Report Brenda

PREVENTIVE MEASURES NON-LITERATE GIRLS USE TO SAFEGUARD
THEMSELVES FROM HIV/AIDS
BY
ACHAYOBRENDA
17/U/587/ACE/PE
A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ADULT AND

COMMUNITY EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE WARD OF A BACHELOR OF ADULT AND COMMUNITY
EDUCATION OF KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY
MAY, 2021
i
DECLARATION
I ACHAYOBRENDA hereby declare to the best of my knowledge that this report is my original
work, which has not been presented before to any University or institution of higher learning for
any academic award other than Kyambogo University.
SIGNED………………………………….DATE…………………………
ACHAYOBRENDA
17/U/587/ACE/PE
i
APPROVAL
This research report is submitted for examination with my approval as the University supervisor.
SIGNED …………………………………..DATE……………………………………..
Dr.
SUPERVISOR
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DEDICATION
This Research report is dedicated to my parents who devoted moral, spiritual and financial
support so as to see me through. They have been great source of motivation and inspiration
throughout my academic life.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our debt of gratitude goes to Almighty God for his grace, mercy and protection all these years of
our educational life. Glory be unto his name.
I deeply appreciate my supervisor Dr. a lecturer at the department of adult and community
education for his unwavering support and professional advice as my supervisor that she shared
with me throughout the period of the study, not forgetting the time she sacrificed for me out of
her tight schedules to supervise my work.
My sincere gratitude goes to all lecturers and staffs of Kyambogo University especially the
department of Adult and Community Education s for their support throughout my bachelors’
program in general and in particular this research. They have added to my knowledge as I
pursued my Bachelor of Adult and Community Education.
Special thanks go to my Dad and Mum who laid a strong academic foundation upon which I
have been able to reach this far. It was amidst scarcity of resources that they managed to educate
me as well as instilling important core values of hard work, persistence and determination to me.
Finally, I would like to thank everyone including my course mates and friends, who contributed
to this study and pray that the almighty God blesses you all thousand folds.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................i
APPROVAL....................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................................v
LIST OF ACRONYMS...................................................................................................................x
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................xi
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study............................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem...........................................................................................................3
1.3 General objective of the study...................................................................................................4
1.3.1 Specific objective of the study................................................................................................4
1.4 Research questions.....................................................................................................................4
1.5 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................................................6
2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................6
2.2 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS.....................6
2.3 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention......................................................................................................................................10
2.4 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate girls.. .12
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2.5 Summary of literature..............................................................................................................15
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................16
METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................16
3.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................16
3.2 Research design.......................................................................................................................16
3.3 Study Population......................................................................................................................16
3.4 Determination of the Sample Size...........................................................................................16
3.5 Data Collection Methods.........................................................................................................16
3.6 Data collection procedure........................................................................................................17
3.7 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................17
3.8 Ethical considerations..............................................................................................................17
3.9 Limitations to the study...........................................................................................................18
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, AND ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

OF RESEARCH FINDINGS.........................................................................................................19
4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................19
4.2 Findings on the background information.................................................................................19
4.2.1 Age structure of the participants...........................................................................................19
4.2.2 Religion of participants.........................................................................................................19
4.2.3 Education level of respondents.............................................................................................19
4.3 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
different ways of transmission.......................................................................................................20
4.4 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention (this includes sources of the information and processes of getting it).........................22
4.5 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate girls.. .23
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE KEY FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS,

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE STUDY.............................................25
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5.1 Introductions............................................................................................................................25
5.2 Summary of the study findings................................................................................................25
5.2.1 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
5.2.2 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
5.2.3 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate girls.
.......................................................................................................................................................26
5.3 Discussions of the study findings............................................................................................27
.......................................................................................................................................................29
5.4 Conclusion...............................................................................................................................30
.......................................................................................................................................................31
5.5 Recommendation.....................................................................................................................31
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................32
APPENDIX ONE: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR NON-LITERATE GIRLS.................................37
APPENDIX TWO: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS..................................39
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ABC: Abstain, be faithful, and use condoms

AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ART Antiretroviral treatment
ARV Antiretroviral
BCC Behavior change communication
CCT Conditional cash transfer
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HCT HIV counseling and testing
PrEP Pre-exposure prophylaxis
STI Sexually transmitted infection
UNAIDS United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
WHO World Health Organization
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ABSTRACT
The study focused the preventive measures non-literate girls use to safeguard themselves from
HIV/AIDS. The objectives were to Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from
getting HIV/AIDS from its different ways of transmission, Find out from where and how non-
literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention (this includes sources of the
information and processes of getting it) and Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that
are targeted towards non-literate girls and 25 informants were interviewed.
The researcher further observed Non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS
through counseling and testing (HCT) preventing new HIV infections in community. The study
found that although counseling and testing (HCT) has increased on access to treatment (ART
inclusive). Findings revealed that non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention through population-based programs, The use of peer educators to reach non literate
children, use of traditional health providers to reach rural communities, or programs targeted to
other community groups. Study findings reveal that the key primary prevention activities and
services include but not limited to the following: public awareness campaigns, voluntary
HIV/AIDS counseling and testing (VCT), diagnosis and treatment sexually transmitted
infections (STIs), rehabilitation and resettlement, sports and recreation activities, economic
empowerment, and advocacy. Findings revealed that Voluntary HIV counseling and testing
among non literate children can motivate individuals to further protect themselves against
infection or to protect their partners from acquiring the disease.
It was recommended that The study confirms that lack of participation of intended beneficiaries
in decision making has limited the would be impact of the activities HIV/AIDS service
providers, therefore these study recommends a participatory approach to behavior change
strategies in order for reduction in HIV/AIDS prevalence. There is need for the organization to
acknowledge that HIV/AIDS is a community challenge that negatively affects the performance
and requires a response; as such, the organization should allocate adequate funds towards the
implementation of the HIV/AIDS policy. There is need to address the various needs and
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appreciate the various contributions made by faith based organizations in the same way they do
address and appreciate the needs and contributions of secular organizations respectively in the
field of HIV/AIDS.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter includes; the introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem,
general objective or purpose of the study, specific objectives of the study, research questions
and. It further covers the significance of the study, and scope of the study.
1.1 Background of the study
Of the 35 million people living with HIV worldwide, 7 million are youth and children under the
age of 25 (UNAIDS, 2014). Adolescents aged 10 to 19 years account for an estimated 2.1
million HIV infections (Idele et al., 2014), and young adults aged 20to 24 account for an
estimated 2.8 million infections (UNAIDS, 2014), meaning that nearly 5 million young people
between the ages of 10 and 24 are living with HIV. Approximately 300,000 new HIV infections
occur annually among adolescents aged 15-19 years, based on 2012 estimates(Idele et al., 2014).
Globally, two-thirds of these infections are among girls, but in some countries more than 80% of
new infections are among girls (Idele et al., 2014). The burden of adolescent HIV is concentrated
in sub-Saharan Africa, with 82% of the world’s HIV-positive adolescents living in this region,
particularly in the countries of Southern Africa (Idele et al., 2014). Meanwhile, in low and
concentrated epidemic countries, HIV infections disproportionately occur among adolescents
who are members of key populations, especially men who have sex with men, injecting drug
users, and adolescents who are sexually exploited (Idele et al., 2014). Compared to children and
adults, there is a relative lack of data about HIV among adolescents, and data are often not
disaggregated for this age group (Idele et al., 2014).
Adolescence and young adulthood are critical times of life in which attitudes, behaviors, and
lifestyles are established which will affect health and well-being throughout the life-course
(Kapogiannis & Legins, 2014). Adolescents face critical development tasks such as formation of
identity and self-esteem, social and psychological pressures, and the advent of adult roles and
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responsibilities which may include income generation and caring family members(Kapogiannis
& Legins, 2014). Girls and young women face particular contexts of risk, including being forced
into marriage or unwanted sexual experience. All of these factors may place young people at risk
of behaviors which carry risk of HIV infection, including early sexual debut, multiple partners,
lack of condom use, transactional or coerced sex, inter-generational sex, sex under the influence
of alcohol or drugs, and injecting drug use(Kapogiannis& Legins, 2014). In addition, large
number of perinatally infected children are now surviving into adolescence (Lowenthal et al.,
2014), and may experience unique challenges including chronic immune suppression, impaired
neurocognitive development, delayed sexual maturation, and long-term adverse effects of ART
such as cardiovascular disease (Adejumo, Malee, Ryscavage, Hunter, & Taiwo, 2015). In
addition, perinatally infected HIV-positive adolescents have generally been found to exhibit
emotional and behavioral problems at higher rates than their peers (Mellins & Malee, 2013).
Sub-Sahara Africa still accounts for almost 69% of HIV/AIDS despite having 10% of the world
population. As for those dying from the AIDS disease and AIDS-related illnesses, there is also a
reported decline. Death from the latter is said to have dropped by 32% between 2005 and 2011.
This has been attributed to the scaling up of antiretroviral therapy, the robust focus on saving
lives and preventing new infections through various programmes and strategies (UNAIDS,
2012).
In Uganda, the AIDS epidemic began to spread during the mid 1970s (World bank, 1995) and
was first identified in 1982 in a fishing village on the western shores of Lake Victoria. Since
then, the epidemic has had devastating effect on the demographic, economic and governance
structures of the economy (Tumushabe, 2006). It is generally argued that HIV and AIDS
epidemic are likely to have devastating consequences on the overall economic development of
Uganda, and that those consequences are likely to be felt in the future due to the impact of skill
losses (Piot, 2005).
Unlike other causes of death, AIDS deaths will continue to rise in the coming years as a result of
infection that have already occurred. Infection is high among women and men in their most
productive years including those most educated and skilled sectors of the populations as well as
women of child bearing age with attendant transmission to children (Piot et al., 2001). AIDS also
kills mostly the sexually active population who are most productive economically, leaving
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children and elderly who are dependants (Berkley et al., 1990). For example, the life expectancy
of economically productive Ugandans dropped from 48years in 1990 to 38 years by 1997 (UAC,
2018).
At the end of 2001, 600,000 cases (individuals, adults and children) were reported living with
HIV and AIDS in Uganda while 84,000 AIDS deaths occurred in the same period (MOH 2014).
HIV also poses a most serious challenge to the future success in reducing poverty in the country
(MOFPED, 2017). HIV and AIDS contributed to national human poverty index which reduced
from 39% in 1996 to 34% in 1998, increased from 34% to 37.5% in 2000 due to reduced life
expectancy to less than 40 years (UNDP, 2000). Uganda is also among countries with the lowest
scores on the Human development index (HDI). The HDI for Uganda is 0.505 giving the country
a rank of 154th out of 177 countries with data (HDI Report, 2017).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Youth are at the centre of the global HIV/AIDS pandemic. They are the world’s greatest hope in
the struggle against this fatal disease. Today’s youth have inherited a lethal legacy that is killing
them. An estimated 11.8 million youth aged 15 – 24 years are living with HIV/AIDS. Each day,
nearly 6,000 youth between the ages of 15-24 years are infected with HIV. At 25%, Uganda has
one of the highest teenage pregnancies in the world, (UBOS, 2017). It also shows that condom
use among youth leaves a lot to be desired.
With the 1,300,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in Uganda and approximately 52,000 new
infections in 2016 (UNAIDS, 2017), the non-literate girls are disproportionately affected.
Evidence shows that most new HIV infections are occurring among you people 17-24 years and
especially among non-literate girls. There were 4,500 new HIV infections among adults aged 15
years and older and of these, 22% were adolescents and young women aged 15-24 years
(UNAIDS, 2017).The government has come up with various programs to reached out to clients
with drug supply, promoted new enrolments, sensitized people, developed capacity of staff in
terms of skills to be able to perform effectively, conducted follow ups of clients, provided CD4
facilities, monitored for adherence and promoted positive living among clients as cited in the
TASO Program Annual Report (2016).
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Despite this level of progress, the number of new HIV infections among non literategirls remains
unacceptably high. Modeled estimates from the UAC Investment Case (UAC 2014) suggest that,
without any interventions, the annual number of new HIV infections among non literategirls will
rise from 140,000 in 2014 to 340,491 in 2025; resulting in a cumulative 2,890,569 new HIV
infections by the year 2025. Although there is a high level of political commitment and concerted
effort by partners, the tide of the epidemic continues to outpace national efforts to control it. It is
against this background that the study will examine the preventive measures non-literate girls use
to safeguard themselves from HIV/AIDS.
1.3 General objective of the study
To examine the preventive measures non-literate girls use to safeguard themselves from
HIV/AIDS
1.3.1 Specific objective of the study
i. Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
different ways of transmission
ii. Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention (this includes sources of the information and processes of getting it).
iii. Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate girls.
1.4 Research questions
i. Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
different ways of transmission.
ii. Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention
iii. Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate girls.
1.5 Significance of the Study
The study findings will also be used by policy makers in Uganda to inform policy formulation
and review concerning capacity development and sustainability of delivery of HIV/AIDS
services
To the academia, the findings of the study add to the knowledge base and form a foundation for
further research in the areas of capacity development and sustainability of HIV/AIDS services.
4
The findings of this study provided National AIDS Control Council (NACC), Ministry of Health
and Vision 2030 which were the key players in development projects, and other partners within
an understanding on the extent to which Non- Government Organizations employ project
management practices
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This section reviews the literature intended to guide the researcher in exploring all the literature
available so as to identify gaps and correlations to be filled by this study.
2.2 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS
Strengthen preventive services: Sexually active HIV positive adolescents need appropriate
information to prevent unintended pregnancies and HIV transmission. Therefore, HIV/AIDS
treatment centers that provide care and support will need to improve their access to information
and services for family planning and HIV prevention. HIV positive adolescents need information
to be able to negotiate disclosure, dual protection, and consistent condom use. The findings
suggest that adolescents would prefer seeking contraceptive services from HIV/AIDS care and
treatment centers. Therefore, such programs need to strengthen provision of family planning
(FP) services by assessing the contraceptive needs of adolescents and making available an
appropriate method mix in a non-judgmental and supportive way.
Re-orient service providers/counselors: Whereas service providers/counselors are more likely to

talk about sexuality than parents and guardians, service providers tend not to offer balanced
counseling. They tend to providing only warnings about the potentially adverse outcomes of sex
instead of providing practical information, guidance and support to the young people. They also
tend to develop a parent-child relationship with the adolescents during counseling, to the extent
that the adolescents fear disclosing to them not only their sexual behaviors and desires, but also
pregnancies when they occur. Programs need to provide training and reorientation to help
providers/counselors execute their work without becoming “parents”.
HIV/AIDS counselors would benefit from an adolescent “sexuality or fertility” assessment tool
that they can use as a checklist for relevant items to discuss with HIV positive adolescents during
counseling encounters. The tool could help the provider/counselor to systematically assess
adolescents for their sexual and reproductive health information and service needs and to address
6
them immediately and/or offer appropriate referral. In addition, existing counseling and support
training packages for HIV positive individuals need to be updated to include vital information on
the sexual and reproductive health needs of HIV positive adolescents.
Establish transition clinics: Some of the care centers are not age-sensitive as they bring together
children from the age of eight to 17 years. Some of the adolescents transiting to early adulthood
are not yet comfortable obtaining services from the adult care centers, but they no longer fit in
the pediatric clinic setting. HIV/AIDS treatment centers should therefore consider setting up
transition clinics that are adolescent-friendly to cater for these young adults.
Strengthen support groups: Many HIV positive adolescents already belong to support groups,
which means that these groups are a potential avenue where they can obtain critical sexual and
reproductive health information and services. However, the findings also suggest that many
existing support groups and clubs are weak. Programs will need to provide training to leaders of
the key support groups for them to become sustainable and responsive to these needs of the
members.
Improve life skills for HIV positive adolescents to: 1) understand their sexuality as they grow; 2)
practically deal with the identity of being HIV positive at an early age and negotiate vital aspects
of their lives, especially disclosing their status; 3) enjoy positive lifestyles and avoid undesired
consequences such as unintended pregnancies and infection of others; and 4) make informed
choices and balance responsibility with sexual and reproductive desires. This strategy could be
implemented through school-based programs, care and support NGOs, support groups, etc.
Intensive social and behaviour change communication programmes Social and behaviour change
communication programmes entail a combination of different activities, ranging from individual
counseling to small group, community and media activities. What distinguishes such
programmes from previously promoted behaviour change communication (BCC) programmes is
that they not only address knowledge, risk and behaviour, but also underlying social and gender
norms. This section covers intensive approaches, which involve a combination of different face-
to-face activities including advocacy, communication and training activities that address multiple
outcomes, including knowledge, risk perception, norms, skills, sexual behaviors and HIV service
demand. Multimedia, school-based, and broader community mobilization activities are covered
7
separately in this guidance document, but in practice, these approaches often will complement or
be part of social and behaviour change programmes.
Abstinence-only versus comprehensive sex education: The debate about abstinence-only and
comprehensive sex education has come up quite often in recent years in secular and religious
spaces. Many opinion holders and political leaders have taken their stance based either on their
doctrines, or evidence-based research. This sub section shows the different arguments by
proponents of each of these schools of thought and some of the major drivers of their judgments.
Sex education, has been broadly defined as the process of acquiring information and forming
attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity, relationships and intimacy (AVERT, 2009). In
pedagogic terms it is further describes as curricula grouped in two broad categories;
comprehensive sex education (or abstinence plus) and abstinence-only until marriage (or
abstinence-only education). The former generally emphasizes the benefits of abstinence but also
teaches about contraception and disease-prevention methods, including condom and
contraceptive use. Whereas, abstinence-only programs generally teach abstinence from all sexual
activity as the only appropriate option for unmarried people (Collins, Priya& Summers 2016.).
Abstinence only programs often do not provide detailed information on contraception for the
un-planned pregnancies. Proponents of the abstinence-based approach argue that sex education
should focus on teaching young people that abstaining from sex until marriage is the best means
of ensuring that they avoid HIV infection, Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI) and unintended
pregnancy (Collins et al 2014). As well as seeing abstinence from sex as the best option for
maintaining sexual health, many supporters of abstinence-based approach to sex education also
believe that it is morally wrong for people to have sex before they are married (AVERT 2009).
Most of these advocators are groups based in the United States of America who argue that sex
before marriage is inappropriate and immoral and that abstinence is the only method that is
100% effective in preventing STIs and unwanted pregnancies. Further, many abstinence-only
advocates are deeply concerned that information about sex, contraception and HIV can
encourage early sexual activity among young people. (Collins et al, 2014.) Religious circles have
also been part of this debate, most especially leaders of the Catholic Church have spoken out
time without number, in clear terms stating their support for this version of sex education.
8
HIV/AIDS and sex education: Programme and curriculum planners have also been faced with
problems of terminology within the sex education context. So far, no clear consensus exists
regarding a universally acceptable term to describe the educational activities, methodologies and
process that constitute school-based ‘sex education (UNESCO, 2017). In some settings, the use
of terms such as ‘sex’ or ‘sexuality’ has been seen as too explicit and making parents, teachers
and policy makers uneasy. They add that, programmes use terms such as ‘family life education’,
‘life-skills education’ or ‘population education’ which may provide an opportunity to overlook
discussions on sex totally. It is for this reason, UNESCO’s Global Advisory Group on Sex,
Relationships and HIV Education has suggested the term sex, relationships and HIV education
be used to describe educational activities in this area. (UNESCO 2017) This study will therefore
focus on the HIV/AIDS education aspect of this definition since it is based strictly on HIV/AIDS
issues.
Attitudes and behaviour: Attitudes have traditionally been shared into affective, behavioral and
cognitive (ABC) components. Learning and teaching of HIV/AIDS issues could also be
delivered using this classical ABC model. In every learning situation, instructions target one, two
or all of these aspects. The affective objectives emphasize the feelings and emotions that learners
have towards the subject. It deals with motivation and willingness to participate in a subject and
often targets the growth of attitudes. It addresses the importance that learners attribute to a
subject and how this is ultimately translated into their way or life. In their study, Meyer, John,
Frank, Kirsty&Lynanne (2008) state that there is strong empirical connection between students
academic outcomes and self reported motivation beliefs and values. This emphasizes the need of
incorporating understandings of student motivation into research to enhance educational
outcomes in the behavioral domain.
Abstinence-Only Programs: When offered, abstinence-only programs are often provided in

school settings. They may also be the basis of community HIV prevention programs, depending
on the organization providing the program. As the name suggests, abstinence-only programs
focus on the importance of abstinence from sexual intercourse, typically until marriage.
Abstinence is promoted as the best and only means of preventing sexual acquisition of HIV
(Underhill, Operario, & Montgomery, 2009). Therefore, these programs do not provide
information about safer-sex strategies, but instead focus on preventing or stopping sexual activity
9
(Underhill et al., 2009). Either these programs do not discuss contraception at all (including
condoms), or they briefly discuss contraception in terms of its failure rate and ineffectiveness
(Kirby, 2002a). These types of programs also generally include information about the
psychological and health benefits of abstinence, and the harms and risks of sexual activity
(Community Preventive Services Task Force, 2012).
Behavioral Risk-Reduction Interventions: Behavioral risk-reduction interventions are included

under the umbrella of comprehensive risk-reduction programs. Behavioral interventions focus on
a variety of outcomes, including increasing knowledge and attitudes, changing perceived risk of
acquiring HIV, and increasing motivation and skills to adopt safer sex strategies (Wilton, 2014).
Behavioral interventions can take many different forms, including using educational,
motivational, peer group, skills-building, or community approaches to behaviour change (Wilton,
2014). Combining behavioral interventions with other HIV prevention strategies may increase
the level of protection against HIV (e.g., treatment as prevention for people living with HIV, use
of antiretroviral medication after exposure [post-exposure prophylaxis; PEP] or on an ongoing
basis [pre-exposure prophylaxis, PrEP]). The use of antiretroviral therapy in these ways is not
100% effective, and there is some concern that people using these strategies may increase their
risk behaviors (Wilton, 2014). Provision of behavioral interventions may increase the success of
antiretroviral prevention methods.
2.3 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding
HIV/AIDS prevention
Population-based Programs: Population-based programs, using mass media, aim to change

societal norms, and provide information as well as individual behavior-change messages to large
segments of the population. They may also encourage the enactment of policies to support
HIV/AIDS-prevention efforts. Examples include media education programs, condom social
marketing programs, and policy changes such as a regulation requiring condom use in brothels.
Population-based programs may be targeted to such large segments of the population as
adolescents, sexually active males, men and women with multiple partners, or all sexually active
men and women.
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Undoubtedly the best known and most widely cited example of a population-based intervention
is condom social marketing. For example, a program in Zaire subsidized the price of condoms,
increased their distribution, and used innovative commercial marketing techniques to increase
condom sales from around 10,000 in 1987 to around 18 million in 1991 (Bogart et al., 2013). Not
surprisingly, this model of social marketing has been quickly replicated through the continent.
Community-based Programs: Community-based programs use group interventions to reach

communities. These interventions include the use of peer educators to reach sex workers or
school-aged youth, use of traditional health providers to reach rural communities, or programs
targeted to other community groups. Community participation can sometimes be a critical factor
for program success and sustainability (Stanton et al., 2015). According to the guiding principles
described earlier, HIV/AIDS-prevention programs should be designed at the outset with attention
to their acceptability within the community and target groups, the external or institutional
support required to develop and sustain the skills and talent needed to make them work, and the
infrastructure support and the individual and collective commitments needed to maintain them
over time. Community involvement is often only an empty slogan in programs without any real
involvement of the community in decision making.
Parental and family influence and communication: A relatively unexplored approach to HIV
prevention for young people is that of engaging parents and families. Multiple studies have
shown that young people want their parents to communicate with them about sexuality (Namisi
et al., 2009).However, such communication is often minimal or non-existent (Biddlecom,
Awusabo-Asare, & Bankole, 2009). In many contexts there are cultural norms which discourage
parent-child communication about sex (Kaaya, & Aarø, 2013). When communication about
sexuality does occur, parents may portray sex negatively (Izugbara, 2007), focus on bad
behaviors to avoid rather than positive behavior to adopt (Kajula et al., 2013), or assume that
their adolescent children know more than they do (Wamoyi et al., 2011). Parents may base their
communication in fear and threats, which can discourage their children from asking questions or
engaging in a bi-directional conversation (Kajula et al., 2013). In contrast, close mother-daughter
relationships were found to facilitate good communication about sexuality in Kenya(Crichton et
al., 2012).
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Youth-friendly clinics: The largest and best-evaluated network of youth-friendly clinics was
established by the African Youth Alliance program, which established youth-friendly clinics in
Botswana, Ghana, Tanzania, and Uganda (John Snow International, 2007). From 2000 to 2006,
dozens of youth-friendly clinics operated in each country, and the intervention included training
for clinic staff, peer educators who worked in the clinic and community, community-based
behavior change programming, a media campaign, and activities such as sports and drama clubs.
The target audience was youth aged 17-22 years, and the goals of the intervention were to
increase access to ASRH services, increase contraceptive use, and influence sexual behaviors in
the community (sexual debut, condom use, and number of sex partners). The programs in Ghana,
Tanzania, and Uganda were evaluated, but the evaluations lacked an experimental design and
were never published in peer-reviewed literature. Mavedzenge et al. (2011) report in their
systematic review that although young people (especially young women) in intervention sites
had less risky sexual behavior on a number of measures, compared to those in control sites, in all
three countries, overall the quality of most of the evidence was “not strong”.
Voluntary Counseling and Testing (VCT) is the process by which an individual undergoes
confidential counseling to learn about his/her HIV status and to exercise informed choices in
testing for HIV followed by further appropriate action. A key underlying principle of the VCT
intervention is the voluntary participation. Voluntary Counseling and Testing is a gateway to
prevention and treatment, an essential tool in the control of HIV/AIDS epidemic. Prophylaxis
commonly known as septrin in medical care is defined as a treatment for preventing disease
(WHO, 2017). Prophylaxis has been found out to reduce the frequency of clinic visits and
hospitalized of PLWHAs (Castetbon et al, 2018). HIV infected persons are more likely to suffer
from opportunistic infections and die earlier than people without HIV (TASO, 2006). WHO and
UNAIDS recommend the use of septrin prophylaxis in both adults and children living with
HIV/AIDS in Africa as part of a minimum package of care which includes clinical management
prophylaxis against opportunistic infections.
12
2.4 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate
girls.
Knowledge of condom sources among youth: Condom use among young people plays an
important role in the prevention of transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections,
as well as unwanted pregnancies. Knowing a place to get condoms helps youth to obtain and use
condoms. Furthermore knowing where condoms can be got puts youth in a better position to
make informed decisions on issues pertaining their sexuality. Although the use of condoms can
reduce the risk of sexually transmitted diseases, most sexually active youth in sub-Saharan
Africa do not consistently use condoms because they are too expensive for the youth and they do
not know where to get them among many other reasons (Jemmot, 2016).
Condoms have been promoted as a means of preventing HIV infections. However in sub-Saharan
Africa the majority of people do not like using condoms. They are used mostly with commercial
sex workers, and not in long term relationships, or those that are perceived as being steady.
Adolescents, in particular may not know where to get them or fear to approach health workers
for them. Unprotected sex is a sign of love in this age group ((Okigbo, Kabiru, Mumah, Mojola,
&Beguy, 2015). As a result of all the above, sexually active youth are at high risk of many health
hazards. Of major concern is the risk of HIV/AIDS. Though there are no reliable figures, most
researchers estimate that adolescents by nature of their sexual behavior are at relatively higher
risk of contracting HIV infection. Voluntary HIV counseling and testing among youth:
Awareness of HIV status can motivate individuals to further protect themselves against infection
or to protect their partners from acquiring the disease. It is particularly important to measure
testing behavior among youth. Not only are they especially vulnerable to infection, but they also
may experience barriers to accessing testing services because of their young age. Most youth in
sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to sexual health advice, condoms, and forms of
contraception, voluntary counseling and testing services for HIV. Reproductive health services
are seldom geared towards the needs of the people, who therefore tend to avoid them-putting
themselves and their sex partners at risk of infection (UNAIDS, 2008).
Contraceptive use: It is worth noting that adolescents have a relatively high frequency of sexual
intercourse. In spite of this, the use of a reliable method of contraception or preventive measure
against STDs and HIV/AIDS is quite low, although their contraceptive awareness is generally
13
quite good (Kajula et al., 2013). This may be due to most of the sexual encounters being
impromptu in nature. It may also be fear of the unknown side effects of the various methods of
contraception or fear of appearing to be loose by preparing for sex, though some reported not
knowing where to obtain a method, prohibition by prevailing policy guidelines and one’s partner
as reasons for not using protection.
In Uganda a gap exists between knowledge and use of family planning methods by Ugandan
youth. Despite almost universal knowledge of modern methods, less than 50 percent ever used
the methods in most districts studied by the Programme for Enhancing Adolescent Reproductive
Health Life project in 1999. The leading reasons given for not using the methods were that
adolescents were not married, were not having sex or were having sex only occasionally,
objection from their partners, desire to get pregnant or impregnate a partner, breastfeeding and
fear of side effects. Other youth did not know where to get the methods from and others just did
not want to use contraceptives (Wamoyi et al., 2011).
Sexual Behavioral Change: It would therefore seem logical that a change from risky to less risky
behavior is necessary to stop the spread of AIDS in this age group. However before risky
behavior can be changed, it is necessary to explore the reasons for taking risks. Socio-cultural
beliefs and norms as well as the deteriorating economy may be blamed for the trend in sub-
Saharan Africa (Namisi et al., 2013). Other factors are lower school qualifications, school drop
outs and upbringing. It was initially thought that, knowledge about HIV and its mode of
transmission was the single factor necessary for initiating positive behavior change.
The reluctance to institute positive behavioral change among the youth of subSaharan Africa can
be partly explained by the perception among the males in the region that they have an inborn
need for sexual activity that cannot be denied (Bhana et al. 2014). Drinking and drunkenness
increase this need and the situation is aggravated by the availability of most commercial sex in
bars and hotels. This is particularly true for Eastern and Southern Africa. Furthermore, female
sex workers are motivated by the hope of later setting themselves up in business and marrying.
Having sex under the influence of alcohol is dangerous. In Uganda there are more male youth
than their female counterparts who have sex when drunk. There is need to ensure that youth are
sensitized on the dangers of getting drunk (UBOS, 2016). According to the UDHS of (2016),
14
youth were asked about use of force the first time they had sex. Youth are exposed to forced rape
and in particular girls are more prone to forced sex because of a number of reasons which
include low bargaining power, being taken advantage of by the older men and socio cultural
impediments.
2.5 Summary of literature
Conclusion From this review, it is clear that HIV is a major challenge of youth globally. Youth
are susceptible to the risk of infection with HIV by virtue of the nature of their sexual behavior.
However it has been reported that a number of youth in Uganda are reluctant to undergo positive
behavioral change in spite of extensive information, education and communication (IEC)
campaigns. In order to realize greater success of HIV/AIDS programmes in Northern Uganda it
is necessary to study the knowledge, attitudes and practices of youth in Northern Uganda. This
study therefore sets out to identify the knowledge, attitudes and practices of youth in Northern
Uganda
15
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter covered the research design, study population and area, sampling technique, data
collection technique, sampling size and selection, data collection methods, sources of data,
quality control, data collections, data analysis, data processing and limitations.
3.2 Research design
A cross sectional qualitative study using a descriptive and explanatory approach was used to
conduct the study. The study took on a descriptive approach because it portrayed the
characteristics of persons being studied, situations and the frequency with in which certain
phenomena occurred, and it was also explanatory in nature because it sought to bring out the
factors responsible for influencing the access to sexual and reproductive health services by
teenage mothers and also answer the question "why" in the research.
3.3 Study Population
The population of the study refers to those people from whom the required information to find
answers to research questions is obtained (Kumar.R, 2011). This study will focus on girls.
3.4 Determination of the Sample Size
Sample Size Selection: The sample size used in qualitative studies is smaller than that used in
quantitative research methods. This is because qualitative research methods are often concerned
with garnering an in depth understanding of a phenomenon, and not necessarily make a
generalization to a larger population of interest (Dworkin.S, 2012). It is based against this that
the researcher will choose a sample size of 25 non literate girls and healthcare providers with
whoin depth quality interviews will be conducted. In order to acquire the 25 respondents,
purposive sampling was used. Purposive sampling is a non- probability method of data collection
where there is deliberate selection of a participant due to the qualities the participants possesses
(Etikan.I, 2015). This number of respondents were seen as enough to be interviewed in the time
frame in which the research is to be completed.
3.5 Data Collection Methods
A number of data collection methods were used to collect primary and secondary data for the
study. Based on the fact that the study is qualitative, face to face interviews were conducted
which are semi structured in nature, in order to have several key questions that are open ended,
16
to not only help define the areas to be explored, but also allow the interviewer to diverge in order
to pursue an idea or response in more detail for example through probing hence acquiring in
depth quality data (P. Gill, 2008). During the interviews, an audio recorder was used for easy
data collection and storage. In order to attain secondary data, document review was done to find
out what has been documented about the topic of interest in the past and generate a relevant
statement of the problem.
3.6 Data collection procedure
An introductory letter was got from the Head of department of Adult and Community Education
that will enable the researcher to enter the field to gather the relevant data. This letter was asking
for permission to start carrying out data collection and setting a programmes for respondents.
Therefore, a letter and interview guides were presented to respondents. There after an interview
will be conducted with key informants.
3.7 Data Analysis

The data will be analyzed using qualitative analysis based on the relevant thematic areas and the
findings of the study. A voice recorder will used to record the interviews after which verbatim
will be used to transcribe the data.. All the responses for each respondent were typed in the
computer software, Microsoft word processor, and saved as an individual word document. The
typed transcripts were then read carefully after which the data was properly coded, reviewed and
narrated. Presentation of the findings and their discussion will be done simultaneously, and some
of the responses was quoted in order to illustrate meaning of some of the data. Nevertheless,
confidentiality will be maintained where by identities of all respondents was kept private.
3.8 Ethical considerations
Ethics refer to norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable
behaviour. Ethics in research is important to promote the aims of research, such as knowledge,
truth and avoidance of error, promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, to hold
researchers accountable to the public / people involved in the study (Resnik, 2015).
Confidentiality and anonymity was observed where by the names of the participants in the study
will not be revealed and the information gathered will be kept as private as possible.
17
Anonymity: means that either the project does not collect identifying information of individual
subjects (e.g., name, address, Email address, among others.), or the project cannot link individual
responses with participants' identities. Data will not directly be linked to someone at the end of
the day.
Voluntary participation: The research participants were informed that their participation in the
study will not be rewarded in any way, it will entirely be on voluntary basis. All the research
participants will be informed of their rights to refuse to be interviewed, or to withdraw at any
point for any reason, without any prejudice or explanation
3.9 Limitations to the study
Negative attitude from some respondents: In this case some respondents are not willing to give
out their information for confidential purposes and this non response will affect the results of the
study. However the study will overcome this problem by convincing respondents that
information required will be only for academic purposes.
Limited time provided by respondents to be interviewed because of being too busy and this make
the study not to meet the deadline of submission of the report. This will be overcome by
requesting for ample time to hold discussions with key informants.
Limited financial resources to cater for typing, transportation, feeding and accommodation while
in the field. However the researcher solicited for funds from the parents and friends to ensure
that the research is done and completed on time.
The high level of illiteracy among the respondents to the extent that many were not in position to
fill the questionnaires, this was overcome by use of the alternative available which were the use
of interviews guide.
Respondents not willing to respond to questions/ giving excuses for not filling questionnaires,
the researcher explained to the respondents the purpose of the study.
18
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, AND ANALYSIS AND
DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results, analysis and interprets the data. It is drawn in line with the
objectives of the study which included; Data was collected from 30 respondents and it is
presented below according to the study objectives.
4.2 Findings on the background information
The respondents were asked about their background information and the their responses are as
explained below;
4.2.1 Age structure of the participants
When asked age structure, the largest proportion of respondents (n=15) were between the age of
15-20, followed by (n=4) respondents who were 20-30 yrs, and (n=6) respondents were in the
age bracket of 35 years and above. This means that the study comprised of people of different
ages but mostly those between 15-20 years. This could imply that the majority of respondents
were relatively mid-age respondents meaning that mid age respondents were more susceptible to
HIV/AIDs infections than any other groups. So more were willing to learn more about
HIV/AIDS. This may also imply that in the study community, this age is the most sexually
active.
4.2.2 Religion of participants

When asked about religion, participants (n=3) indicated said they were Muslims, participants
(n=8) said Catholics, participants (n=13) said they were Anglicans and participants (n=2) said
they were Adventists. This means that most of the common religious sects were represented in
the study and hence the data was not biased.
4.2.3 Education level of respondents

When participants were asked about the level of education, participants (n=5) said that they had
acquired formal education, Participant (n=20) had non formal education. This implies that All
of the respondents at least attended school though ended at various levels; therefore their being
literate made it necessary for their participation. This could explain the high prevalence rate of
19
HIV/AIDS since the majority respondents had non formal education and probably missed out on
the chance of getting more information on the disease through the education system plus this
limits the ability of the illiterate community members particularly the females in making choices
particularly to use or not to use condoms when having sex.
4.3 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
different ways of transmission
Through counseling and testing (HCT) preventing new HIV infections in community participants
(n=15) agreed that counseling and testing (HCT) is preventing new HIV infections the
community. Counseling and testing is therefore preventing HIV infections and prevalence in the
district. On counseling and testing being effective in increasing access to treatment, results of the
analysis found out that majority of respondents agreed that counseling and testing (HCT) is
increasing access to treatment (ART inclusive) and care in their community. This therefore
indicates that there was high level of counseling and testing (HCT) which increased access to
treatment (ART inclusive) and care in their community.
On the contrarily, One unsatisfied participant interviewed said that,

“We are counseled in tents while seated down on the grass as the chairs are very few and
this is so uncomfortable. There is even no privacy as the counseling room is also used as
a laboratory making some one receiving pre test counseling service to be heard by the
people in the laboratory section who might have come for other services”
The study found that although counseling and testing (HCT) has increased on access to treatment
(ART inclusive) and care in the community in the district, there are still cases of clients who
stubbornly refuse to start treatment as confirmed during the interview when one the sub county
HIV/AIDS focal point persons interviewed said,
“There are clients who stop either refuse or stop taking prescribed medication after
getting drug resistance problems and most of them end up dying”.
Another focal point person interviewed on the above said that;
20
“Access to treatment is becoming of limited use especially among non literate most of
who don’t follow advice given to us during counseling and most of them don’t take their
medication at the right time as they get drunk and forget to do so”
Participants (n=7) indicated that they prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from its
different ways of transmission through improving life skills for non literate adolescents to:
understand their sexuality as they grow; practically deal with the identity of being HIV positive
at an early age and negotiate vital aspects of their lives, especially disclosing their status; enjoy
positive lifestyles and avoid undesired consequences such as unintended pregnancies and
infection of others; and make informed choices and balance responsibility with sexual and
reproductive desires. This strategy could be implemented through school-based programs, care
and support NGOs, support groups, among other.
Study findings revealed that non literate children prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS
from its different ways of transmission through strengthened preventive services: Sexually
active adolescents need appropriate information to prevent unintended pregnancies and HIV
transmission. Therefore, HIV/AIDS treatment centers that provide care and support will need to
improve their access to information and services for family planning and HIV prevention. Non
literate adolescents need information to be able to negotiate disclosure, dual protection, and
consistent condom use. The findings suggest that adolescents would prefer seeking contraceptive
services from HIV/AIDS care and treatment centers. Therefore, such programs need to
strengthen provision of family planning (FP) services by assessing the contraceptive needs of
adolescents and making available an appropriate method mix in a non-judgmental and supportive
way.
Findings revealed that non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS through
abstinence. One of the participants revealed that:
“When offered, abstinence-only programs are often provided in school settings. They
may also be the basis of community HIV prevention programs, depending on the
organization providing the program. As the name suggests, abstinence-only programs
21
Abstinence is promoted as the best and only means of preventing sexual acquisition of
HIV”
4.4 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding
HIV/AIDS prevention (this includes sources of the information and processes of getting it).
Findings revealed that participants (n=12) indicated population-based programs: Population-

based programs, using mass media, aim to change societal norms, and provide information as
well as individual behavior-change messages to large segments of the population. They may also
encourage the enactment of policies to support HIV/AIDS-prevention efforts. To support the
findings, one of the key informants said that;
“The programs include media education programs, condom social marketing programs,
and policy changes such as a regulation requiring condom use. Population-based
programs may be targeted to such large segments of the population as adolescents,
sexually active children”
Participants (n=5) said that the use of peer educators to reach non literate children, use of
traditional health providers to reach rural communities, or programs targeted to other community
groups. This implies that the guiding principles described earlier, HIV/AIDS-prevention
programs should be designed at the outset with attention to their acceptability within the
community and target groups, the external or institutional support required to develop and
sustain the skills and talent needed to make them work, and the infrastructure support and the
individual and collective commitments needed to maintain them over time.
Participants (n=12) revealed that non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention from youth-friendly clinics which conduct training for clinic staff, peer educators
who worked in the clinic and community, community-based behavior change programming, a
media campaign, and activities such as sports and drama clubs. These clinic target girls aged 17-
22 years, and the goals of the intervention were to increase contraceptive use, and influence
sexual behaviors in the community (sexual debut, condom use, and number of sex partners).
22
Study findings revealed that non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention through voluntary counseling and testing (VCT) which is the process by which an
individual undergoes confidential counseling to learn about his/her HIV status and to exercise
informed choices in testing for HIV followed by further appropriate action. A key underlying
principle of the VCT intervention is the voluntary participation. This implies that Voluntary
Counseling and Testing is a gateway to prevention and treatment, an essential tool in the control
of HIV/AIDS epidemic.
4.5 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate
girls.
Study findings revealed condom use with participants (n=12). One of the participants said;
“We have got people from Youth Alive, who came here and taught us that condoms are
not 100% safe, because of the long process between transportation and storage and also
the wrong way in which people use them. From my point of view, that all puts people’s
lives at risk.”
Contrarily to the above, participants (n=15) revealed that condoms encourage irresponsible
sexual behavioral. Because condoms offer protection to a certain extent, people see no problem
with having multiple partners. This is not only against the religion on which the organization was
founded which emphasizes faithfulness to one sexual partner, but also predisposes those
involved to HIV/AIDS.
‘If the organization starts giving out condoms it will encourage people to have multiple
partners because with condoms they have got protection. The religion on which the
organization is founded stresses that you should not give out condoms’’ (pastoral
counselor).
Study findings reveal that the key primary prevention activities and services include but not
limited to the following: public awareness campaigns, voluntary HIV/AIDS counseling and
testing (VCT), diagnosis and treatment sexually transmitted infections (STIs), rehabilitation and
resettlement, sports and recreation activities, economic empowerment, and advocacy
23
Public awareness campaigns is involved in public awareness campaigns to sensitize the public
not only on HIV/AIDS prevention but also prevention of other diseases like malaria; and other
public health issues that affect the community. In doing so we remind people the reality of AIDS,
it is easy for someone to contract the disease. They also give us condoms every time we meet in
large numbers.
Findings revealed the use of community outreaches with participant (n=7). Study findings
revealed that the community is fully involved in all their interventions-through different avenues;
first they have the intended beneficiaries, specifically the people living with HIV/AIDS who
share their own experiences and pioneer preventive activities within the communities in which
they live; peer educators who mainly target groups of people in public places for instance car
washing bays, market places, special hire drivers stages, taxi drivers’ and conductors, among
others; visiting schools both primary and secondary, and other institutions, to sensitize them
about HIV/AIDS.
Findings revealed that Voluntary HIV counseling and testing among non literate children:
participants (n=9) said that awareness of HIV status can motivate individuals to further protect
themselves against infection or to protect their partners from acquiring the disease. It is
particularly important to measure testing behavior among youth. Not only are they especially
vulnerable to infection, but they also may experience barriers to accessing testing services
because of their young age.
24
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE KEY FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE STUDY
5.1 Introductions
This chapter provides the summary of findings, discussion of key findings, conclusion,
recommendations and areas for further research. The chapter is also presented in line with the
study objectives; to find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting
HIV/AIDS from its different ways of transmission, Find out from where and how non-literate
girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention (this includes sources of the
information and processes of getting it) and identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that
are targeted towards non-literate girls.
5.2 Summary of the study findings
5.2.1 Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS from
its different ways of transmission
Non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS through counseling and testing
(HCT) preventing new HIV infections in community. On counseling and testing being effective
in increasing access to treatment, results of the analysis found out that majority of respondents
agreed that counseling and testing (HCT) is increasing access to treatment (ART inclusive) and
care in their community.
The study found that although counseling and testing (HCT) has increased on access to treatment
(ART inclusive) and care in the community in the district, there are still cases of clients who
stubbornly refuse to start treatment as confirmed during the interview when one the sub county
HIV/AIDS focal point persons interviewed said,
Findings revealed that non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS through
abstinence.
5.2.2 Find out from where and how non-literate girls access information regarding
25
Findings revealed that non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention
through population-based programs: Population-based programs, using mass media, aim to
change societal norms, and provide information as well as individual behavior-change messages
to large segments of the population. They may also encourage the enactment of policies to
support HIV/AIDS-prevention efforts.
The use of peer educators to reach non literate children, use of traditional health providers to
reach rural communities, or programs targeted to other community groups.
Non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention from youth-friendly clinics
which conduct training for clinic staff, peer educators who worked in the clinic and community,
community-based behavior change programming, a media campaign, and activities such as
sports and drama clubs.
informed choices in testing for HIV followed by further appropriate action.
5.2.3 Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-literate
girls.
Study findings reveal that the key primary prevention activities and services include but not
limited to the following: public awareness campaigns, voluntary HIV/AIDS counseling and
testing (VCT), diagnosis and treatment sexually transmitted infections (STIs), rehabilitation and
resettlement, sports and recreation activities, economic empowerment, and advocacy
Public awareness campaigns is involved in public awareness campaigns to sensitize the public
not only on HIV/AIDS prevention but also prevention of other diseases like malaria; and other
public health issues that affect the community. In doing so we remind people the reality of AIDS,
it is easy for someone to contract the disease. They also give us condoms every time we meet in
large numbers.
26
Findings revealed that Voluntary HIV counseling and testing among non literate children can
motivate individuals to further protect themselves against infection or to protect their partners
from acquiring the disease.
5.3 Discussions of the study findings

Findings are also supported by (Collins, Priya & Summers 2016) who noted that intensive social
and behaviour change communication programmes, Social and behaviour change communication
programmes entail a combination of different activities, ranging from individual counseling to
small group, community and media activities. What distinguishes such programmes from
previously promoted behaviour change communication (BCC) programmes is that they not only
address knowledge, risk and behaviour, but also underlying social and gender norms. This
section covers intensive approaches, which involve a combination of different face-to-face
activities including advocacy, communication and training activities that address multiple
outcomes, including knowledge, risk perception, norms, skills, sexual behaviors and HIV service
demand. Multimedia, school-based, and broader community mobilization activities are covered
separately in this guidance document, but in practice, these approaches often will complement or
be part of social and behaviour change programmes.
Findings are supported by AVERT, (2009) who said that Abstinence-only versus comprehensive
sex education: The debate about abstinence-only and comprehensive sex education has come up
quite often in recent years in secular and religious spaces. Many opinion holders and political
leaders have taken their stance based either on their doctrines, or evidence-based research. This
sub section shows the different arguments by proponents of each of these schools of thought and
some of the major drivers of their judgments. Sex education, has been broadly defined as the
process of acquiring information and forming attitudes and beliefs about sex, sexual identity,
relationships and intimacy (AVERT, 2009).
Study findings are supported by Underhill, Operario, & Montgomery, (2009) who said that
Abstinence-Only Programs: When offered, abstinence-only programs are often provided in
school settings. They may also be the basis of community HIV prevention programs, depending
27
on the organization providing the program. As the name suggests, abstinence-only programs
Abstinence is promoted as the best and only means of preventing sexual acquisition of HIV
Study findings above are in agreement with Stanton et al., (2015) who said that population-based
Programs such as using mass media, aim to change societal norms, and provide information as
well as individual behavior-change messages to large segments of the population. They may also
encourage the enactment of policies to support HIV/AIDS-prevention efforts. Examples include
media education programs, condom social marketing programs, and policy changes such as a
regulation requiring condom use in brothels. Population-based programs may be targeted to such
large segments of the population as adolescents, sexually active males, men and women with
multiple partners, or all sexually active men and women.
Parental and family influence and communication: A relatively unexplored approach to HIV
prevention for young people is that of engaging parents and families. Multiple studies have
shown that young people want their parents to communicate with them about sexuality (Namisi
et al., 2009). However, such communication is often minimal or non-existent (Biddlecom,
Awusabo-Asare, & Bankole, 2009). In many contexts there are cultural norms which discourage
parent-child communication about sex(Kaaya, & Aarø, 2013). When communication about
sexuality does occur, parents may portray sex negatively (Izugbara, 2007), focus on bad
behaviors to avoid rather than positive behavior to adopt (Kajula et al., 2013), or assume that
their adolescent children know more than they do (Wamoyi et al., 2011). Parents may base their
communication in fear and threats, which can discourage their children from asking questions or
engaging in a bi-directional conversation (Kajula et al., 2013). In contrast, close mother-daughter
relationships were found to facilitate good communication about sexuality in Kenya(Crichton et
al., 2012).
Castetbon et al, 2018) also asserted that Youth-friendly clinics are the largest and best-evaluated
network of youth-friendly clinics was established by the African Youth Alliance program, which
28
established youth-friendly clinics in Uganda (John Snow International, 2007). From 2000 to
2006, dozens of youth-friendly clinics operated in each country, and the intervention included
training for clinic staff, peer educators who worked in the clinic and community, community-
based behavior change programming, a media campaign, and activities such as sports and drama
clubs.
Mavedzenge et al. (2011) report in their systematic review that although young people
(especially young women) in intervention sites had less risky sexual behavior on a number of
measures, compared to those in control sites, in all three countries, overall the quality of most of
the evidence was “not strong”.
Study findings are supported WHO, (2017) who revealed that Voluntary Counseling and Testing
(VCT) is the process by which an individual undergoes confidential counseling to learn about
his/her HIV status and to exercise informed choices in testing for HIV followed by further
appropriate action. A key underlying principle of the VCT intervention is the voluntary
participation. Voluntary Counseling and Testing is a gateway to prevention and treatment, an
essential tool in the control of HIV/AIDS epidemic.
girls.
The study findings above are in agreement with Jemmot, (2016) who posit that Knowledge of
condom sources among youth: Condom use among young people plays an important role in the
prevention of transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, as well as unwanted
pregnancies. Knowing a place to get condoms helps youth to obtain and use condoms.
Furthermore knowing where condoms can be got puts youth in a better position to make
informed decisions on issues pertaining their sexuality.
UNAIDS, (2008) also revealed that voluntary HIV counseling and testing among youth:
Awareness of HIV status can motivate individuals to further protect themselves against infection
or to protect their partners from acquiring the disease. It is particularly important to measure
testing behavior among youth. Not only are they especially vulnerable to infection, but they also
may experience barriers to accessing testing services because of their young age. Most youth in
29
sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to sexual health advice, condoms, and forms of
contraception, voluntary counseling and testing services for HIV.
5.4 Conclusion
The study concluded that Non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS through
counseling and testing (HCT) preventing new HIV infections in community. On counseling and
testing being effective in increasing access to treatment, results of the analysis found out that
majority of respondents agreed that counseling and testing (HCT) is increasing access to
treatment (ART inclusive) and care in their community. The study found that although
counseling and testing (HCT) has increased on access to treatment (ART inclusive) and care in
the community in the district, there are still cases of clients who stubbornly refuse to start
treatment as confirmed during the interview when one the sub county HIV/AIDS focal point
persons interviewed said,
The study concluded that non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention
through population-based programs: Population-based programs, using mass media, aim to
change societal norms, and provide information as well as individual behavior-change messages
to large segments of the population. They may also encourage the enactment of policies to
support HIV/AIDS-prevention efforts.
Study concluded that Non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention from
youth-friendly clinics which conduct training for clinic staff, peer educators who worked in the
clinic and community, community-based behavior change programming, a media campaign, and
activities such as sports and drama clubs.
30
informed choices in testing for HIV followed by further appropriate action.
girls.
Study concluded that the key primary prevention activities and services include but not limited to
the following: public awareness campaigns, voluntary HIV/AIDS counseling and testing (VCT),
diagnosis and treatment sexually transmitted infections (STIs), rehabilitation and resettlement,
sports and recreation activities, economic empowerment, and advocacy
The study concluded that public awareness campaigns is involved in public awareness
campaigns to sensitize the public not only on HIV/AIDS prevention but also prevention of other
diseases like malaria; and other public health issues that affect the community. In doing so we
remind people the reality of AIDS, it is easy for someone to contract the disease. They also give
us condoms every time we meet in large numbers.
5.5 Recommendation
CAP-AIDS Uganda in its research has approved that a Participatory Radio Campaign Model has
a great impact not only on up scaling HCT but also male participation. A strategy that combines
various approaches in promoting HCT will have greater impact on reducing HIV/AIDS
prevalence.
The study confirms that lack of participation of intended beneficiaries in decision making has
limited the would be impact of the activities HIV/AIDS service providers, therefore these study
recommends a participatory approach to behavior change strategies in order for reduction in
HIV/AIDS prevalence.
There is need for the organization to acknowledge that HIV/AIDS is a community challenge that
negatively affects the performance and requires a response; as such, the organization should
allocate adequate funds towards the implementation of the HIV/AIDS policy. However, in order
to do this better the company should identify potential policy promoters within the community.
31
There is need to address the various needs and appreciate the various contributions made by faith
based organizations in the same way they do address and appreciate the needs and contributions
of secular organizations respectively in the field of HIV/AIDS. Each FBO has its own guidelines
and policies, in addition to the National policy guidelines within which they operate, as long as
faith based organizations are not de-campaigning national programmes, policy makers need to
appreciate and do positive criticisms to the policies and guidelines that govern the work of faith
based organizations as far as HIV/AIDS prevention, care, and support are concerned.
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APPENDIX ONE: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR NON-LITERATE GIRLS
Dear respondent,
I am, Achayo Brenda a student of Kyambogo University undertaking a Bachelors of Community
and Disability Studies. I am undertaking a research titled preventive measures non-literate girls
use to safeguard themselves from HIV/AIDS. The interview guide provides a set of structured
questions seeking responses on the topic as provided. Please be as objective as possible in filling
this questionnaire. All responses provided will remain confidential; and will be used purely for
academic purposes.
Section A: Demographic information

1. Please tell me about yourself (Probe for age, marital status,position, education level,
among others.)
Section B: Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS
37
2. Please share with me how prevent you self from getting HIV/AIDS?
3. How does abstinence and comprehensive sex education help you prevent from getting
HIV/AIDS?
Section C: Find out from where non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention
4. Please share with me where you access information regarding HIV/AIDS prevention?
5. What measures would you recommend to improve access to HIV/AIDS messages for
members in your community?
6. What in your opinion should be done to further improve access to HIV/AIDS prevention
messages?
7. Do you think that the attitude of health providers hinder you from seeking information on
HIV/AIDS?
Section D: Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-
literate girls.
8. Which methods are used to prevent non-literate girls from acquiring HIV/AIDS
9. What challenges do non-literate girls face in access of HIV/AIDs prevention services?
10. In what ways do you think access to methods of HIV/AIDS prevention by non-literate
girls can be improved?
Thank you for your time and cooperation.
38
APPENDIX TWO: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS
Dear respondent,
I am, Achayo Brenda a student of Kyambogo University undertaking a Bachelors of Community
and Disability Studies. I am undertaking a research titled preventive measures non-literate girls
use to safeguard themselves from HIV/AIDS. The interview guide provides a set of structured
questions seeking responses on the topic as provided. Please be as objective as possible in filling
this questionnaire. All responses provided will remain confidential; and will be used purely for
academic purposes.
Section A: Demographic information
1. Please tell me about yourself (Probe for age, marital status, position, education level,
among others.)
Section B: Find out how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting HIV/AIDS
2. Please share with me how the non-literate girls prevent themselves from getting
HIV/AIDS?
3. How does abstinence and comprehensive sex education help non-literate girls prevent
themselves from getting HIV/AIDS?
39
Section C: Find out from where non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention
4. Please share with me where non-literate girls access information regarding HIV/AIDS
prevention?
5. What are some of the reasons for health providers not providing comprehensive
HIV/AIDS services to non-literate girls?
6. How do service providers put into consideration the needs of non-literate girls when
providing HIV/Aids, education, care and treatment?
Section D: Identify the methods of HIV/AIDS prevention that are targeted towards non-
literate girls.
7. Which methods are targeted towards non-literate girls?
8. What challenges do non-literate girls face in access these services?
9. In what ways do you think access to methods of HIV/AIDS prevention by non-literate
girls can be improved?
Thank you for your time and cooperation.
40

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PREVENTIVE MEASURES NON-LITERATE GIRLS USE TO SAFEGUARD

THEMSELVES FROM HIV/AIDS

A RESEARCH PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ADULT AND

1.1 Background of the study............................................................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem...........................................................................................................3

1.3 General objective of the study...................................................................................................4

1.3.1 Specific objective of the study................................................................................................4

1.4 Research questions.....................................................................................................................4

1.5 Significance of the Study...........................................................................................................4

3.2 Research design.......................................................................................................................16

3.3 Study Population......................................................................................................................16

3.4 Determination of the Sample Size...........................................................................................16

3.5 Data Collection Methods.........................................................................................................16

3.6 Data collection procedure........................................................................................................17

3.7 Data Analysis...........................................................................................................................17

3.8 Ethical considerations..............................................................................................................17

3.9 Limitations to the study...........................................................................................................18

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, AND ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.2 Findings on the background information.................................................................................19

4.2.1 Age structure of the participants...........................................................................................19

4.2.2 Religion of participants.........................................................................................................19

4.2.3 Education level of respondents.............................................................................................19

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF THE KEY FINDINGS, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS,

5.2 Summary of the study findings................................................................................................25

5.3 Discussions of the study findings............................................................................................27

APPENDIX ONE: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR NON-LITERATE GIRLS.................................37

APPENDIX TWO: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR SERVICE PROVIDERS..................................39

ABC: Abstain, be faithful, and use condoms

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.5 Significance of the Study

Re-orient service providers/counselors: Whereas service providers/counselors are more likely to

Abstinence-Only Programs: When offered, abstinence-only programs are often provided in

Behavioral Risk-Reduction Interventions: Behavioral risk-reduction interventions are included

Population-based Programs: Population-based programs, using mass media, aim to change

Community-based Programs: Community-based programs use group interventions to reach

3.7 Data Analysis

3.9 Limitations to the study

4.2.1 Age structure of the participants

4.2.2 Religion of participants

4.2.3 Education level of respondents

On the contrarily, One unsatisfied participant interviewed said that,

Another focal point person interviewed on the above said that;

Findings revealed that participants (n=12) indicated population-based programs: Population-

5.3 Discussions of the study findings

Edwards, L. L. & Reis, J. S. (2014). A five-step process for interactive parent–adolescent

APPENDIX ONE: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR NON-LITERATE GIRLS

Section A: Demographic information

Thank you for your time and cooperation.

Thank you for your time and cooperation.

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