Central Nervous System (CNS):

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as "central"
because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activities between all the
organs of the human body. The brain is protected by the skull known as cranial cavity, while the
spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae. The brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in a
protective triple-layered membrane called the meninges.

The Brain:
Structure of the brain:

Functions of different parts of the brain:

1) Thalamus:
The main function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex. It
also regulates sleep, alertness and wakefulness. If this part of the brain is damaged, all sensory
information would not be processed and sensory confusion would result.
 2) Cerebrum:
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. The surface of the cerebrum has grooves called
sulci. The cerebrum is divided into two halves, right and left hemisphere. The right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body while the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body.
The right hemisphere is used for visual and intuitive processing while the left hemisphere is used
more for language and logical processing. The cerebrum is divided into four sections called
lobes: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe.
a) Frontal lobe:
The frontal lobe is at the front of the brain. The right hemisphere of the frontal lobe controls the
left part of the body, and vice versa. The frontal lobe controls important cognitive skills in
humans, such as emotional expression, problem solving, memory, language, judgment and
sexual behaviors. It is, in essence, the control panel of our personality and our ability to
communicate. The frontal lobe is larger and more developed in humans than in any other
organism.
b) Parietal lobe:
The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe, in front of the occipital lobe and above the
temporal lobe. The parietal lobe contains an area known as the primary sensory area. This is
where impulses from the skin such as warmth, cold, pain and touch are interpreted. The parietal
lobe also helps in processing spatial information which gives us the ability to judge size, distance
and shapes as well as understand written language and solve mathematical problems.

c) Temporal lobe:
The temporal lobe processes auditory information from the ears. The primary auditory cortex
part of the temporal lobe receives information from the ears and processes it into meaningful
units as speech and words. Besides auditory processing, the temporal lobe is also involved in
object recognition and processing of complex visual stimuli such as faces and scenes.

d) Occipital lobe:

The occipital lobe is located at the rear portion of the skull, behind the frontal and parietal lobes.
The occipital lobe is associated with visual communication. The primary visual cortex part of the
occipital lobe receives input from the retina of the eye and interprets colour and other aspects of
vision. Damage to the occipital lobe is likely to result in visual impairments and other vision-
related problems.

3) Midbrain:
The midbrain acts as relay and provides a transit route for communication and coordination
between the forebrain and the hindbrain. It is composed of the tectum and tegmentum. The
midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly the movement of eyes and
in auditory and visual processing.
 4) Limbic system:
a) Hypothalamus:
It is located at the base of the brain, near the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus helps maintain
homeostasis. It does this by maintaining daily physiological cycles such as sleep-wake cycle,
controlling appetite, regulating body temperature and controlling the production and release of
hormones.
b) Amygdala:
The amygdala is an important part of the brain, which assists in responses of fear, pleasure, love,
hatred and arousal. This is where emotions are given meaning, remembered and associated with
responses to them. When a person feels threatened and afraid, the amygdala automatically
activates the fight-or-flight response by sending out signals to release stress hormones that
prepare the body for fight-or-flight.
c) Hippocampus:
The hippocampus is involved in the storage of long-term memory, which includes all past
knowledge and experiences. In particular, the hippocampus plays a major role in declarative
memory, the type of memory involving things that can be purposely recalled, such as facts or
events.
5) Hindbrain:
a) Medulla:
The medulla helps regulate breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, sneezing and
swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation. Sensory and motor
neurons from the forebrain and midbrain travel through the medulla.
b) Pons:
The word pons comes from the Latin word for bridge. It is a bridge between various parts of the
nervous system, including the cerebellum and cerebrum. In addition, there are many important
nerves that originate in the pons such as the trigeminal nerve which is responsible for feeling in
the face, the abducens nerve which allows the eyes to look from side to side and the facial nerve
which controls the facial expressions. On top of this, the pons also control the three transition
states of sleep: sleeping, wakefulness and alert wakefulness.
c) Cerebellum:
Cerebellum controls muscle coordination and body positioning. Damage to the cerebellum, while
not causing paralysis or intellectual impairment, might lead to a lack of balance, slower
movements and tremors (shaking).

The Spinal Cord:

The spinal cord is a collection of nerves that starts at the base of the brain and runs down the
vertebral canal to the backbone. The spinal cord performs three main functions – carry
information, walking and reflexes. First, the spinal cord carries information from the brain to the
rest of the body. Along its length, it is connected to the nerves of Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS) that run in from the skin, muscles and joints. Second, the spinal cord coordinates the
movement of muscle groups in the legs and back that keep the body upright and allow motion to
occur. Third, the spinal cord contains circuits that control reflexive responses such as the
involuntary movement of the arm if a finger makes contact with a hot object or fire.