ST.

AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

Faculty of Education

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

An Analysis of Reduplication In Kisukuma Language:

The Case of Keemunasukuma Dialect

A Research report submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the Award of
Bachelor of Arts with Education at St.Agustine University of Tanzania.

By

KATEMI NYANDA M.

BAED 56551

JUNE 2019
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this is my origin research report and it has never been submitted to any
institution for any academic award.

Student’s name: KATEMI NYANDA M

Registration Number: BAED 56551

Signature:……………………………

Date:………………………………………..

This work has been submitted with the approval of the research supervisor

Supervisor’s Name: Ms. Munyao Mariane Koki

Signature:……………………………………

Date:…………………………………………

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 COPYRIGHT

All rights of this report reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced, stored in retrieval
system or transmitted in any means such as, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

@ Katemi Nyanda M .2019

ii
 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to and remembrance to my lovely parents, Mashiku Katemi and
Kulwa Kadashi for their inspiration and an endless moral and material supports throughout my
studies. God bless them, forever and ever.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The successful completion of this research report has involved efforts of various individuals,
therefore, I have an obligation to acknowledge each of them but first, I wish to acknowledge the
almighty God for the gift of life, grace and wisdom to write this research report. May he receive
praise, glory, and honor for this grace in my life.

I am also thanks my beloved parents Mashiku Katemi and Kulwa Kadashi who raised me in
their loving family and denied themselves part of their income for investing in and financing my
education. My success is due to their endless supports and encouragement to me.

I extend my thanks to the other family members, my brothers, Zephania, Ndege, Baluhi and
Masanja. Also special note of gratitude to my beloved Sisters, Hollo, Hokka and Shigitwa for
their prayers and encouragement throughout my studies. May God bless them for the
commendable work they did.

Much thanks to my supervisor Ms. Munyao Mariane Koki for her guidance, patience, positive
criticism and comments that helped at various stages of writing this research report. May God
bless her for the difficult and hard work she did.

I appreciate colleagues from Victorious group, classmates and other friends of me for their
inspiration, advice, and encouragement in writing my research report, also much thanks to Sitte
Stationary at Nyamalango for typing and printing this research report.

Finally, I would like to thank the Regional Commissioner in Mwanza and District Commissioner
in Nyamagana who sincerely offered the permission to conduct research work in their
administrative area. I would like to give special thanks to St. Augustine University of Tanzania
especially the Department of Languages and Linguistics at Faculty of Education at large for what
they done in accomplishing my studies. God bless them.

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 ABSTRACT

This study focused on reduplication in Kisukuma the study used common Kisukuma words
particular in Open categories of speech. These words were taken from the “Keemunasukuma”
dialect of Kisukuma language. Specifically, the study aimed to list reduplicated stems in open
grammatical categories in Kisukuma, to explain the function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma,
to examine Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma and lastly, to evaluate
the adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory in analyzing reduplication in Kisukuma.
The study used Morphological Doubling Theory. It claims that reduplication calls twice for a
given constituent or sub constituent in a given semantic description with possible phonological
modification. The study also used different related empirical literature review to support this
study and acknowledgement was made to appreciate the work done by various scholars. Novotna
(2000) researched reduplication in Kiswahili language. His study examined the formal properties
of reduplication in Kiswahili and function characteristics of reduplication in Kiswahili. Okello
(2007) researched reduplication in the data he used was common Dholuo stems which
reduplicated using various mode reduplication. The study used descriptive research design in
order to observe the real situation of reduplication in Kisukuma language and to obtain complete
and accurate data in the suggested field. The study used qualitative research approach to present
the data from the field. The target population involved native speakers of the Kisukuma language
with eight (8) adult native speakers as the sample size. The data was collected through
Introspection and Focus Group Discussion. The Introspection method was used because the
researcher was the one who have primary data. Then Focus Group Discussion used to confirm
the obtained data. The study also found that reduplication is a morphological process in
Kisukuma which calls twice for a given constituent on the open categories of speech. The
researcher recommended for further study as more studies can be done in Kisukuma such as the
study of morph syntax in Kisukuma.Lastly conclusion was made as to list reduplicated stems in
open grammatical categories in Kisukuma , to examine the function of reduplicated stems in
Kisukuma, to examine Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma and the
adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory in analyzing in Kisukuma.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... i

COPYRIGHT .................................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................... iv

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. vi

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Background to the problem ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2.1 An Overview of the Language.............................................................................................. 1

1.2.2 Background of the Problem .................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................................ 4

1.4 Research objectives ..................................................................................................................... 4

1.4.1 General Research Objective ................................................................................................. 4

1.4.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................... 4

1.5 Research questions ...................................................................................................................... 5

1.6 Significance from the study......................................................................................................... 5

1.7 Scope and limitation of Study ..................................................................................................... 6

1.8 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................ 7

1.9 Definition of the Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 8

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CHAPTER TWO............................................................................................................................... 9

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 9

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 Reduplication in Language ................................................................................................... 9

2.2.2 Functions of reduplications ................................................................................................ 10

2.2.3 Pseudo-reduplication .......................................................................................................... 11

2.2.4 Morphological Doubling Theory and Reduplication.......................................................... 12

2.3 Empirical Literature Review ..................................................................................................... 13

2.4 Research Gap............................................................................................................................. 15

CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................... 16

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 16

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 16

3.2 Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 16

3.3. Research Approach .................................................................................................................. 16

3.4 Area of study ............................................................................................................................. 16

3.5 Target Population ...................................................................................................................... 17

3.6 Sampling.................................................................................................................................... 17

3.6.1 Sampling Size ..................................................................................................................... 17

3.6.2 Sampling Procedures .......................................................................................................... 17

3.7 Research Instruments ................................................................................................................ 18

3.7.1 Validity and Reliability. ..................................................................................................... 18

3.8 Ethical Issues. ............................................................................................................................ 19

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3.9 Data Analysis Procedures. ........................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................... 20

DATE PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............................................................... 20

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 20

4.2 Reduplicated stems in Kisukuma in open grammatical categories ........................................... 20

4.3 Function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma ........................................................................... 23

4.4 Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma.................................................. 26

4.5 Adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory ................................................................... 28

4.6 Analysis of data from the Focus Group Discussion ................................................................. 29

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................. 30

5.O DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 30

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 30

5.2 Discussion of findings ............................................................................................................... 30

5.3 Conclusion................................................................................................................................. 31

5.4 Recommendations for the further study .................................................................................... 31

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the background to the problem, statement of the problem, research

objective, research questions, and significance from the study, scope and limitation of the study,

the purpose of the study, theoretical framework as well as definition of the key terms.

1.2 Background to the problem

1.2.1 An Overview of the Language

This study was undertaken on the Kisukuma language of the Bantu speaking people, Kisukuma

is spoken by Sukuma people, who are mostly occupy Mwanza-Simiyu, Shinyanga, Geita, and

Tabora. Kisukuma is not spoken the same. It has various variations in dialects. According to

Ng’wage (2017:31) Kisukuma has three dialects which are Keemunasukuma, Keemunakeeya

and finally Keemunadakama. Also Batibo(1985:9-10) Categories Kisukuma dialects into four

types geographically, which are keemunasukuma that is spoken in Northern part of Sukumaland,

in Mwanza region, Keemunadakama also spoken around southern part of Sukumaland in Tabora,

Keemunakeeya which is spoken in eastern part of Sukumaland especially in a new formed

region Simiyu (Bariadi) and Shinyanga. Lastly, Keemunang’weli dialect which is spoken

specifically in Geita region. Batibo identifies that Keemunadakama dialects which forms

Kinyamwezi indeed, as it is recognized by Sukuma people of northern part are due to different in

geographical areas within one large area of Wadakama (Wanyamwezi) which are

“Kemunandaale” the dialect found in northern part of Nyamwezi land and kemunanyanyeembe,

the dialect spoken between the area of Wanyamwezi and kemunanyanyeembe, the dialect spoken

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between the area of Wanyamwezi ,Ugohola in Urambo district before Usoke are “Konongo” the

dialect spoken in Southern part of Tabora especially in Sikonge town, Kikimbu, the dialect

spoken in areas like Kitunda, Kiwele and Lagwa in Sikonge district. Generally Kinyamwezi is

spoken in northern parts of Tabora in Ndala, Ziba and other parts of Nzega and Uyui also these

dialects in some other scholarly linguistic works are identified as different language of

Kinyamwezi dialects Ethnologue (2009), Bryan (1959) in Batibo (1985:12) .But many

researchers have made over these languages and Kinyamwezi is recognized by the natives as

among of Kidakama dialects (Keemanadakama). Also Kisukuma is believed to have only two

dialects (Keemunasukuma) according to the Dakama speaking people and these are

“Keemunakeeya” spoken in the whole region of Shinyanga and Simiyu and “Kegwe”

(Keemunabogwe) which is spoken in Mwanza and Geita. The variety between “Keemunabogwe

and Keenakeeya” is due to different chiefdoms of Sukuma people in several past years. This

caused different in pronunciation and vocabulary aspects in lexical categories in those chiefdoms

hence several small dialects to emerge regionally (Chiefdoms) or Ntemisystem.

Example “Keemunekeeya” led to the emergence of “kenyatunza” that is spoken in Bariadi,

Kenang’wagala which is spoken in Maswa and Kenang’ung’hu on the other hand “Kenabogwe”

led to emergence of other several small dialects like “Kenabolema” spoken in Misungwi district

“Kegolo” spoken in Magu, “Kelongo” which is spoken in some areas of Sengerema and Geita

“Kegwe” spoken in Mwanza, lastly, “Kemunanela” which is spoken in Kwimba (Ng’waje,

2017:33:34).

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1.2.2 Background of the Problem

Reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or the stem of a word (or part of it) or

oven the whole is repeated exactly or with a slight alternation. Stageberg (1981:127) states that a

new word is formed by doubling a morpheme, while Spencer & Zwick (2001:130) claims that

reduplication is a morphological phenomenon in which the base, root stem of a Lexeme or a part

of it is repeated completely or with a slight alternation.

The word base is an alternative to root or stem that indicates the indivisible units attached to

different affixes Katamba (1993:45) reduplication can be total involving the whole word or

partial (involving just a segment of a word depending on the language and word being

reduplicated).

Wang (2005) as quoted by Nadarajan stated that there is a general tendency among linguistics

to overlook function of reduplication so, their work set for foundation in this study for discussing

reduplication and function of reduplication in Kisukuma.

On the other hand Novotna (2000) studied reduplication in Kiswahili in his study, based on the

formal on the formal properties of reduplication in Swahili. The study investigated the

phenomenon reduplicate “Kidogokidogo” which was in question from function perspective. Also

Novotna discussed Pseudo-duplication as an additional phenomenon pertinent to reduplication in

Kiswahili starting that there great number of words which consist of reduplicated syllables (one

or more than one of them).

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Following the several studied that have been done on reduplication it would be wrong to make a

conclusion using their results on reduplication. Therefore, it is necessary to make the intensive

study in Kisukuma about reduplication.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

This research was based on the open categories of speech in Kisukuma. It sought to clarify

reduplication in four open grammatical categories of speech in Kisukuma. These are noun,

adjective, verbs, and Adverbs. Furthermore, the research investigated Pseudo reduplication in

Kisukuma and focused on the function of reduplication in Kisukuma . All these were based on

the framework of Morphological Doubling Theory as was proposed by Inkelas and Zoll

(2005).Generally, the study based on reduplication in Kisukuma

1.4 Research objectives

1.4.1 General Research Objective

This research project was guided by the general research objective which is to examine

reduplication in Kisukuma.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

This research project was also guided by the following research objectives.

1. To list reduplicated stems in open grammatical categories in Kisukuma

2. To explain the function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma

3. To examine Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma.

4. To evaluate the adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory in analyzing reduplication

in Kisukuma.
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1.5 Research questions

This study was guided by the following research questions ;

1. What are the reduplicated stems in Kisukuma ?

2. What is the function of reduplication in Kisukuma?

3. How is Pseudo-reduplication an independent aspect in Kisukuma?

4. Is the Morphological Doubling Theory is adequacy in analyzing reduplication in

Kisukuma?

1.6 Significance from the study

This study enhanced a scholarly understanding of reduplication in Kisukuma and functions of

reduplication in Kisukuma.

To morphologists

This study aimed to understand the internal structure of open grammatical categories in

Kisukuma as well as reduplication as among of word formation process in Kisukuma.

To native speakers

The study helped to document and preserves the data about Kisukuma language. It also became

their future reference for further studies.

To documenters

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This study assisted them to establish documents or paper necessary to establish facts and more

information about Kisukuma language.

To comparative linguists

The study helped them to do comparative study in reduplication of different languages and

Kisukuma dialects and to show similarities among them.

To future research

The study also assisted the future researchers in undertaking a study on reduplication in other

dialects of Kisukuma.

1.7 Scope and limitation of Study

There are several dialects of Kisukuma as identified by various scholars, to mention just few;

Ng’waje (2017) identified three dialects of Kisukuma while Batibo (1985) identified four types

of dialecst in Kisukuma. This study was undertaken in Keemunasukuma dialect spoken in

Nyamagana district. The researcher focused on reduplication in the only four open word classes

which are nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Furthermore, the study attempted to explore the

functions of reduplication in Kisukuma and finally, looked at Pseudo reduplication in Kisukuma.

Overall, this study being a morphological analysis of reduplication in Kisukuma, it focused

mostly on the reduplicated stems in Kisukuma.

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1.8 Theoretical framework

This study was guided by morphological Doubling theory which was proposed by and developed

by Inkellas and Zoll (2005) .Following Inkellas and Zoll (2005), it is assumed that morphological

reduplication results from a situation where a construction calls twice (double insertion) for the

same morphological constituent have being an entire words but in other case, it might be a sub-

constituent, stem, root or even affix. Morphological Doubling can focus a whole word, a root or

even an affix.

This study was focused only on reduplication in Kisukuma words under Morphological Doubling

Theory, that allows insertion of morphological constituent (a whole word) or sub-constituent

(part of a word), that morphological doubling is an insertion of constituent which meets a

particular morph-semantic description and that reduplication involves bring together two stems

that meet the same morph- semantic description which may be having some phonological

modification.

Finally: morphological doubling theory can be used to extract various meanings the reduplicated

words whether partial or full reduplicated should be similar in meaning. At the same time these

words portray various functions. The inputs may be subject to phonological modification.

The main idea in doubling theory is that the doubling construction must be morph -semantically

identical, for instance the base and reduplicated should be agreeing morph-semantically (the

input should be related should share similar meaning). This theory contributed great deal to this

study to account for reduplication in Kisukuma words.

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1.9 Definition of the Key Terms

In this part we defined the terminologies that were used in this study with the different meaning

from their ordinary meaning.

Constituent: is a word which functions as a single unit within a hierarchal structure.

Morphological process: this is a situation of changing a stem to fit in syntactic and

communication context.

Reduplicated Stem: This is a part of the word that is being doubled. It can be a prefix and an

infix or suffix.

Root; refers to the core meaning of the word. It is the morpheme that comprises the most

important part of the word.

Stem; this refers to the morphological term which occurs after affixes have been added to the

root.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the introduction, theoretical literature review, empirical literature review

and finally, research gap.

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review

2.2.1 Reduplication in Language

Many scholars have talked a lot about reduplication in different languages in their scholarly

works. InKellas and Zoll (2005) define reduplication as the morphological process that involves

doubling of an item. Estonian and finish reduplication has been demonstrated to achieve

intensification, quality and as a special duration. (Erelt and Punttila, 1992,,1993,1999, Erelt

1997,2008) Botha, 1988:197,115-117) who looked at Africans reduplication arrives at the

conclusion that there is a Unit of semantic content called, “Increased” that applies to

reduplication units, the increase may concern emphasis as well as intensity in a discussion of

Hindi, reduplication Abbi (1980) talks about intensification it has thus always been claimed that

reduplication has something to do with increased intensity, emphasize, during, frequency

quantity cross linguistically. Nyaga (2014) look at Kiembu reduplication. Her study sought to

establish the linguistic units that are affected by reduplication. Later, she focused on both partial

and total reduplication in Kiembu.But this study looked on reduplication in Kisukuma Language.

9
2.2.2 Functions of reduplications

According to Abdulazizi reduplication is a common phenomenon in Bantu language and it is

employed to form either a frequentative or diminutive verb. Frequentative denotes that action is

done repeatedly (Abdulaziz 200:8). To further explain his view on frequentative nature of

reduplication in Kiswahili, he provided the following example;

The reduplicate word the meaning

Pigapiga strike repeatedly

Chezacheza dance repeatedly

Imbaimba sing repeatedly

Rukaruka jump repeatedly

Bebabeba carry many times

From the above, example it clear shows that the stem (piga) which mean strike when

reduplicated becomes (pigapiga) meaning strike repeatedly. We noted that the input piga shares a

semantic description with the reduplicated output pigapiga only that the output has some added

information. Through this case the action is done repeatedly. On the other hand the diminutive

denotes of diminution or reduction of intensity on diminutives. Abdulazizi provided the

examples of Zulu and Kiswahili words.

Kizulu

Bona (see) bonabona (see somewhat)

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Kiswahili

Ona (see) onaona (see somewhat)

The diminutive nature of reduplication shows that a semantic relationship between the stems of

the reduplicated word. Example, the case in Kiswahili ona which means see ,when reduplicated

it becomes onaona meaning see somewhat. The output onaona gets added information

(somewhat) while the inputs ona shares a similar meaning (see). These examples are also

supported by Morphological Doubling Theory.

2.2.3 Pseudo-reduplication

Novotna (2000) in a study of Swahili reduplication found out that, there are a great number of

words in Kiswahili that consist of one or more than one reduplicated syllable. He gave some

examples in Kiswahili which do not exhibit any connection (semantic or formal) with other

words, example a word felefele which means an inferior kind of millet, however; fele doesn’t in

any sense represent any kind of millet whether inferior or superior. Other examples that were

given in this study include.

Bisibisi – screwdriver

Chacha – ferment

Fudifudi – face downward

However; these words do not have any meaningful connection with any underlying element (root

word) that form the said reduplicate. As the word fudifudi which means face downward,

however; when we took the root word to be fudi and the reduplicated to be fudi, it found that

11
these words do not have an lexical meaning in Kiswahili. Also in Kisukuma the stem hagatigati

the root hagati means at middle (Centre) while the root gati do not have any lexical meaning in

Kisukuma.It has concluded that Pseudo-reduplication is an independent aspect in kisukuma

2.2.4 Morphological Doubling Theory and Reduplication

This study used Morphological Doubling Theory, which was propounded and developed by

Inkellas and Zoll (2005). Following Inkellas and Zoll (2005), we assume that morphological

reduplication results from a situation where a construction call twice (double insertion) for the

same morphological constituent. The morphological constituent here being an entire words, but

in other cases it might be a sub-constituent stem root or even an affix. So Morphological

Doubling Theory is an approach to reduplication in which morphological construction can call

for two instances of the same morphological constituent where “same” is defined as the level of

meaning not phonology.

Morphological Doubling Theory assumes the same morphological structure for every case of

reduplication. A reduplicated stem (or reduplication construction) has two daughters which bear

the same morph syntactic feature.

Diagram: Reduplication construction

Output (F)

Input (F) input (F)

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In this structure

[F] – Morph syntactic features

Inputs, these are sisters which need only to be similar semantically (similar in meaning).

Output – the reduplicated form with an added meaning.

According to Inkellas in Morphological Doubling Theory, reduplication is viewed as the double

(or multiple) occurrence of a morphological constituent meeting a particular morph semantic

description. The reduplicate derives its segmental content by means of copying from the base. As

Marantz (1982) and Steriade (1988) for example; by using “Copy association rule given by in

Inkellas (2014:115).Reduplicate + base + the reduplicated word tati + taki - takitaki. In

Morphological Doubling Theory, the reduplicate (the part that is reduplicated) and the base are

both produced in morphology as part of a construction. The main idea in doubling theory is that

the doubling construction must be morph-semantically identical. The base and the reduplicate

should been agreeing morph-semantically (the input should be related should share similar

meaning).

2.3 Empirical Literature Review

Several studies have been done by different scholars. Novotna (2000) researched on

reduplication in Kiswahili. His study examined the formal properties of reduplication in

Kiswahili and functional characteristics of reduplication in Kiswahili. This study based on

reduplication and Pseudo-Reduplication in Kisukuma language. Okello (2007) Researched

reduplication in Dholuo. The data used was common Dholuo words which reduplicated using

various mode of reduplication or which happen in reduplicated form.

13
The study further focused on the semantics functions of reduplication in Dholuo. This study also

used common Kisukuma words that fall in the class of major word classes, later it established the

function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma and then focused on Pseudo-reduplication as an

independent aspect in Kisukuma. Nyaga (2014) studied reduplication in Kiembu. Her study

aimed to establish the linguistic units that are affected by reduplication. Then she focused on

both partial and total reduplication in Kiembu. This study aimed to list the reduplicated stems in

Kisukuma . Jiji (2008) looked Lutriki noun Derivation established noun morphology in Lutriki is

achieved through a process of affixation, compounding and reduplication. The study found that

the process of reduplication fuses a base lexeme and a reduplicate to derive a reduplicated word

form. Then to data collected was analyzed through natural General phonology and

Morphological Doubling Theory. This study on the other hand aimed to establish the

reduplication in Kisukuma words using only the Morphological Doubling Theory.

Downing (2009) studied linear disorder in Bantu reduplication. It was found that many Bantu

languages have process of a (partial) verb stem reduplication, with the meaning of doing the

action of the very here and there from time to time. It was established also a common position

for the reduplicative morpheme to occur is immediately preceding the morphological stem. This

study attempted to establish function of reduplication in Kisukuma. Silverman(1993) studied

reduplication in Kihehe and found that, reduplication is a both morphological and phonological

process and it is subject to constraint holding both domains. He argued that reduplication may be

explained when the proper phonological and morphological principles are considered. This study

however; based only on a Morphological approach of Kisukuma reduplication.

Here, are some of studied that have been done in Kisukuma. These studies portray that the

subject of reduplication in Kisukuma has not studied yet. Masangu (2006) did “Tonal transfer in

14
Kisukuma” and found that in another Bantu language, tone is not transformed in Kisukuma,

verb-stem reduplication while it is common for tone to be transferred in nominal (Noun-

adjective and numbers).

Muteb (2017) did the research about phonological analysis of passive structures in Kisukuma. He

found that Kisukuma doesn’t allow three occurrence (i) diphthong formation (ii) Germination

and labial [labial] combination. The study aimed to document the passive structure in Kisukuma

and give an accurate account for their phonological attention. This study based its research on

reduplication in Kisukuma words paying close attention to the open grammatical categories of

speech, functions of reduplication in Kisukuma and investigate the aspect of pseudo-

reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma.

2.4 Research Gap

Previous scholars did the studies in reduplication in other languages such as Novotna (2000) did

reduplication in Kiswahili. Nyaga (2014) looked at Kiembu reduplication .Jiji (2008) Looked

Lutriki noun Derivation. Downing (2009) Studied linear Disorder in Bantu reduplication. Also

Silverman (1993) Studied reduplication in Kihehe. Among other languages which are also Bantu

languages. This study aimed to investigate reduplication in Kisukuma language.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter aims at providing basic information regarding reduplication in Kisukuma language.

The information will be useful in facilitating the understanding the succeeding chapters. The

chapter begins with research design, research approaches, and area of the study, target

population, sampling, research instruments, validity and reliability, ethical issues and finally, the

chapter will focus on data analysis.

3.2 Research Design

This research was used descriptive research design, because the research aimed to observe the

real situation of reduplication in Kisukuma language. Also it aimed to obtain complete and

accurate data in the suggested field purposively to provide or avoid bias and that led to

maximizing the reliability in this study.

3.3. Research Approach

This study was used qualitative research approach to present the data from the field. It helped to

analysis emotions, feelings, ideology and things which are not quantitative.

3.4 Area of study

The study was conducted in Nyamagana district in Mwanza region. It is bordered to the north by

Ilemela district, to the west by shores of lake victory, to the east by Magu district and in the

south by Misungwi district in Mwanza.This is because Keemunasukuma dialect which is the case

analysis is spoken in the area.

16
3.5 Target Population

This study targeted the Sukuma native speakers. It involved both men and women hence no

gender bias in the data collection. The researcher selected adults from Kisukuma native speakers

who are 30 and above years old because are well linguistically developed, fluency, competent,

and proficiency in Kisukuma. This made the data more pure without influence from other

languages.

3.6 Sampling

3.6.1 Sampling Size

The study was involved (8) informants who were aged from 30 years and above and who were

pure native speakers of Keemunasukuma dialect. They were selected as the participants in this

study. This sample was used because it was very manageable and controllable number to carry

on the deep study and the group which was gathered as the representatives of the whole

population of the Sukuma native speakers.

3.6.2 Sampling Procedures

The study was used convenience and purposive sampling techniques for selecting participants.

The purposive techniques it is popular in qualitative research as it allowed the researcher to

choose appropriate informants who have a great ability to speak Kisukuma language and provide

accurate data from Kisukuma language. The selection of convenience is also helped the

researcher to acquire data from people who are willing and ready to help the researcher to

provide more details about reduplication in Kisukuma language.

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3.7 Research Instruments

This study used two methods which are introspection and Focused group discussion in collecting

the data.

Introspective technique

The researcher was adopted the use of introspective method in collecting the data. Hence the

information about reduplication in Kisukuma native language was obtained. Because this method

use one’s thoughts, feelings, insight ideas and cognition which the mind has, the researcher also

as the native speaker of the language.

Focused group discussion

This method used by the researcher to collect data from the eight adults who were native

speakers of Keemunasukuma dialect. The researcher also aimed to use this method because the

result from focused group discussion are quickly known and could help the researcher to ask the

respondents for more elaboration, and sometimes it was easy to plan and conduct it.

3.7.1 Validity and Reliability.

In order to ensure validity of the data collected and reliability of research instruments the pilot

study was conducted in Nyamagana district. The reliability and validity of the data collected was

under triangulation method of data collection, such as focused group discussion and

introspection technique. The study also used simple language that could be understood by the

researcher and participants.

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3.8 Ethical Issues.

The primary stage before going to the field a letter was provided the St. Augustine University of

Tanzania which gives the researcher with permission to conduct a research to the area required.

The data collected is for only research and I was clear to the informants about this. The

researcher made commitment to keep all the information confidential and for the sake of this

study only. I acknowledged sources.

3.9 Data Analysis Procedures.

The researcher used descriptive method to analyze the data. This study was focused on

Kisukuma reduplication. Then it examined on four open grammatical categories of speech of the

Keemunasukuma dialect. It researcher studied reduplication in all these categories of speech in

Kisukuma. Further, it was focused on function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma and later it

established Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma. The study used eight

native adult informants who were believed to have the proficiency in the language. The

informants were adults aged between 30 years and above. This is because we believed by this

age they would have acquired enough oral proficiency in their native language. At the same point

the selected informants were able to read, understand, and write in Kisukuma.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATE PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction

The data was collected through Introspection and Focus group discussion with involvement of

eight (8) respondents who were adult native speakers of Kisukuma language. Lastly, data was

analyzed as per each specific objective, so the chapter presents the reduplicated stems in

Kisukuma, to explain function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma, to examine Pseudo-

reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma language and lastly, to evaluate the

adequacy of the morphological doubling theory in analyzing reduplication in Kisukuma.

4.2 Reduplicated stems in Kisukuma in open grammatical categories

Reduplicated stem refers to the double insertion of the root, base or part of the word. The

following is the list of reduplicated stems of the open classes of speech which are to be discussed

in this research report.

Linguistic data 1: The list of verb reduplicated stems in Kisukuma

Unduplicated stem Gloss of Reduplicated stem Gloss of

reduplicated stem reduplicated stem

Kwiza Come kwizaiza Coming

Kwifanya Pretend Kwifanyafanya Pretending

Seka Laugh Sekaseka Keep on laughing

Imba Sing imbaimba Keep on singing

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Bhina Dance bhinabhina Keep on dancing

Bhuja Ask bhujabhuja Keep on asking

Soma Read somasoma Keep on reading

Gulya Eat gulyagulya Keep on eating

Lolaga Look lolagalolaga Keep on looking

Zuga Cook zugazuga Keep on cooking

Dima Touch dimadima Touch repeatedly

Leka Stop lekaleka Stop for a moment

Shoka Back shokashoka Turn back

Lilaga Cry lilagalilaga Keep on crying

Gema Try Gemagema Keep on trying

Linguistic data 2: The list of reduplicated noun stems in Kisukuma

Unduplicated stem Gloss of Reduplicated stem, Gloss of

reduplicated stem reduplicated stem

Mihayo Issues Mihayohayo Many issues

Bhujiku Night bhujikujiku Between day and

night

Sungusungu Defence force sungsungu Traditional defense

force

Giti Dark Gitigiti Little dark

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Linguistic data 3: the list of reduplicated adjective stems in Kisukuma

Unduplicated stem Gloss of Reduplicated stem Gloss of reduplicate

reduplicated stem stem

Minge Many mingeminge More

Ng’waka Year Ng’wakang’waka Yearly

Sebhu Hot Sebhusebhu Extremely hot

Kado Little kadokado Very little

Ng’uhi Short Ng’uhing’uhi Very short

Kwigulya High kwigulyagulya Mid-high

Jene Those Jene jene Of the same class

Ngenu Fat ngenungenu Too fat

Bhoi Them bhoibhoi Themselves

Nhale Big nhalenhale Very big

Linguistic data 4: The list of adverb reduplicated stems in Kisukuma

Unduplicated stem Gloss of Reduplicated stem Gloss of

reduplicated stem reduplicated stem

Ng’weli West ng’welingw’eli Western part

Kiiya East kiiyakiiya Eastern part

Shashi North shashishashi Northern part

Dakama South dakamadakama South part

Kule Far kulekule For away

Ganza Rough ganzaganza Do roughly

Bhujiku Right bhujikubhujiku Not dark

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 Wangu Hurry wanguwangu In hurry

Siza Good sizasiza In good manner

Hado Little hadohado In a little away

4.3 Function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma

The reduplicated stems in Kisukuma play roles in Kisukuma language as follows; Reduplicated

stems in Kisukuma indicate emphasize. Reduplicated stems in Kisukuma employ special weight

and show something important. The following is the examples of stems which show emphasize

or intensity.

Root word Reduplicate form

 Gete (sure) getgete (surely) adverb

 Mengi (many) mengimengi (more) noun

 Wangu (hurry) wanguwangu (in hurry) verb

 Ng’hana (true) ng’hanang’hana (readiness) noun

From the above example, it noted that the root word come from the same class of word. We also

noted that when these are reduplicated, they put more emphasize on semantic values of the root.

The following example show the reduplicated words used in sentence to show emphasize or

intensity

 Wize gete (let him/ her come)

 Wize getegete (come and don’t ignore)

 Mengi (many)

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  Tulaga mengimengi (put more)

 Zugu wangu (make hurry)

 Zungu wanguwangu (come in hurry)

Also, reduplicated stems in Kisukuma show comparison. The following is the example of

reduplicated adjective stems in Kisukuma to show comparison.

Root word Reduplicated form

 Kado (small) kadokado (smaller)

 Nhale (big) nhalenhale (bigger)

 Ndito (heavy) nditondito (heavier)

The above words are reduplicated adjective stems that show comparison between two things,

example of reduplicated adjective stems in sentence form to show comparison

 Kayanda kado (A small young boy)

 Kayanda kadokado (A smaller young boy)

 Nalizenga numba nhale (I’m building a big house

 Nalizenga numba nhalenhale (I’m building a bigger house)

 Bhuchaga ndito (take the heavy one)

 Bhuchaga inditonidto (take the heavier one)

The reduplicated words above are adjective stems that show comparison.

On the other hand reduplicated stems in Kisukuma can be used to estimate the distance in which

an object (Human being) moves. It is also used to show the proximity of an item to the other. It

24
can also indicate the length of the estimate distance. It found that the estimated distance is

always meant to be a short distance. Example of reduplicated stems showing distance.

Root word Reduplicated word

 Jaga (go) jagajaga (go ahead)

 Shoka (come back) shokashoka (come back

 Zugu (come) Zuguzugu (come in front)

The reduplicated stems above are verbs that show estimated distance, examples here below show

sentence forms with reduplicated verb stems in Kisukuma.

 Jaga aho (go there)

 Jagajaga aho (go/ a head)

 Shoka aha (come back)

 Shokashoka aha (come back here)

 Zugu aha (come here)

 Zuguzugu aha (come nearby)

So, the verbs above show estimated distance in sentence structure in Kisukuma.

Lastly, reduplicated stems in Kisukuma function as the frequency. It donates that action is done

repeatedly. To further explain this view on frequentative nature of reduplication in Kisukuma

.Here bellows are examples

Root word reduplicated word

 Dima (touch) dimadima (touch repeatedly)

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  Gema (try) gemagema (try repeatedly)

 Zuga (cook) zugazuga (cook repeatedly)

The reduplicated stems above are verbs which show frequency occurring of an action.

 Dima siza (touch in a careful way)

 Dimadima sizasiza (touch it in good manner and in repeatable way )

 Gema okwiza (try to come)

 Gemagema okwizakwiza (try to come frequently)

So, verb reduplicated stems in Kisukuma, some of them are employed to form frequentative

action. It donates that action is done repeatedly as examples above.

4.4 Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in Kisukuma

Pseudo-reduplication refers to the reduplication of words that don’t necessarily bring forth any

grammatical function. Novotna (2006) in study of Kiswahili reduplication found out that there

are great numbers of words in Kiswahili which consist of one or more than one reduplicated

present in these cases. These lexical items represent a single morpheme and therefore neither

expression containing half of the elements (reduplicated) nor the underlying form (root word)

exist (Novotna, 2006:66). In Kisukuma, there are words that do not exhibit any connection

(semantic or formal) with other words, example, of words that might be considered as the

original form for instance the word “Mihayohayo” means many issues however “hayo” doesn’t

any sense represent any kind of an issue .Other example of words that are Pseudo-reduplication

in nature.

 Kujajaja keep on going

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  Kwifanyafanya pretending

 Hagatigati at the middle

So, it proves that, in Kisukuma Pseudo reduplication occurs in different words that are found in

some word classes as shown above. These words do not have any meaningful connection with

any underlying element (root word) that forms the said reduplicated as shown above.

From the examples above, we established that these Kisukuma words looked as if they were

reduplicated. This is due to that there are two words which were used to make up one word that

was reduplicated, however, we noted that, if we divide these words to what seemed to be the root

word and the reduplicated then, we would not have any reduplicated stem because there were no

syllables that qualified to be inputs of the given words. Example‘’hagatihagati” means at the

middle however, when we took the root word to be “hagati” and the reduplicated “gati” we

found that the “gati” which seems to be reduplicated root doesn’t have any lexical meaning in

Kisukuma language.

Also, Novotna (2006) gave some examples in Kiswahili that do not exhibit any connection

(semantic or formal) with other words, example that might be considered as the original form.

For instance the word “felefele” means an inferior kind of millet however “fele” doesn’t any

sense represent any kind of millet whether inferior or superior, other example examples that were

given in his study include (Kiswahili)

 Bisibisi screw driver

 Chacha ferment

 Fudifudi face down word

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Therefore, the example given in Kisukuma cannot be put together to form any reduplicated word

like “kujajaja” because “jaja” is meaningless in Kisukuma and cannot make sense in isolation.

The same case applies to other examples therefore; it is clearly this is a case of Pseudo-

reduplication in Kisukuma. At the same time, we noted that these word that are Pseudo-

reduplicated were not supported by Morphological Doubling Theory (MDT) tenets that were

discussed in chapter one of this research report which account from Morphological Doubling

Theory. Therefore, we concluded that Pseudo-reduplication is different from Reduplication

because there is no word or part of these words that are doubled to give and reduplicated form of

word. Generally, pseudo-reduplication is an independent component in Kisukuma language.

4.5 Adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory

In Kellas and Zoll (2005) state that Morphological Doubling Theory results from double

insertion of morphological constituent or sub-constituent (infix-suffix and prefix). Inkellas

(2005) stated that Morphological Doubling is an of a constituent which meets a particular Morph

-semantic description that the inputs must carry similar meaning. This study focused on

reduplication in Kisukuma words and was based on the following tenents that Morphological

Doubling results from double insertion of morphological constituent (a whole word) or (sub

constituent part of a word) that morphological doubling is an insertion of constituents which

meet a particular Morph -semantic description and that reduplication involves bring together two

stems that meet the same Morph- semantic description which may be having some phonological

modification. At the same time these words portray various functions.

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 A diagram to show double insertion in Kisukuma language.

Hambo + hambo kado + kado

Hambohambo (goodness) kadokado (smaller)

Wangu + wangu

Wangu wangu (in hurry)

The diagrams above, show how double insertion of the constituent with supportive data from

Kisukuma to validate the adequacy of morphological doubling theory.

4.6 Analysis of data from the Focus Group Discussion

The study involved eight (8) respondents’ adult native speakers of Kisukuma language. The

researcher aimed to use this method because the results from Focus Group Discussion were

quickly known and helped the researcher to ask the respondents for more elaboration. The

respondents said that the data are pure from Kisukuma and were not influenced from any

language (borrowed words) from that confirmation word like:

 Gete gete (surely)

 Wanguwangu (in hurry)

 Ng’hanang’hana (readiness)

Are the pure words from Kisukuma without influence from any language

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.O DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the discussion of findings; conclusion and finally the chapter will present

the recommendations for further study.

5.2 Discussion of findings

The study revealed that Kisukuma have reduplicated stems in open word categories. This was

based on the Morphological Doubling Theory. The examples analyzed both the base and

reduplicate corresponded semantically, agreeing with the Morphological Doubling Theory that

results from double insertion of a morphological constituent which have a particular semantic

description. The specific objectives were to list reduplicated stems in open grammatical

categories in Kisukuma such as “kadokado”, gateget, wanguwangu, and mengimengi. From the

findings, there was to explain the function of reduplicated stems in Kisukuma as to estimate

distance, frequentative function, to emphasize and to show comparison.

Then therefore, the study revealed to examine Pseudo-reduplication as an independent aspect in

Kisukuma and identified that the words which were seemed to be reduplicated root don’t have

any lexical meaning in Kisukuma hence Pseudo-reduplication is an independent aspect and was

not supported by Morphological Doubling Theory that call double insertion of element or

constituent.

The researcher went further by evaluating the adequacy of the Morphological Doubling Theory

in analyzing reduplication in Kisukuma and the study revealed that Morphological Doubling

30
Theory that call double insertion of morphological constituent such as a whole word or part of a

word and meet morph semantic description through that, in Kisukuma the same root, base can be

combined to produce another a stem (reduplicate) with morph semantic description (meaning).

5.3 Conclusion

The researcher has done reduplication in Kisukuma language. The study aimed to list

reduplicated stems in open grammatical categories in Kisukuma such open word categories are

nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Then the study focused to explain the function of

reduplicated stems in Kisukuma as to show emphasize, frequency, comparison and estimating

distance.

On the other hand, the researcher examined the pseudo-reduplication an independent aspect in

Kisukuma. Although Pseudo-reduplicated words seemed to be reduplicated but they did not have

a base and no a reduplicate and overall did not portray any characteristics of reduplicated stems.

At same time Pseudo reduplication was not supported by the Morphological Doubling Theory

which account for reduplicated words in Kisukuma.

Lastly, the study established that reduplication is a morphological process supported by

Morphological Doubling Theory. The study defined reduplication as morphological process in

which the root word of stem of the word or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with

slight alternation.

5.4 Recommendations for the further study

This study dealt with morphological reduplication in Kisukuma words using Morphological

Doubling Theory. It was recommended that more researches should be done on reduplication in

31
Kisukuma using different theories like phonological theory, so as to show how other theories can

be adequacy in analyzing reduplication in Kisukuma.

Another, comparative study can be done in reduplication bases on different dialects of Kisukuma

language. This is due to that this study was done in “Keemunasukuma” dialect which may differ

with the other dialects of Kisukuma like “Keemunatunza” “Keemunang’weli” and

“Keemunadakama”.

Finally it was recommended that another study can be done in the syntactic component in

kisukuma, in order to understand how it affects other linguistics levels in sentence structures

32
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A sample of reduplicate stem in Kisukuma

Un reduplicated stem Gloss of reduplicated Reduplicated stem Gloss of reduplicated

words stem

Kwiza Coming Kwiza-kwiza Coming hurry

Hambo Good Hambo-hambo goodness

Kwifanya Pretend kwifanyafanya pretending

Ng’hana True Ng’hana-ng’hana With the truth

Lila Cry lilalila Crying all the times

Seka Laugh sekaseka To laugh any how

Zugu Come zuguzugu Come near by

Imba Sing Imba-imba Sing continuously

Bhina Dance Bhina-bhiana Dance regularly

Haya Say Haya-haya Keep in saying

Kado Little kadokado Very little

Ganza Roughly (do roughly) Ganza ngaza Doing in rough way

Sebhu Hot Sebhu-sebhu With hot

Ng’uhi Short Ng’uhi-ng’uhi Very short

Kusoma To read kusomasoma Keep in reading

Kiiya East Kiiya-kiiya Too east

Bujiku Night Bujiku-bujiku Near to day or nigh

Wangu Hurry Wangu-wangu In hurry

Kwigulya High kwigulyagulywa Mid-high

35
Linga Fold Linga-linga folding

Mingi Many Mingi-mingi more

Ng’waka A year Ng’iwaka-ng’waka In every year

Hagati Middle hagatigati At the middle

Hanang’ho There Hanang’ho hanang’ho Only there

Lolaga Look lolagalolaga Keep on looking

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37