human senses – sight, taste, touch, hearing and smelling.

Verbal communication can be divided into the following:

1) Oral Communication: Oral Communication, also known as verbal communication, is the interchange of
verbal messages between

Advantages of Written Communication

The advantages of written communication are as under:
1) Issuing Orders: Written communication can be used to issue instructions and orders to the subordinates.

2) Can’t Distorted: It is very difficult to alter the contents of the written message. So it can’t be distorted.

3) Economical: Written communication is a cheaper means of communication when the parties to

communication are situated at distant places.

4) Clear and Specific: Written messages are more carefully formulated than oral communication. That is why;
they are more clear and specific. One can think adequately before writing anything.

5) Response: Response to written communication is generally well-thought out because the receiver gets
sufficient time to understand and evaluate the message.
6) Record can be Kept: Sometimes, written communication is also used to elaborate oral communication and to
keep a record of it.
Written communication serves as a reliable record for future reference and can be used in legal proceedings.

Disadvantages of Written Communication

The disadvantages of written communication are as under:
1) Expensive: Written communication is more expensive for transmitting the short messages. It also takes long
time to convey the
message.

2) Formal: Written communication is generally formal in nature. It does not involve personal touch between the
parties.

3) Amendments are not Possible: Once a written message has been dispatched, there is little scope left to make
amends for the
inaccuracy that might have crept into it.

4) Misunderstood: If the written communication is poorly drafted, it may create misunderstanding and
confusion in the mind of the
receiver.

5) Feedback: Immediate feedback is not possible.

Non-Verbal Communication
One of the multi-media of communication is non-verbal communication, also called “communication by
implication”. Communicating a message without using arbitrary symbols, i.e., words or meaning of words is
termed as “non-verbal communication”. In other words, non-verbal communication is word less communication.
The communication behavior of the speaker, as our experience indicates, can be by postures, movements and
other cues. A speaker may use many languages of communication, both verbal and non-verbal.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Problems with communication can pop-up at every stage of the communication process. These problems are
termed as barriers to effective communication or miscommunications. These barriers can be either sender-
oriented or receiver-oriented or both. All efforts must be made to ensure that these barriers are removed to
achieve effective communication. These barriers can occur in verbal and written communication.
“Miscommunication is a ruined form of communication. What is to be communicated does not get
communicated and an obstructed form of the message is transmitted.”

When a message is send, the person intends to communicate meaning, but the message itself does not contain
meaning. The meaning exists in the mind of the sender and in the mind of the receiver. To understand one
another, sender and the receiver must share similar meanings for words, gestures, tone of voice, and other
symbols.

Barriers to communication are obstacies that distort or block the flow of needed information. Johnson
Anecdotes has suggested three such barriers:
1) An individual’s reluctance to see other points of view;
2) Hesitancy of lower-status members to communicate unpleasant information upwards; and
3) A tendency for pressures from outside the organisation (war and public protest) to make adequate internal
communication difficult to achieve.

Communication barriers tend to occur in bunches; one barrier evokes and sustains others and is in turn sustained
by them. Barriers do not shut communication off within an organisation; there is always communication.
Organisations need to understand and act upon the barriers that block or distort an efficacious flow of
communication.

Types of Barriers

1) Semantic Barriers: The obstructions that come in the process of encoding or decoding the message are
known as semantic barriers. Some of them are as follows:

i) Different Language: Employees in organisation have no common language. This is obvious barrier when
there is no common vehicle to convey ideas and feelings in organisations and multinational companies. Even
competent translators fail to convey the exact meaning of different words of different languages. As company’s
operation expands and extends to different countries, the language barrier widens more.
(ii) Words: Words and symbols used have several meanings depending upon the context in which they are used.
Same word can have different meanings. Unless the context of words and symbols used is known, the receiver
may misinterpret them because of his preconceived ideas.

(iii)Pictures: Maps, graphs, charts, blue prints, and three dimensional models, pictures should be supported
with proper words;
Otherwise the receiver may get confused and might not understand properly.

(iv) Actions: Actions include gestures, movements, and body language. Body language can be lip movement,
eye movement, breathing movement, smiles, frowns, expressions. Proper actions make communication
effective.

(v) Poor Vocabulary: It hinders the communicator to convey written or verbal message in right sense. The
communicator should use the clear and precise meaning of the used words and their appropriate replacement, if
needed.
2) Emotional or Psychological Barriers: These arise from motives, attitudes, judgment, sentiments,
emotions, and social values of
participants. These create psychological distance that hinders the communication, or partly filters it out, or
causes misinterpretation, thereby making the communication inadequate. Following are some emotional
barriers:

i) Loss in Transmissions and Retentions: Communication when passed through various levels in an
organisation, its accuracy gets decreased. A part of information is lost in transmit. It is said that about 30% of
the information is lost at each level of transmission. Poor retention of the information is again a problem.
Workers retain only 40% of information and supervisors retain 60% of it.

ii) Distrust of Communicator: Manager’s own subordinates sometimes distrust the communication, especially
when he lacks self- confidence, or is less competent in his position. Frequently, he makes illogical decisions and
then reviews his own decision when he fails to implement them.

(iii) Failure to Communicate: Sometimes manger’s do not communicate the needed messages to their
subordinates either due to laziness, or they arbitrarily assume that everybody has got the information, or they
hide information deliberately to embarrass the subordinate.
(iv) Undue Reliance on the Written Word (Order): In this case, employees hesitate in accepting the face-to-
face verbal communication of their superiors because the oral orders of superiors are not consistent with the
written policies of the organisation. Only written communication is taken seriously making organisational
verbal communication ineffective.

(v) Inattention of the Receiver: It is a common phenomenon that people simply fall to react to bulletins,
notices, minutes, and reports.

3) Physical Barriers: Some physical barriers are as follows:

(i) Noise: Any disturbance or interference that reduces the clarity and effectiveness of communication is called
noise. It may be physical or psychological, written or visual. Noise distracts the persons communicating and
acts as barrier to communication. Loud noise of speaker playing outside or noise due to machines, affect
listening process of persons communicating.

(ii) Improper Time: It also hinders the process of communication. For example, a phone call at midnight,
interrupting sleep, further
irritates the receiver, if message is not urgent.

(iii) Distance: Long distances between the senders receivers can also obstruct effective communication. If
sender and receiver are
separated by geographical distances, telecommunication is most often resorted to – disturbance in telephone
connection can result in miscommunication or incomplete communication.

4) Organisational Barriers: The barriers, which are related to the functioning of the organisation, are known as
the organisational
Barriers. Major organisational barriers are as follows:

i) Organisational Policy: It provides overall guidelines, which might be in form of written documents; or it
has to be inferred from
organisational practice, particularly at the top level. If the policy creates hindrance in the free flow of
communication in different
directions, communication would not be smooth and effective.
ii) Rules and Regulations: Organisational rules and regulations prescribing the different sub-matter along the
formal communication may restrict the flow of messages and act as hindrance in the communication process.
Sometimes it happens that important messages are omitted or manipulated. Observance of rigid and regulations
related to communication, causes delay of message and discouragement of employee in conveying their
creative and innovative ideas.

iii) Status Relationship in the Organisation: Superior subordinate relationship also blocks the flow of
communication, particularly in upward direction. The greater the difference in hierarchical positions in terms of
their status, greater is the difficulty in communication.

iv) Structure of the Organisation: In greater number of managerial levels, communication gets delayed as it
moves along the hierarchical line. Also, the chances of the communication getting distorted are greater as the
number of filtering points is higher.

v) Lack of Organisational Facilities: Facilities like meeting, conferences, complaint or suggestion boxes, open
door system etc. are provided for smooth adequate, clear and timely flow of communication, If these facilities
are not properly emphasised, people generally fail to communicate effectively.

vi) Wrong Choice of Channel: There are many mediums and channels of communications like face to face,
oral, written, telephone, e-mail and audiovisual. Each channel is not ideal and perfect in every situation. If
persuasion is to be made by sales manager, face- to face communication is required in case of formal relation,
but in communicating with illiterate, this channel fails. Illiterate people are to be communicated orally.

5) Personal Barriers: As communication is basically an interpersonal process, many personal factors inherent
in the sender and
receiver influence the flow of communication. They are:
i) Barriers in Superiors: Superiors play an important role in communication. Because of their hierarchical
position, superiors act as barriers in number of ways as follows:
(a) Attitude of Superiors: If the attitude is unfavourable, there is greater possibility of filtering or colouring
of the information. Managers at intermediate levels may colour the information, sometimes intentionally, with a
view to twist the situation in their favour.

(b) Fear of Challenge to Authority: Superiors many times withhold the upward or downward flow of
information for the fear of disclose of their own weaknesses, especially when superior lacks self-confidence.
 (c) Underestimation of Subordinates: The superiors generally perceive that their subordinates are less
competent and are not capable of advising their superiors. This stops the superiors to talk to their subordinates.

(d) Ignoring the Juniors: Superiors ignore their juniors and do not pass the information, just as to maintain
their importance.

(e) Insistence on Following Proper Channel: Superiors do not like any by passing in communication. They
think it to be adverse for their authority and hence insist on proper channel.

ii) Barriers Regarding Subordinates: Factors like attitude, lack of time etc. adversely affect the subordinates’
participation in Communication process.

Two more factors, blocking upward communication are:

a) Unwillingness to Communicate: The subordinate generally are not wiling to communicate upward any
information which is
likely to affect them adversely. If they feel that supply of such adverse information is necessary for control
purposes they would modify it in such a way so as not to harm their interest.

b) Lack of Proper Incentive: Lack of incentive to communicate also prevents the subordinates from
communicating upward. They are pushed down when they perform poorly, but may not be rewarded when they
work marvelously well and offer a novel suggestion.

iii) Poor Listening: Most people just hear, but not attentively, if they listen, they listen selectively, taking the
“desired part” and ignoring the “undesired part” of the message. They listen, not what the other is saying but
what they want to listen. These poor listening retards the communication flow and prevents understanding of
the real meanings. It includes:
a) Egotism: It is possible to transmission of understanding, the most vital aspect of communication. The self-
centered persons think that their own ideas are more important and others are wrong. Such people are very bad
listeners. If a person wants other people to understand him, he has to understand them. Such level of
understanding diminishes with egotism, and as a result, the communication process is hindered.
 b) Emotions: Positive emotions such as love and affection smoothens the flow of communication whereas
negative emotions such as hatred, anger, anxiety obstructs the communication process. Effective
communication requires a clear heart and a silent mind.

c) Selective Perception: Our sensory receptors have their own limitations. As a result we perceive not the
whole spectrum, but few selective symbols based upon our needs, motives, experience, background, etc. We do
not see the reality as it is, but interpret what we see and call it reality. We cannot communicate the whole, due
to selective perception. Because of different perceptions, neutral words conveying certain positive message
convey the opposite meanings as they reach to the receiver. It results into misunderstandings and
misinterpretations and make communication ineffective.

6) Socio-Psychological Barriers: Some socio-psychological barriers are as follows:

i) Attitude and Opinions: Personal attitudes and opinions often act as barriers to effective communication. If
information agrees with our opinions and attitudes, we tend to receive it favourably. It fits comfortably in the
filter of our mind. But if information disagrees with our views and tends to run contrary to our accepted beliefs,
we do not react favorably.

ii) Closed Mind: A person with a closed mind is very difficult to communicate with. The person is with
deeply in-trained prejudices and is not prepared to reconsider his opinions. He is the kind of man who will say,
“Look, my mind is made up. I know what I know and I do not want to know anything else. So just do not bother
me”.

(iii) Status-Consciousness: Status- Consciousness exists in every organisation and is one of the major barriers
to effective communication. Subordinates are afraid of communicating upward any unpleasant information.
They are either too conscious of their inferior status or too afraid of being insulted. Status-conscious superiors
think that consulting their juniors would be compromising their dignity.

7) Cultural Barriers: Cultural differences often cause communication problems. The same category of words,
phrases, symbols, actions, colours mean different things to people of different countries/cultural backgrounds.
For example, in Western Countries, black colour is associated with death and mourning while in the Far East
white is the colour of mourning. In the United States, people love to be called by their first name while in
Britain people are more formal and like to be addressed by their title or their last name. In the hierarchical
structure of Indian society and business environment also, the last name is important.
8) Technological Barriers: Technology can either facilitate communication or act as a barrier; sometimes it
can do both at the same time. Although technology improved communication process in various ways but
inspite of this, technology can also act as a barrier

In communication. These barriers are briefly described as follows:

i) Use of Technology Which is not Updated: Use of technology that can hinder or delay your message. Use
technology selectively and with clear thought before you send your message out across the organisation.
Difference in the technology used by sender and receiver is also a technological barrier.

ii) Lack of Technological Knowledge: If the sender and receiver lack technical knowledge on the subject or
then it is unlikely the message will be correctly received.

iii) Technical Noise: This refers to inherent barriers in the device itself of channel, for instance interference
on a mobile phone, a faculty LCD projector, etc.

iv) Barriers at Decoding Stage: It includes lack of listening ability, stereotypical bias, etc.

Overcoming Barriers
Effective communication calls for coordinated effort. Good communication like any other high quality output
is very much the result of hard work. Good communication does not occur accidentally. It calls for proper
planning, understanding human bahaviour, choice of physical facilities and mechanical or electronic devices
and the organisational context. It is essential to remove barriers in the way of communication keeping in view
the importance of communication in a business organisation. If these barriers are not removed, the enterprise
will be deprived of the advantages of communication.

Improving communication skills will enable to establish better working relationships. In order to remove
barriers to communication
an open door communication policy should be prepared and followed by managers at all levels. The superiors in
the organisation must create an atmosphere of confidence and trust in the organisation so that the credibility gap
may be narrowed down.

Various techniques for improving communication are as follows:

 1) Two-Way Communication: The organisation’s communication policy should provide for a two-way traffic
in communication
upwards and downwards. It brings two minds closer and improves understanding between the two parties,
the sender and the
receiver. A sound feedback system should be introduced in the organisation so that distortion in and filtering
of, messages should be avoided. There should be communication gap.

2) Strengthening Communication Network: The communication network should be strengthened to make

communication effective. For this purpose, the procedure of communication should be simplified; layers in
downward communication should be reduced to the minimum possible. Decentralization and delegation of
authority should be encouraged to make information communication more efficient, through frequent meetings,
conferences, and timely dissemination of information to the subordinates.

3) Promoting Participative Approach: The management should promote the participative approach in
management. The subordinates should be invited to participate in the decision-making process. It should seek
cooperation from the subordinates and reduce communication barriers.

4) Appropriate Language: In communication certain symbols are used. Such symbols may be in the form of
words, pictures, and actions. If words are used, the language should be simple and easily comprehensible to the
subordinates. Technical and multi-syllable words should, as far as possible, be avoided. The sender must use the
language with which the receiver is familiar. The message should be supported by pictures or actions, wherever
necessary, to emphasize certain points. The sender must also practice in action what he says to others or expects
from others.

5) Credibility in Communication: One criterion of effective communication is credibility. The subordinates

obey the orders of their superior because they have demonstrated through their actions that they are trustworthy.
They must practice whatever they say. The superior must also maintain his trustworthiness. If the superior is
trusted by the subordinates, communication will be effective.

6) Good Listening: A communicator must be a good listener too. A good manager gives his subordinates a
chance to speak freely and express their feelings well before him. The manager also gets some useful
information for further communication, and can also have a better understanding of the subordinates’ needs,
demands, etc.
7) Selecting on Effective Communication Channel: To be effective, the communication should be sent to the
receiver through an effective channel. By effective channel we mean that the message reaches its destination in
time, to the right person, and without any distortion, filtering, or omission.

EXERCISE
Short Answer Question
1) Define Clarity as one of the principles of communication.
2) What are the features of communication?
3) Give any four objectives of communication.
4) What are the Principles of Effective Communication?
5) What do you understand by “Source”?

Long Answer Question

1) What do you mean by business communication? Give the importance of business communication.
2) “Problems with communication can pop-up at every stage of the communication process,” Explain with the
help of various types of Barriers to Communication.
3) What do you mean by oral communication? What are the advantages and disadvantages of oral
communication?
4) Explain the types of written communication in detail.
5) Discuss 7C’s of communication.
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication occurs within and with the self. It includes: Perception, Cognition
(thought processes), Emotional Responses, Attitudes, Values and Beliefs, Subjectivity and
Selfconcept, Creation and Interpretation of Meaning. . This is also called auto-communication.
Intrapersonal communication is the first level of communication. It is the first and most basic level of
communication. Intrapersonal communication takes place with in an individual. Unlike other
communication situations, here the individual is the only participant. He or she is the sender and he or
she receives the message. Intrapersonal communication is mostly our thought process. Also it is the
process of an individual talking to self and dreaming.
Communication has been classified into several types: in terms of the verbal-nonverbal, oral- written,
intentional- unintentional etc. One of the most common typology relates to the size of the social group or the
number of people involved in the experience of communication. Such a typology ranges from the intrapersonal
and interpersonal and transpersonal, to the group and the mass. Intrapersonal communication You can probably
guess that this means communicating within yourself. When you think, daydream, solve problems, and image,
you are in the realm of intrapersonal communication. Some investigators also include in this area all physical
feedback mechanisms, such as the sensations of hunger, pain, and pleasure. Intrapersonal communication is
individual reflection contemplation and meditation. Transcendental meditation, for instance, is an example of
such communication. Conversing with the divine, with spirits and ancestors, may be termed “transpersonal”
communication. This is a vital experience in the religious and monastic life, in ashrams and places of prayer,
and among aboriginal and tribal communities.
Intrapersonal Communication- A Definition: Intrapersonal Communication is communication within your
self. You engage in intrapersonal communication when you are thinking, listening, daydreaming, studying,
creating, contemplating or dreaming. You are both source and destination of this type of communication. You
use your brain waves as a channel; and the outcomes are thoughts or ideas, sometimes decisions, and sometimes
actions or behaviors. You still communicate within the context or environment. Your language and other social
considerations shape the environment. Intrapersonal communication takes place whenever we evaluate and
react to internal and external stimuli- and involves messages that are sent and received within ourselves. Thus it
involves not only our intellect self but also our physical and emotional self. As you can see, intrapersonal
communication is more far reaching than just “talking to yourself”. Intrapersonal messages reflect your habits,
self- concept; self related roles, and your attitudes, values, and beliefs. This type of communication takes place
every moment that we live. The most basic level of communication is intrapersonal communication. It is a
function of the physical self, the intellectual self, habits, and private versus public situations. In addition, the
need for a unified conceptual system and the picture that you have of yourself- your self concept- also strongly
influence these self communications. Your past experiences, reference groups, and accustomed roles combine in
ever-changing relationships to form this self concept. At the same time, internal and external stimuli affect the
cognitive, emotional, and physiological processing of intrapersonal communication.
The process of intrapersonal communication
Intrapersonal communication is the foundation upon which interpersonal communication rests. Therefore, it
is necessary to understand how you communicate with yourself before you approach the process of
communicating with others. The elements that set the process in motion are called stimuli. The brain is made
aware of the state of the body by nerve impulses, internal stimuli that can prompt you to respond by
communicating. Let’s say you have the flu. Your muscles ache, your fever is high, and you are depressed. Such
a miserable state may prompt you to call a doctor to relieve your physical ills and friend to relieve your
depression. The internal stimuli in this situation have resulted in communication. External stimuli, of course,
those stimuli that originate in the environment outside of your body.

Reception The process by which the body receives stimuli is called reception. In intrapersonal communication,
both external and internal receptors send information to the central nervous system. External receptors for
the five senses––sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch– –receive stimuli that are changed into nerve impulses
and then sent to the brain. These external receptors are located on or near the body’s surface and react to
physical, chemical, and mechanical stimuli to provide you with information about the environment. Internal
receptors such as nerve endings, on the other hand, convey information about your interior state––the
dryness of your mouth or the fullness of your stomach, for example.
Processing: Processing of internal and external communication occurs at three levels: cognitive,
emotional, and physiological. At each level of processing, some stimuli receive more conscious
attention than others. This attention is a function of the particular stimulus and of the context in which
it is presented. Some stimuli are perceived with full awareness (traffic lights, sirens, TV programs),
while others may not be consciously noticed (background noise during a lecture, the hum of
fluorescent lights in a room). Stimuli that are perceived consciously, or at least with some awareness
are the first to be processed. Stimuli that are perceived subconsciously are usually “stored” in your
memory for later processing.
Transmission: The process by which messages are sent from a source to a receiver is called
transmission. In intrapersonal communication the source and the receiver are the same person. Thus,
transmission takes place through nerve impulses in their brain rather than through sound waves in the
air or words written on a page. The intrapersonal communication cycle is completed when the brain
reacts to these nerve impulses by transmitting a message to smooth muscles, which regulate the
movements of the body. Putting a hand on a hot pan causes the individual’s touch receptors to send a
neural transmission to the brain, saying, “It’s hot,” which causes the brain to transmit a message to the
muscles in hand, ordering, “Move away from the pan immediately.”
Feedback: We usually think of feedback as information from another person. In intrapersonal
communication, however, there are two kinds of self-feedback––external and internal. External self-
feedback is the part of your message that you hear yourself. This kind of feedback enables you to
correct your own mistakes. For example, you would surely backtrack if you heard yourself say
something like “external self-feed – back.” Internal self-feedback is usually picked up through bone
conduction, nerve endings, or muscular movement. For example, you might perceive an awkward
facial gesture without actually seeing it––simply by feeling the muscle tension in your face. Again,
perceiving this information enables you to correct yourself.
Interference: Interference is another important variable in the communication process. Interference refers to
any factor that negatively affects communication. It can occur at any point along the communication network
and at any level of communication. For example, the blast of your roommate’s TV or a splitting headache might
make it impossible for you to read.

Explain how intrapersonal communication is basis of all communication-taking place in variety of

settings?
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The social self-meets another’s self as you take your internal messages and send them out. When you turn from
thinking, dreaming, and other internal forms of communication, its time to step out and face the world and
connect with other people. Of course, you never leave the self behind, just as you can often recall your dreams
during the day. Interpersonal communication is like breathing; it is requirement for life. And, like breathing, it
is inescapable. Unless you like to live in isolation, you communicate interpersonally everyday. Listening to your
roommate, talking to teacher, meeting for lunch with a friend, or talking to your father are all examples of
interpersonal communication. Even before we are born, we respond to movement and sound. With are first cry
we announce to others that we are here. Without interpersonal communication, a special form of human
communication that occurs as we manage our relationships, people suffer and even die. Most people spend
between 80-90% of their waking hours communicating with others. It is through these interactions with others
that we develop interpersonal relationships. Because these relationships are so important in our lives, we
develop, sustain and sometimes end them. Interpersonal communication can be viewed in a variety of ways,
each of which can help us to better understand the overall communication process.
Defining Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is a special form of human communication that occurs when we interact
simultaneously with another person and mutually influence each other, usually for the purpose of managing
relationships. Four elements of this definition determine the unique nature of interpersonal communication apart
from other forms of human communication. Interpersonal communication is a special form of human
communication. For several years many scholars defined interpersonal communication simply as
communication that occurs when two people interact face-to-face. This limited definition suggests that if two
people are interacting, then they are interpersonally communicating. Today, interpersonal communication is
defined not just by the number of people who today, not just the number of people who communicate but define
interpersonal communication also by the quality of the communication. Interpersonal communication occurs not
just when we interact with someone, but when we treat the other as a unique human being. It describes more
intimate level of communication in which we disclose personal information that cannot be known by another
unless we tell him or her. When to ask a waiter in a restaurant for a glass of water, you communicate. But you
interact with the role not with the individual. You know nothing about personal about him, and he knows
nothing personal about you. Although interpersonal communication is more intimate and includes revealing
more of yourself than impersonal communication, not all-interpersonal communication involves sharing closely
guarded personal information.
The Importance of Interpersonal Communication
Why learn about interpersonal communication? Because it touches every aspect of our lives. It is not only
pleasant or desirable to develop quality interpersonal relationships with others; it is vital for our well-being.
Learning how to understand and improve interpersonal communication can improve our relationships with
family and loved ones; friends, and colleagues and can enhance the quality of our physical and emotional
health. Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve relationships with our family. Learning
principles and skills of interpersonal communication can give us insight as to why we relate to others as we do.
Our interaction with our parents deeply affected our self-concept. Did they praise or ignore achievements and
accomplishments? Being skilled in interpersonal communication can improve relationships with our friends.
We don’t choose our biological families, but we do choose our friends. Friends are people we choose to be with
because we like them and usually they like us.
How to Improve Interpersonal Communication?

Be Knowledgeable
Competent communicators are knowledgeable. They know how communication works. They understand the
components, principles, and rules of the communication process. Understanding these things is a necessary
prerequisite for enhancing your interpersonal effectiveness, but this kind of knowledge alone does not make you
competent. You would not let someone fix your car’s carburetor if he or she had only read a book. Knowledge
must be coupled with skill. And we acquire skill through practice.
Be Skilled Competent communicators know how to translate knowledge into action. You can memorize the
characteristics of a good listener but still not listen well. To develop skill requires practice and helpful feedback
from others who can confirm the appropriateness of your actions. Learning a social skill is not that different
from learning how to drive a car or operate a computer. To learn any skill, you must break it down into sub
skills that you can learn and practice. “Hear it, see it, do it, correct it” is the formula that seems to work best for
learning any new behaviors.
Be Motivated Practicing skills requires work. You need to be motivated to use your information and skill. You
must want to improve, and you must have a genuine desire to connect with others if you wish to become a
competent communicator. You may know people who understand how to drive a car and have the skill to drive,
yet are reluctant to get behind the wheel. Or maybe you know someone who took a course in public speaking
but is still too frightened to stand in front of a crowd. Similarly, someone may pass a test about interpersonal
communication principles with flying colors, but unless that person is motivated to use those newfound skills,
his or her interactions with others m not improve.
Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication
1. Interpersonal communication is fully transactional. As communicators, each party uses verbal and nonverbal
symbols and signs to construct messages around his/her intended meanings. At the same time the receiver
brings similar, or possibly different, meanings to task of receiving and interpreting that message. Information is
sent back in the form of feedback and each communicator adjusts by role- taking for next phase of the process.
Thus, each party simultaneously influences the other’s behavior while being affected in return.
2. Interpersonal communicators share physical proximity. Interpersonal communication takes place with two
individuals engaging in face-to- face interaction. This rules out all forms of impersonal exchanges or those in
which interaction is carried on over longer distance. By being in close physical proximity, communicators are
able to increase their chances for understanding each other accurately and efficiently.
3. Interpersonal communication is shaped by social roles. When people are engaging in interpersonal
communication, what they are saying- that is, content- can be interpreted only within the context of the roles
that define their overall relationship. One has to understand the nature of the relationship between the two
people- the role that each is playing and the relation between them.
4. Interpersonal communication is uniquely irreversible. This is particularly significant feature of messages in
an interpersonal context. There is no way to erase a regrettable message.
5. Interpersonal communication is unrepeatable.

Group Communication
Group Communication
Group communication is an important aspect of the corporate world. It facilitates cooperation among
executives and helps in creating a healthy business environment. It is a form of written or oral
message, transmitted within a group, so that each member can have mutual acceptance and
understanding. An effective and proper group communication helps in reducing confusion and
misunderstanding in the workplace and fosters clarity of roles and responsibilities of all group
members. It also helps in removing communication barriers among group participants by developing a
sense of freedom to express their viewpoints. Good interpersonal skills are essential for developing an
effective group communication. An individual can develop such skills by developing the ability to
express his thoughts and viewpoints in a professional manner and by identifying the right way to
communicate with others. It is also important to clearly understand the objective of the communication
for minimising any wrong interpretation or misunderstanding. Maintaining a positive attitude towards
the communication process is also a pre-requisite for the group members. Dealing with a single
individual is simpler and stress-free than to deal with a group of people. Managing group
communication can become more difficult when team members belong to different cultures or have
different educational levels. Therefore, members of the group should respectfully resolve any conflict
or dispute, rising between the communication process, by accepting and understanding individual
differences.
Goals of Group Communication
Following are the various goals of group communication:
1) To Distribute Ideas: Different members of the group have diverse ideas about how a task can be
accomplished. Some of these ideas may be practical or workable, while others may not. But it is
necessary that all such ideas are distributed and evaluated.
2) To Avoid Duplicate Work: Duplicate work is unproductive which leads to wastage of time and
money. It also increases confusions and decreases the morale of team members. Through effective
group communication, such duplications can be minimised.
3) To Remove Confusion: Often, different team members present different reporting for similar work
setting. This happens due to unidentified communication gaps between team members which creates
confusion. Thus, effective group communication leads to the elimination of such confusion in the
group.
4) To Monitor Progress: Group communication also helps group members to monitor the progress of
the assigned work. This can be done through weekly group meetings and review programmes.
Different groups and team members can be encouraged by announcing, celebrating or rewarding
accomplishments of other groups or team members.
5) To Provide Feedback: Group communication also fosters two way feedback communications
between bosses and their subordinates. For continuously motivating and encouraging team members
toward work, a positive feedback is quite essential.
6) To Take Efficient Action: Effective group communication helps individuals in making effective
decisionsand implementing efficient actions towards a particular problem. It also reduces
misinterpretation of goals among group members, which resists them from taking improper actions.
7) To Encourage Dynamic Change: Effective group communication connects team members with
the dynamic changes in external environments. It updates group members with newest market
fluctuations and helps organisation to cope effectively with these changes.

Forms of Group Communication

Committee
Committees are a form of oral group communication. Committees exist both in business and non-
business organisations. It is difficult to give a precise definition of the term “Committee” because
there are many different kinds of committees and the concept of committee varies widely from one
organisation to another. In many organisations, committees constitute an important part-of the
organisation structure. Committees are usually relatively formal bodies with a definite structure. They
have their own organisation. To them are entrusted definite responsibility and authority. A committee
may review budgets, formulate plans for new products or make policy decisions. Or the committee
may only have a power to make recommendations and suggestions to a designated official.
According to Louis A. Allen, “A committee is a body of persons appointed or elected to meet on an
organized basis for the consideration of matters brought before it”.
Objectives of Committees
Generally, committees are constituted to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
1) To have consultation with various persons to secure their view points on different aspects of
business.
2) To give participation to various groups of people.
3) To secure cooperation of different departments.
4) To coordinate the functioning of different departments and individuals by bringing about unity of
direction.
5) The committees provide a forum for exchanging ideas among organisational members.
6) To give participation and representation to different groups or interests.
7) The exchange of ideas among members may generate some suggestions and recommendations
which may be useful for the organisation.
8) To coordinate the activities of different divisions and departments in order to achieve their targets
and objectives.
9) The committees are required to establish and develop organisational strategies, policies and
objectives.
Meetings
An act or a process by which people come together for the purpose of achieving a common goal is
known as a meeting. It is a gathering of two or more individuals for the purpose of achieving a
common objective, through verbal interactions and mutual exchange of information, resulting in a
common agreement.Minimum two persons are required for conducting a meeting, as it involves
exchange of ideas. Meetings can
occur either through face-to-face interaction or through virtual interface like Skype or video
conferencing.
According to Herta Murphy, “A business meeting is a gathering where purposive discouragement
occurs among three or more people who exchange information on a common topic or problem, for
better understanding or for the solving of a problem”.
Objectives of Meetings
Setting a clear objective(s) is the first step involved in conducting a business meeting. The set
objective should
be more than just a topic. It should be well-defined and focused towards organisational goals. The

Objectives of a meeting are as follows:

1) To Convey Information: The meeting serves as a good platform to convey information to various
group members especially when the information is of a confidential nature. Meetings are also
suitable when organisations want to announce a major restructuring or an important attainment.
2) To Gather Information: Meetings are also suitable for gathering information. In such meetings,
a group of people share their piece of information to other members of the meetings. For example,
meetings are useful for sharing the progress reports of projects or work assignments, where
information has to be shared and collected.
3) To Develop Options: Sometimes, organisation has to develop alternatives and solutions for a
particular problem. In such cases, meetings can be advantageous as they facilitate exchange of
ideas and knowledge which can develop effective alternatives and solutions for various managerial
issues.
4) To Exchange Ideas and Experiences: Meeting serves as a good platform for the exchange of
ideas and opinions. Individuals can share their experiences and opinions during the course of a
meeting. However,some of these ideas may be accepted while others may be rejected.
5) To Discuss Problems and Issues of Common Interest: Meetings are also essential for
discussing various problems and issues related to the organisation. After discussing the problems,
different solutions and alternatives are evaluated for identifying the best solution.
6) To Convince Members to Accept Changes: An organisation makes several changes in its
structure according to the change in external business environment. For these changes to be
effective there must be a total agreement from all stakeholders of the organisation. The meeting
serves as an important medium for communicating these changes to stakeholders and also for
convincing them to accept the changes for effective functioning of the organisation.

Seminars
A meeting where a group of people come together in order to discuss a specific topic is known as a
seminar. In seminars, the members interact with each other and discuss the stated topic. Generally, one
or two of its members regulate the seminar in order to direct the discussion in a desired manner.
Seminars are a kind of educational tool and they are conducted at some educational institution or at
some professional organisations. In some cases, participants of seminar share their life experiences
with the other members in order to learn something from the experiences of others. This practice not
only enhances the practical knowledge but also boosts the morale of the members. Seminars can help
the participants to improve their existing skills and it can also help them to acquire some new ones.
Objectives of Seminar
Objectives of seminar can be categorised as follows:
1) Cognitive Objectives: This technique creates learning situations so that the following higher
cognitive objective may be realised:
i) To develop the higher cognitive abilities, analysis, synthesis and evaluation as compared to the
situations involving human interaction.
ii) To develop the ability of responding in this manner would involve higher cognitive actions –
valuing, organising and characterisation of quick comprehension of the situation examination, if and
against the knowledge he possesses and construction of his reaction to the situation.
iii) To develop the ability to seek clarification and defend the ideas of others effectively.
Affective Objectives: The following higher aspect of affective domain are developed by employing
the instructional technique:
i) To develop the feeling of tolerance the opposite ideas of others.
ii) To develop the feelings of cooperation with other colleagues and respect the ideas and feeling of
others.
iii) To develop emotional stability among the participants of the seminar.
iv) To acquire good manners of putting questions and answering the questions of others effectively.
The human interaction under this technique develops good manners and skills among the participants.
Group Discussions
‘Group Discussion’ by its name clearly refers to the discussion or interaction carried out by a group of
professionals regarding any particular issue. These professionals meet at a specific place, exchange
their viewpoints and experiences regarding that issue and try to reach at an appropriate solution
regarding it. Theseissues may be related to an organisation, the environment, or the society. Thus, the
main purpose of conducting such group discussions is to enable each and every participant to express
their outlook, and exchange their viewpoints with the other members of the group in order to reach
desired conclusion.
The members carrying out the discussion may be small or large in number. Though, it is believed that
GD having less number of members does not go off the track but such discussions lack liveliness and
variations which further result in negligence of important aspects of the discussion. On the other hand,
GD having large number of participants have more number of new ideas and viewpoints but in such
discussions some of the participants become dominating making others nervous to voice their own
ideas. Thus, such discussions are not beneficial.
Unit-III

READING AND UNDERSTANDING

MEANING OF READING
Reading is a complex communicative process of receiving and interpreting the written word. It
involves recognizing what is written and comprehending the matter that understands the main and
subsidiary points as well as links between different parts of the written material.
Reading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader to read the written form as meaningful
language, to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency, and to mentally
interact with the message.
They are probably the most important language skills required for academic and professional
purposes. Quick, efficient, and imaginative reading techniques are essential in order to achieve
academic success, because academic performance depends on the quantity and quality of reading.
Purpose of Reading
Some of the reasons for reading a particular text are as follows:
1) Pleasure and Enjoyment: This is probably the best reason to read anything. One often chooses a
reading material with the purpose of deriving pleasure and enjoyment. Reading entertains and, even
relaxes. However, this is rarely the purpose behind the reading that one needs to do for academic
purposes.
2) Practical Application: Here, the purpose is to gain information that one can apply or use in a
practical situation. Books such as laboratory manuals, computer manuals, instruction booklets, and
recipe books are all texts that one refers with the purpose of gaining specific information.
3) To Get an Overview: The point here is to get a general feel of the material, to determine whether it
is relevant, useful, up-to-date, and to get a sense of how the topic is treated by the author. This is likely
to be the main purpose behind reading when one is given an extensive reading list for an assignment or
when one is conducting an initial library research for an essay, tutorial, research report or similar
assignments and needs to decide which texts are most relevant or useful for the assignment.
4) To Locate Specific Information: Sometimes we know what we are looking for but do not know
exactly where to find it. For example, one might be looking for a specific quotation, an evidence to
support a particular argument, details about a specific person or event, a map, a diagram or a table of
statistics. To find this sort of information might mean referring several books or sources. In these
circumstances the reading aim would be zeroed in on the information one is looking for.
5) To Identify the Central Idea or Theme: The purpose here is to extract the essence of what the
written material is trying to convey. For example, one might want to identify the major findings in an
experimental article in a journal, or the core issue of a discussion paper.
6) To Develop a Detailed and Critical Understanding: On many occasions, one may need to master
fully the material in a book, journal, article or manual to evaluate its arguments, perspective, and/or
evidence. This will require reading the material thoroughly, making effective and relevant notes and
keeping an open mind by being aware of one’s own ideas and opinions regarding the issues involved.

CLOSE READING
Close reading is thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant details or patterns in
order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text’s form, craft, meanings, etc. It is a key
requirement of the Common Core State Standards and directs the reader’s attention to the text itself.

Steps in Close Reading

First Read: Key Ideas and Details: Set the purpose for reading and have students read text as
independently as possible. Depending on the text complexity and the readers, the first read may be
done independently, as a read aloud/think aloud, or paired or shared reading. The first read should be
without building background; students should be integrating their background knowledge with the text
as they read. Focus on the key ideas and details in the text, making sure that readers know the main
idea, story elements, or key details.
Second Read: Craft and Structure For a second, close read, select a portion or chunk of the text that
is “close read worthy.” That is, have students reread a section that includes complex elements or ideas
that they should explore to arrive at a deep understanding of the text. After rereading, students discuss
the text with partners or in small groups, focusing on the author’s craft and organizational patterns.
This may include vocabulary choices, text structure or text features
Integration Of Knowledge And Ideas The third close reading of a text should go even deeper,
requiring students to synthesize and analyze information from several texts or media. They may record
their ideas on sticky notes, graphic organizer, or a thinking sheet.
COMPREHENSION

Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand or connect to what
they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both purposeful and active, and have the skills to
absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of it, and make it their own. Reading comprehension is the ability
to understand what we read where words have context and texts have meaning. Reading comprehension skills
allow us to read proficiently, learn effectively and to conceptualize. These skills are, basically, based on earlier
stages of reading development, including oral reading and reading fluency. Without developing these earlier
reading skills, students must continually focus on decoding letters and words, rather than progressing to
meaning and understanding . The key to developing proficient reading skills in the early years of education is an
even earlier foundation in underlying language learning skills . Therefore, strong reading comprehension skills
are viewed as being dependent on the strength of the cognitive strategies established in the early years.
Comprehension is evident when readers can:
 Interpret and evaluate events, dialogue, ideas, and information
 Connect information to what they already know
 Adjust current knowledge to include new ideas or look at those ideas in a different way
 Determine and remember the most important points in the reading
 Read “between the lines” to understand underlying meanings
Comprehension strategies work together like a finely tuned machine. The reader begins to construct meaning by
selecting and previewing the text. During reading, comprehension builds through predicting, inferring,
synthesizing, and seeking answers to questions that arise. After reading, deeper meaning is constructed through
reviewing, rereading portions of the text, discussion, and thoughtful reflection. During each of these phases, the
reader relates the text to his own life experiences.
Comprehension is powerful because the ability to construct meaning comes from the mind of the reader.
Therefore, specific comprehension instruction—modeling during read-aloud and shared reading, targeted mini-
lessons, and varied opportunities for practice during small-group and independent reading—is crucial to the
development of strategic, effective readers.
Practice Passages of Comprehension:
Passage 1

In the 16th century, an age of great marine and terrestrial exploration, Ferdinand Magellan led
the first expedition to sail around the world. As a young Portuguese noble, he served the king of
Portugal, but he became involved in the quagmire of political intrigue at court and lost the king's
favor. After he was dismissed from service by the king of Portugal, he offered to serve the future
Emperor Charles V of Spain.

A papal decree of 1493 had assigned all land in the New World west of 50 degrees W longitude
to Spain and all the land east of that line to Portugal. Magellan offered to prove that the East
Indies fell under Spanish authority. On September 20, 1519, Magellan set sail from Spain with
five ships. More than a year later, one of these ships was exploring the topography of South
America in search of a water route across the continent. This ship sank, but the remaining four
ships searched along the southern peninsula of South America. Finally they found the passage
they sought near 50 degrees S latitude. Magellan named this passage the Strait of All Saints, but
today it is known as the Strait of Magellan.

One ship deserted while in this passage and returned to Spain, so fewer sailors were privileged to
gaze at that first panorama of the Pacific Ocean. Those who remained crossed the meridian now
known as the International Date Line in the early spring of 1521 after 98 days on the Pacific
Ocean. During those long days at sea, many of Magellan's men died of starvation and disease.

Later, Magellan became involved in an insular conflict in the Philippines and was killed in a
tribal battle. Only one ship and 17 sailors under the command of the Basque navigator Elcano
survived to complete the westward journey to Spain and thus prove once and for all that the
world is round, with no precipice at the edge.

1. The 16th century was an age of great ______ exploration.

A. cosmic
B. land
C. mental
D. common man
E. None of the above

2. Magellan lost the favor of the king of Portugal when he became involved in a political
________.

A. entanglement
B. discussion
C. negotiation
D. problem
E. None of the above

3. The Pope divided New World lands between Spain and Portugal according to their
location on one side or the other of an imaginary geographical line 50 degrees west of
Greenwich that extends in a _________ direction.

A. north and south

B. crosswise
C. easterly
D. south east
E. north and west

4. One of Magellan's ships explored the _________ of South America for a passage across
the continent.

A. coastline
B. mountain range
C. physical features
D. islands
E. None of the above

5. Four of the ships sought a passage along a southern ______.

A. coast
B. inland
C. body of land with water on three sides
D. border
E. Answer not available

6. The passage was found near 50 degrees S of ________.

A. Greenwich
B. The equator
C. Spain
D. Portugal
E. Madrid

7. In the spring of 1521, the ships crossed the _______ now called the International Date
Line.

A. imaginary circle passing through the poles

B. imaginary line parallel to the equator
C. area
 D. land mass
E. Answer not available

Passage -2

Marie Curie was one of the most accomplished scientists in history. Together with her husband,
Pierre, she discovered radium, an element widely used for treating cancer, and studied uranium
and other radioactive substances. Pierre and Marie's amicable collaboration later helped to
unlock the secrets of the atom.

Marie was born in 1867 in Warsaw, Poland, where her father was a professor of physics. At an
early age, she displayed a brilliant mind and a blithe personality. Her great exuberance for
learning prompted her to continue with her studies after high school. She became disgruntled,
however, when she learned that the university in Warsaw was closed to women. Determined to
receive a higher education, she defiantly left Poland and in 1891 entered the Sorbonne, a French
university, where she earned her master's degree and doctorate in physics.

Marie was fortunate to have studied at the Sorbonne with some of the greatest scientists of her
day, one of whom was Pierre Curie. Marie and Pierre were married in 1895 and spent many
productive years working together in the physics laboratory. A short time after they discovered
radium, Pierre was killed by a horse-drawn wagon in 1906. Marie was stunned by this horrible
misfortune and endured heartbreaking anguish. Despondently she recalled their close
relationship and the joy that they had shared in scientific research. The fact that she had two
young daughters to raise by herself greatly increased her distress.

Curie's feeling of desolation finally began to fade when she was asked to succeed her husband as
a physics professor at the Sorbonne. She was the first woman to be given a professorship at the
world-famous university. In 1911 she received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for isolating radium.
Although Marie Curie eventually suffered a fatal illness from her long exposure to radium, she
never became disillusioned about her work. Regardless of the consequences, she had dedicated
herself to science and to revealing the mysteries of the physical world.

8. The Curies' _________ collaboration helped to unlock the secrets of the atom.

A. friendly
B. competitive
C. courteous
D. industrious
E. chemistry

9. Marie had a bright mind and a ______ personality.

A. strong
B. lighthearted
C. humorous
D. strange
E. envious

10. When she learned that she could not attend the university in Warsaw, she felt
_________.

A. hopeless
B. annoyed
C. depressed
D. worried
E. None of the above

11. Marie _________ by leaving Poland and traveling to France to enter the Sorbonne.

A. challenged authority
B. showed intelligence
C. behaved
D. was distressed
E. Answer not available

12. _________ she remembered their joy together.

A. Dejectedly
B. Worried
C. Tearfully
D. Happily
E. Irefully

13. Her _________ began to fade when she returned to the Sorbonne to succeed her
husband.

A. misfortune
B. anger
C. wretchedness
D. disappointment
E. ambition

14. Even though she became fatally ill from working with radium, Marie Curie was never
_________.

A. troubled
B. worried
C. disappointed
 D. sorrowful
E. disturbed

Passage -3
The study of history provides many benefits. First, we learn from the past. We may repeat mistakes, but, at
least, we have the opportunity to avoid them. Second, history teaches us what questions to ask about the present.
Contrary to some people’s view, the study of history is not the memorization of names, dates, and places. It is
the thoughtful examination of the forces that have shaped the courses of human life. We can examine events
from the past and then draw inferences about current events. History teaches us about likely outcomes. Another
benefit of the study of history is the broad range of human experience which is covered. War and peace are
certainly covered as are national and international affairs. However, matters of culture (art, literature, and
music) are also included in historical study. Human nature is an important part of history: emotions like passion,
greed, and insecurity have influenced the shaping of world affairs. Anyone who thinks that the study of history
is boring has not really studied history.
1. What is the main idea of this passage?
2. In the first paragraph, inferences means ?
3. Which method of teaching history would the author of this passage support?

Passage-4
A sanctuary may be defined as a place where Man is passive and the rest of Nature active. Till quite recently
Nature had her own sanctuaries, where man either did not go at all or only as a tool-using animal in
comparatively small numbers. But now, in this machinery age, there is no place left where man cannot go with
overwhelming forces at his command. He can strangle to death all the nobler wild life in the world to-day. To-
morrow he certainly will have done so, unless he exercises due foresight and self-control in the mean time.

There is not the slightest doubt that birds and mammals are now being killed off much faster than they can
breed. And it is always the largest and noblest forms of life that suffer most. The whales and elephants, lions
and eagles, go. The rats and flies, and all mean parasites, remain. This is inevitable in certain cases. But it is
wanton killing off that I am speaking of to-night. Civilized man begins by destroying the very forms of wild life
he learns to appreciate most when
he becomes still more civilized. The obvious remedy is to begin conservation at an earlier stage, when it is
easier and better in every way, by enforcing laws for close seasons, game preserves, the selective protection of
certain species, and sanctuaries.

I have just defined a sanctuary as a place where man is passive and the rest of Nature active. But this general
definition is too absolute for any special case. The mere fact that man has to protect a sanctuary does away with
his purely passive attitude. Then, he can be beneficially active by destroying pests and parasites, like bot-flies or
mosquitoes, and by finding antidotes for diseases like the epidemic which periodically kills off the rabbits and
thus starves many of the carnivora to death. But, except in cases where experiment has proved his intervention
to be beneficial, the less he upsets the balance of Nature the better, even when he tries to be an earthly
Providence.

1. What did the author implies that his first definition of a sanctuary is?
2. What was the author’s argument that destroying bot-flies and mosquitoes would be a beneficial action?
3. What should be the most appropriate central idea of this passage?

Unit IV

DEVELOPING WRITING SKILLS

Writing can be defined as a mode of communicating ideas, thoughts and opinions. It’s a very
important means of formal communication and is also widely used in offices and organizations.
There are times when written communication is very effective. For example, you may want to
share important information that needs to be documented using written communication. A lot of
dealing in the business world requires some type of written record, and you will find that even
strong verbal skills are not a substitute for putting things in writing. Additionally, oral
communication tends to be less detailed and more subject to misinterpretation, than written
communication. It's best to always think carefully about which method of communication best
fits your objective. Good writing skills are essential for good communication. Learning to write
well takes time and practice and requires a lot of careful planning and carrying out in addition to
several other factors.

Written communication has great significance in today’s business world. It is an innovative

activity of the mind. Effective written communication is essential for preparing worthy
promotional materials for business development.
Following are the steps which should be followed carefully on order to bring effective results:

1. PLANNING: It’s very important to carefully plan the content which you need to present
through written communication. One has to note the points to be covered and arrange
them under headings and sub-headings so that later, all the points or information required
can be covered and presented.
2. DRAFTING: Once all the points and the final layout to be given, is organized in a
particular manner, there should a draft be made to put or arrange everything in place.
Careful thought should be given before giving the final shape. Help from a senior should
be sought to bring desired result.
3. REVISION: Once a document has been drafted, it needs to be revised for checking
errors.
4. EDITING: While revising a piece of writing, if you come across errors or you want to
introduce better thoughts, it can be done during this stage.

LETTER WRITING

It is the exchange of written or printed communications. Distinctions are commonly drawn

between personal letters (sent between family members, friends, or acquaintances) and business
letters (formal exchanges with businesses or government organizations).

Letter writing occurs in many forms and formats, including notes, letters, and postcards.
Sometimes referred to as hard copy or snail mail, letter writing is often distinguished from forms
of computer-mediated communication (CMC), such as email and texting.

The term “business letters” refers to any written communication that begins with a salutation,
ends with a signature and whose contents are professional in nature. Historically, business letters
were sent via postal mail or courier, although the Internet is rapidly changing the way businesses
communicate. There are many standard types of business letters, and each of them has a specific
focus.

BUSINESS WRITING IS DIFFERENT

Writing for a business audience is usually quite different than writing in the humanities, social
sciences, or other academic disciplines. Business writing strives to be crisp and succinct rather
than evocative or creative; it stresses specificity and accuracy. This distinction does not make
business writing superior or inferior to other styles. Rather, it reflects the unique purpose and
considerations involved when writing in a business context.
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER
- Date
- Sender's address
- Inside address or the recipient's address
- Salutation
- Body
- Closing
- Attachments
- Initials of the typist

TYPES OF LETTERS

Business-to-Client letters are:

1. Welcome Letter - welcomes the client and thanking him for choosing the company.
2. Letter of Appreciation - thanks the client for having business with the company.
3. Apology Letter - asking the client for reconsideration, and apologizes for failing to deliver.
4. Collection Letter - notice for outstanding payments due.
5. Invoice Letter Template - this is asking the clients to state the invoice number of their
transactions.
6. Letter of Invitation - inviting a client to join a certain gathering.
7. Marketing Letter - is stating the newest products that the company will provide soon or is
presently providing.
8. Rejection Letter - is stating the rejection of the client's request.

Business letters are more formal in writing. Follow the formats strictly. Be concise, clear and
direct to the point.

A SALES LETTER

This is a formal letter which is mostly printed on company letterhead and sent to a number of
clients. This is a benchmark procedure in the present world where companies promote their new
product in the market and use this letter process as an announcement procedure to let people
know that you have introduced a new product in the market which has these benefits and
advantages over same products by other manufacturers. Typically this letter starts a statement in
which the writer addresses to the reader about a specific problem and presents the product as its
solution.

General guidelines to write a sales correspondence:

1. Don’t write the letter as a business owner but write it as a reader.

2. Start the letter with an introduction where you introduce yourself and your company
briefly.
3. After that add a body where you tell all about the goods or services you are offering and
special discounts that the client will get if he contacts within the next 24 hour or one
week.
4. Here you also tell them about the sales policies which will be beneficial for you in the
long term relationships.
5. Don’t use difficult words or complicated sentences just to influence the reader because
the minute the reader thinks it boring; he loses interest in the letter.
6. At the conclusion, add a few lines of what you are offering more than any other company
in the market and what quality your products have unlike other same products by other
manufacturers.
7. Close the correspondence with a greeting note such as “Sincerely yours” or “Regards”.
ORDER LETTER

An order letter is frequently written when a company buys or orders goods or services from
another party. An order letter can also be printed by a person who would like to buy or purchase
goods or services. Here is an Order Letter you might need when you order goods and
resources. Do not forget to plainly state the exact name of the products, the price, and the amount
of disbursement being sent.

Personal Purchase Order Sample

154 Green Park

Newyork, USA
January 5, 2010

Ms. K. Samson
Beller Company, Inc.
424 Park Avenue
New York, New York 10021

Dear Ms. Samson :

Thank you for sending your catalogue so quickly. It reached within a few days of my
request. Please send me the following items by parcel post :

1 copy Emmet and Mullen,

High School Algebra @ $7.50 $ 7.50
I am enclosing a money order for 226.25. If there are additional charges, please let me
know.
Please mail the books to the address given above.

Truly yours,

Brandon Michael
(Adapted from Let’s Write English by George E. Wishon & Julia M. Burks)
GOOD NEWS LETTER

The good news letter provides positive news, such as awarded contracts and grants, job offers,
information, and other requests. In a good news letter, you want to narrate the news with high
accent that means as soon as you perhaps can. In such a letter, you should:

Example:

"I am pleased to inform you that we have acknowledged your application for a grant from the
Foundation. The Foundation is always keen to support much-needed charities such as yours.

Enclosed you will find a sheet detailing the terms of your grant, together with the total
amount, accounting procedures, and how we will assess your progress. Please photocopy the
sheet, then sign, date, and return it by the end of June.

Congratulations on being chosen for the grant. We look forward to working with you in the
near future."

BAD NEWS LETTER

Constructing the bad news letter is a bit trickier. While you want to convey the information as
quickly as possible, you also want to be sensitive to the needs of your readers. The way you
present negative information can have a substantial impact on how the reader views the
information and your role in presenting it. Consider the following examples:

Dear Mr. Freemont:

Your position will be phased out over the next six months. Company needs change and people
have to change with them. We will see whether something is available for you by that time. I
want to encourage you and let you know that we value your work and presence in the
company.

In the example, the reader is told upfront that his position is being phased out, which may lead
him to conclude that his efforts are not good enough. But the third (and to a lesser extent, the
second) letter praises the employee before breaking the news. Placing positive information in
front of negative information is called a buffer. Including a buffer is a sign that you're giving the
reader all the respect and consideration he or she deserves.

WRITING A REPORT

All professionals need to be effective communicators. Often it is necessary to provide advice and
information designed to aid decision making process, so the presentation and preparation of a
written report is an essential skill. Being able to write well is an integral part of your studies at
VJES.

PURPOSE OF REPORTS

The starting point of a report is usually a set of instructions provided by the lecturer. The
instructions will give rise to questions and problems which the report should try to answer or
evaluate. These form the basis of the content and information contained in the report. It is
essential that the purpose of a report is clear. Remember who you are writing for: keep your
reader in mind.

A GOOD REPORT WILL

• Display a good understanding of the problem.

• Display the original or creative thought in dealing with the problem.

• Present the information, clearly.

• Be concise and relevant.

• Be as precise and consistent as possible rather than vague, ambiguous and contradictory.

• Present the material logically so that the reader can understand the reasoning behind
conclusion and recommendation.

• Explain the method of analysis.

• Address all the questions/problems posed in instructions.

• Refer to the sources of information used in constructing the report.

• Have all the tables and figures numbered and labelled, if necessary.

• Be grammatically correct.
REPORT FORMAT

The report should include the following:

• Title Page.

• Executive Summary.

• Acknowledgement.

• Table of contents with page numbers.

• Body of report set out clearly, under headings and series.

• References and Appendices.

TABLE OF CONTENT

The contents page should follow the title page including sections headings (subheadings) along
with corresponding page numbers. Supplementary materials such as appendices should be
included. Page numbers are aliened to the right. A section of the table of contents is presented
below.

CONTENTS

• Background.

• Presentation of findings.

• The customary survey.

• The information source.

• Type of group.

• Mode of transport.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

An executive summary is designed to summarize the findings for busy executives. You may be
required to produce an executive summary in courses such as marketing where recommendations
are made to an organization. Hence, writing a good report becomes a necessary skill for all.

A brief summary, also called executive summary must be produces to sum up a report in brief.
HEADING AND SERIES

Headings in the body of the report must be underlined, numbered and must appear in the table of
contents. ub points that are listed are often known as a series. Series under a heading must be
indented and may not be numbered as letter system. Do not place full stops at the end of each
series. On the second last sentence include ‘and’.

REFERENCES

All reports must be prepared using the reference style outlined in this guide.A list of references
must appear following the conclusion and before the appendices.

APPENDICES

If you have any additional information or details that are referred to in the report because they
are helpful or interesting but are either too large for the body of the reports or are not essential to
the requirement of the report, you should attach this at the back of the report..Each singles item is
known as an ‘appendix’ and each appendix is numbered as it appears in order of the report.

DRAFTING OF VARIOUS TYPES OF REPORTS

Reports are used in government, business, education, science, and other fields.Reports use
features such as graphics, images, voice, or specialized vocabulary in order to persuade that
specific audience to undertake an action. One of the most common formats for presenting reports
is IMRAD: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.

Additional elements that may be used to persuade readers, include: headings to indicate topics, to
more complex formats including charts, tables, tables of contents, abstracts, and nouns
summaries, appendices, footnotes, hyperlinks, and references etc.

HOW TO WRITE A REPORT

Regardless of the kind of business you're in, there will come a time when you will need to write
a business report detailing your company's current situation and establishing a plan to meet
future goals. This report may be simple and short or it can be long and detailed, depending on the
company's needs and requirements. Use these general tips to learn how to write a business report
and then customize the information to fit all your needs.
POINTS TO REMEMBER: STRUCTURE AND FORMAT

1. Determine your report's audience and purpose.

2. Assess the current status quo. Provide information about how your company is handling
the current situation and what its position is on the issue at hand.
3. Collect data. Performance reports, production numbers, quality control information,
attendance reports and expenses are all important pieces of data that might be included in
a business report.
4. Format your data so it's easy to understand
5. Set goals within your report. Clearly specify what your expectations are for the future.
The goals should be measurable.
6. Establish a plan to meet the specified goals in the report. Goals should include specific
actions, not vague statements.
7. Print enough copies to distribute to everyone in the meeting where you will present the
report
8. Instructions
9. Include a title page that provides the title of the report, the author's name, the date it was
written or presented, and the organization or department for which it was written.
10. Summarize your report. This will be the first main section of your report. It is an
executive summary or abstract that highlights the problem and steps to solve it.
11. Write an introduction. The introduction demonstrates to your audience why the problem
is important. It presents the problem or situation in clear, concise language. The
introduction also includes a short statement on how the problem should be solved, or why
or how the problem was created. This is the thesis statement, and it quickly conveys the
crux of the report in one to two sentences.
12. Divide the body of the report into sections. The body of the report offers greater detail of
the problem, and it provides some background to it. It also gives some in-depth analysis
that goes beyond merely describing the problem to identifying different aspects of the
problem and drawing connections between them.
13. Divide the body of the report into headings and subheadings. Keep the headlines short,
capitalizing the first letter of each main word in the headline. For example, you could
divide the body into "Problem," "Background," and "Analysis" sections. Any research
methods you utilized and the scope of your research should be explained and justified in
separate sections.
14. Draw conclusions at the end of the report. Your conclusion section is where you will
offer suggestions of how to solve the problem or answer the questions posed in the report.
15. Cite your sources. Outside references used to support ideas should be cited at the end of
your report in a bibliography section.
16. Create a table of contents that gives page numbers for the different sections of your
report. Include page numbers for subheadings of main sections as well.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF REPORTS

 Informational reports. These reports present facts about certain given activity in detail
without any note or suggestions. Whatever is gathered is reported without giving any
thing by way of either explanation or any suggestion.
 Analytical reports. These reports contain facts along with analytical explanations
offered by the reporter himself or may be asked for by the one who is seeking the report.
 Research reports. These reports are based on some research work conducted by either
an individual or a group of individuals on a given problem.
 Statutory reports. These reports are to be presented according to the requirements of a
particular law or a rule or a custom now has become a rule. The auditor reports to
company registrar has to be submitted as per the requirements of country legal
requirement.
 Non statutory reports. These reports are not in the nature of legal requirements, these
reports are required to be prepared and submitted: (i) for the administrative and other
conveniences,(ii) for taking decision in a matter (iii) for policy formulations, (iv) for
projecting the future or (v) anything alike so that efficient and smooth functioning maybe
assured and proper and necessary decision may be taken with a view to see that
everything goes well and the objectives of the organization are achieved with assured
success.
 Routine reports. The main objectives of routine reports are to let the management know
as to what is happening in the organization, what is its progress where the deviation is,
what measures have been taken in solving the problems and what to do so that the
organization may run smoothly and efficiently. Routine reports are generally brief.
 Special reports. Such a type of report is specially required to be prepared and submitted
on matters of special nature. Due to an accident a death of the foreman has occurred in a
factory.

PRESENTATION SKILLS

A presentation is the method of presenting a topic to an audience. It is classically a

demonstration, lecture, or speech meant to inform, persuade, or build good will. The term can
also be used for an official or ritualized introduction or offering, as with the presentation of
newcomer.

PURPOSE OF PRESENTATION IN BUSINSS WORLD

Companies and organizations often utilize business presentations as a means of selling an idea or
product, for training purposes, or to motivate the audience. They try to make their presentations:-

 Informative - Listeners want to know core nuggets of information, such as how to

overcome obstacles, or learn tricks of the trade to improve performance or
productivity. Good presentations leave the audience with new information that’s often
enlightening and eye-opening. The most useful presentations are often those that
include practical information that’s applicable to the audience such as how to make
cold calls, or how to be a better manager. The most effective ones are often based on
the direct experiences of the presenter because the delivery is then genuine and
heartfelt.

 Inspiring - It's essential that a business presentation capture the audience's attention.
To capture the audience's attention, the presentation also needs to focus on the most
important points from the start -- rambling away from the key issues results in a loss
of impact.

 Visually Appealing - Using physical or visual props during a presentation also affect
its impact on the audience. Screen projectors, slides, handouts, colorful posters, as
well as the body language of the presenter, all add up to make a presentation stand
out. The presenter shouldn’t make the props the focus of the presentation; he should
use them as tools to help get the point across, while keeping the focus on key issues.

 Connecting - Business presentations that are interactive and involve the audience --
such as question-and-answer sessions, games, role-playing, and contests that include
small prizes -- create a memorable bonding experience between the presenter and the
audience, as well as among the audience members. The camaraderie generated by
such activities helps drive home the overall message of the presentation. After all, the
whole point of a presentation is to inform the audience in a way that also stimulates
and uplifts them.

HOW TO FIND MATERIAL FOR PRESENTATION

Material for the presentation is found with clarity of ideas and a good organization which results
in a lively, logical and compelling message, delivered in a confident and professional way.

Finding the Presentation material may include:

 Blue Sky Thinking (The Ideas) - Keeping your objectives in mind, write down all the
points you wish to make, irrespective of order.

 Selecting the main points - The talk/presentation should be divided into three sections:

1. Introduction (beginning)
 2. Main Content (middle)

3. Conclusion (end)

4. Working on the main content first

 Deciding whether to illustrate - If the presentation is short and informal it is probably

not necessary to use any visual aids. Use visual illustrations if anything requires
expanding, clarifying or simplifying. Illustrations of any type should be relevant and
fully explained.

 Introduction and conclusion - The introduction should give a preview of what you are
going to say and should gain the attention of the listeners with a statement of
purpose. Make it clear whether you wish to accept questions as they arise during the
presentation, thereby breaking your flow and risk being side-tracked, or will invite
questions at the end.

The conclusion should repeat the main points but this time try to use different words and
summarize the main point and argument. End decisively, so that no-one is in any doubt that your
presentation is finished. This is also the time to ask the audience whether they have any
questions.

HOW TO SEQUENCE SPEECH WITH PROPER INTRODUCTION AND

CONCLUSION

STRUCTURING A PRESENTATION

1. While we discuss the arrangement of a presentation, it’s significant to know that

presentations need to be very straight and sound. It is important that you avoid complex
structures and also focus on the need to explain and discuss your work clearly. An ideal
structure for a presentation includes:

2. A welcoming and informative introduction; about yourself, the company and the topic
.Also it will be good to share the agenda and seek audience participation.

3. A coherent series of main points presented in a logical sequence; the body has to include
all the main points.

4. A lucid and purposeful conclusion needs to be drawn at the end.

REHEARSING A PRESENTATION

1. The most important step in making a presentation is rehearsing your presentation. It is

essential for practicing and assessing your timekeeping, body language (such as eye
contact and hand gestures), voice projection, and pace of speech and logical order of
 content. It gives presenters a chance to amend their presentation and envisage how they
will go about presenting on the day.

2. It may be useful to record your voice on a mobile phone, or video yourself and watch it
back, noting good points and areas for improvement. Things to think about when you
rehearse:

3. Rehearse in the venue that your presentation will take place in, or at least visit it to
familiarize yourself.

4. Ask friends to sit and watch your presentation, and to give feedback at the end.

5. Keep a track of your timings before and after your rehearsal to ensure you haven't gone
over your allocated time.

6. Practice using your visual aids. Click through your PowerPoint presentation (if you
choose to use this) several times, to ensure that you are familiar with the order of the
slides and know how to move forwards and backwards through the slides.

7. Exercise using your prompt cards with keywords or phrases to help you remember what
to say next.

8. Watch your body language.

9. Ensure that all the equipment you need is available and you feel confident about using it
and go ahead.

REQUIRED BODY LANGUAGE WHILE DELIVERING A PRESENTATION

1. Stepping away from the audience creates a “negative” feeling. The energy level is diminished.

2. Stepping toward the audience creates a positive feeling. Use this technique when you want to
encourage or persuade your audience.

3. Distracting movements below the waist.

4. Anchoring yourself at key moments and only moving from the waist up enhances your
authority and credibility.

5. You should only move on stage with purpose.

6. The main point of the story should be delivered front and centre.

7. The way in which you use space and time convey something about your level of authority.
Using little space and speaking quickly is not very convincing; using more space and speaking
slowly is much better.
8. The way in which you use your stage communicates something to the audience.

9. Your body language and gestures should be natural.

10. Some basic tips:

 Dress smartly

 Smile

 Salutation

 Speak Clearly

 Pause/Silence

 Keep within the allotted time

 Eye Contact

 Walk a little

 Use Hands for gestures

 Involve Audience

AVOID…..

 Using small scale movements and gestures

 Speaking with low energy

 Playing it safe

 Not preparing enough

 Not practicing enough

 Preparing too much material

 Rushing

 Data centric presentations

 Avoiding vulnerability

 Taking themselves way too seriously

 Crossing Arms/Legs

 Turning your back on the Audience

 Avoiding eye contact

 Staring at a single spot in audience

 Standing at the same position in the entire presentation

 Walking too fast and for too long

 Repeating Gestures…a lot & Fidgeting

 Forgetting to smile

 Speaking too fast, low and slow

Section – A: English Language

.1 SENTENCE

 A Sentence is a set of words that explains a complete thought. It consists of two or more
words grammatically linked.

 A set of words that is complete in itself, expresses a complete idea and typically contains
a subject and verb, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or command, and
consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more subordinate clauses.

PARTS OF SPEECH

A Part of Speech is a category of words which have similar grammatical properties. Words that
are assigned to the same part of speech generally display similar behavior in terms of syntax—
they play similar roles within the grammatical structure of sentences.

Commonly listed English parts of speech are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition,
conjunction, interjection and sometimes numeral, article or determiner.

Part of
Speech Function or "Job" Example Words Example Sentences

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, English Club is a web site.
like, work, sing, I like English Club.
can, must

Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, This is my dog. He lives in

music, town, my house. We live in London.
London, teacher,
John

Adjective describes a noun a/an, the, 2, some, I have two dogs. My dogs
good, big, red, are big. I likebig dogs.
well, interesting

Adverb describes a verb, quickly, silently, My dog eats quickly. When he

adjective or adverb well, badly, very, is veryhungry, he
Part of
Speech Function or "Job" Example Words Example Sentences

really eats reallyquickly.

Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, Tara is Indian. She is beautiful.
some

Preposition links a noun to to, at, after, on, but We went to school on Monday.
another word

Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I like
sentences or words cats and dogs. I like dogs but I
don't like cats.

Interjection short exclamation, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How are
sometimes inserted you? Well, I don't know.
into a sentence

1. Noun - A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea. They can also be described
as words that refer to a person, person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, quantity.

Classification of Nouns:-

a) Common Noun

b) Proper Noun

c) Abstract Noun

d) Collective Noun
 2. Pronouns - A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who,
whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In
the sentence Joe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns ‘he and ‘her’ take the place
of Joe and Jill, respectively.

3. Verb - A word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main
part of the predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, happen.

Types of Verbs: - There are six types:

 Intransitive

 Linking Verbs

 Transitive

 Infinitives

 To-be verbs

 Two-place Transitive

4. Adjective - Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the
sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives. If a group of words containing
a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an Adjective Clause. Examples: the
black cat, a beautiful girl

5. Adverbs - An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, another

adverb, determiner, noun phrase, clause, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner,
place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering questions such
as how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent?. This function is called
the adverbial function, and may be realized by single words (adverbs) or by multi-word
expressions.

6. Articles - An article is a kind of adjective which is always used with and gives some
information about a noun. There are only two articles ‘a’ and ‘the’, but they are used very
often and are important for using English accurately.
 7. Prepositions - There are approximately 80-100 prepositions in the English language.
Prepositions are words that introduce the following information to the reader:

1. Where something takes place (at the store)

2. When or why something takes place (before dinner)

3. General descriptive information (the girl with the cool tattoo)

8. Conjunctions - a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the

same clause (e.g. and, but, if ).

9. Interjections - In grammar, an interjection or exclamation may be a word used to express

an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker (although most interjections have clear
definitions). Filled pauses such as uh, errr, ummm are also considered
interjections. Interjections are often placed at the beginning of a sentence.

TENSES

 In grammar, Tense is a category that expresses time reference.

 Basic tenses found in many languages include the past, present and future.

 Tenses generally express time relative to the moment of speaking.

Types of Tenses:-

1. Past Tense

2. Present Tense

3. Future Tense

Sub-Types of Tenses:-
1. Simple Tense - The simple tenses are used to show permanent characteristics of people
and events or what happens regularly, habitually or in a single completed action.

2. Continuous Tense - The continuous tenses are used when talking about a particular point
in time.

3. Perfect Tense - Sometimes you need to give just a little bit more information about an
action or state...and that is where the perfect tenses come in.

4. Perfect Continuous Tense

ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE

Active Voice

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing
receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:

- The professor teaches the students.

Subject doing action verb object receiving action.

- John washes the dishes.

Passive Voice

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing
doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive
form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized.
You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not
want to mention who is doing the action.

- [Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

- Examples:

- The students are taught by the professor.

Subject receiving action passive verb doing action

- The dishes are washed by John.

Subject receiving action passive verb doing action

DIRECT SPEECH

Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing,
we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words.
We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation),
or telling someone later about a previous conversation.

EXAMPLES
  She says, "What time will you be home?"

 She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know!"

 "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

 John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

INDIRECT SPEECH

 Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change
the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may
use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.

 She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect
speech)

 'That' may be omitted:

She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

'SAY' AND 'TELL'

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:

He said that he was tired.

Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.

'TALK' AND 'SPEAK'

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:

He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.

Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:

He talked (to us) about his parents.

RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT INTO INDIRECT SPEECH

RULE ONE:-If in direct speech you find say/says or will say then DO NOT CHANGE THE
TENSE that you can find within the quotation marks

EXAMPLES-RULE ONE

- I say ' I am elated”

 - I say I am elated

- He says,” I was a fool then”

- He says he was a fool then.

- She says,” I will be more experienced then”

- She says she will be more experienced then

RULE TWO

• If in direct speech the words within the quotation marks talk of a universal truth or
habitual action then RULE ONE is followed or in other words the tense inside the quotation
marks is not changed at all. For e.g.

• The teacher said,” The sun rises in the east”

The teacher said the sun rises in the east

RULE THREE

- If there is 'said' in the direct speech then the tense of the words inside quotation marks is
changed to the past tense.

- I said,” I am suffering from a fit of ennui”

- I said I was suffering from a fit of ennui.

Rule 3 --Some examples

- I said,” My mother cooks well”

- I said my mother cooked well.

- She said, “ I am reading a whodunit now”

- She said she was reading a whodunit then.

- He said,” I killed an ant”

- He said he had killed an ant.

- We said ,” They have done their job”

- We said they had done their job

 - She said,” We were all laughing uncontrollably”

- She said they had been all laughing uncontrollably.

- He said,” I can do it”

- He said he could do it.

- She said to me,” You may need help”

- She told me I might need help.

- He said,” She will do this task quickly”

- He said she would do that task quickly.

CREATIVE WRITING

Creative writing is any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic,
academic, or technical forms of literature, typically identified by an emphasis on narrative craft,
character development, and the use of literary tropes or with various traditions
of poetry and poetics.

Types of creative writing include:

 Poetry

 Plays

 Movie and television scripts

 Fiction (novels, novellas, and short stories)

 Songs

 Speeches

 Memoirs

 Personal essays

Techniques used in creative writing include:

 Character development

 Plot development
  Vivid setting

 Underlying theme

 Point of view

 Dialogue

 Anecdotes

 Metaphors and similes

 Figures of speech

 Imaginative language

 Emotional appeal

 Heavy description

VOCABULARY

 A person's vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to that
person. A vocabulary usually develops with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental
tool for communication and acquiring knowledge.

 Vocabulary is commonly defined as "all the words known and used by a particular
person".

Types of vocabulary

 Reading vocabulary - A literate person's reading vocabulary is all the words he or she
can recognize when reading. This is generally the largest type of vocabulary simply
because a reader tends to be exposed to more words by reading than by listening. In many
cases, notably Chinese characters, as in Chinese and Japanese kanji, where the
pronunciation may be in obscurity for little indication judging from the written word,
some words may be part of the written vocabulary but not the commonly spoken
language.

 Listening vocabulary - A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can
recognize when listening to speech. People may still understand words they were not
exposed to before using cues such as tone, gestures, the topic of discussion and the social
context of the conversation.

 Speaking vocabulary - A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she uses
in speech. It is likely to be a subset of the listening vocabulary. Due to the spontaneous
 nature of speech, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and
unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or
hand gestures.

 Writing vocabulary - Words are used in various forms of writing from formal essays to
Twitter feeds. Many written words do not commonly appear in speech. Writers generally
use a limited set of words when communicating: for example

 If there are a number of synonyms, a writer will have his own preference as to which of
them to use.

 He is unlikely to use technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which he has no

knowledge or interest.