EI 6602 – PROCESS CONTROL

B.E. / B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2016

Sixth Semester (Regulation 2013)
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
Answer ALL questions.
PART A – (10 X 2 = 20 marks)
1.What is degrees of freedom ?
The degrees of freedom of processing system are the independent variables that must
be specified in order to define the process completely.
Degree of freedom = number of variables – number of equations
2.What is non-self regulation ? Give an Example.
A process whose output grows without limit for a sustained change in input is said to
have non self regulation.
3.Why the minimum output of an electronic controller is 4 mA and not 0 mA?
Zero output can be interpreted as an open loop condition. So, 4-20 mA signaling is used
to determine an error condition.

4.What is the importance of bias term in a controller?

Bias term is added to a proportional controller to make possible the controller to keep
the set point at the desired value.

5. What is the function of an actuator ?

An electric device that provides position as output corresponding to an input electric
signal is called as electric actuator.
6.What do you mean by flashing?
When the pressure of liquid falls below the vapor pressure Pv, some the liquid
starts changing in phase from the liquid phase to vapor phase (ie) liquid flashes .This
phenomenon is known as flashing .
7. How evaluation criteria are useful?
A Performance index is a number that indicates the “goodness” of system
performance. A control system is considered optimal if the values of the parameters are
chosen so that the selected performance index is minimum or maximum depending on
the situation. The optimal values of the parameters depend directly on the performance
index selected.

8.Why is it necessary to choose controller settings that satisfy both gain margin and
phase margin?
The gain margin provides a measure of relative stability, because it indicates how much
gain in feedback loop component can increase before instability can occur. The phase
margin also provides a measure of relative stability, because it indicates how time delay
can be included in the feedback loop before instability can occur.

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9.What is ratio control ? Where is it needed?

Ratio control is a special type of feed forward control where two disturbances are
measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It is mostly used to control the
ratio of flow rates of two streams. Both flow rates are measured but only one can be
controlled. The stream whose flow rate is not under control is referred to as wild
stream.
10.What are the advantages and disadvantages of cascade control?
Advantages of cascade control system:
 Better control of primary variables
 Primary variable less affected by disturbances
 Faster recovery from disturbances
 Improve dynamic performance
 Provide limits on the secondary variable
Disadvantages of cascade control system:
 Adding a cascade control to a system can destabilize the primary loop if most
of the process dynamics are within the secondary loop.
 Stability can be regained only at the cost of reduced control quality
 When both the primary and secondary controller have automatic reset, a
saturation problem can develop.
PART-B
11.a.Derive transfer function H(s)/Q(s) for the liquid level system shown below when
The tank level operates about the steady state value of 1 feet and
The tank level operates about the steady state value of 3 feet. [16]

Solution: Give data,

a) hs  1 ft
When hs = 1 ft, the discharge will be only through pump. The mass balance around the
tank is,

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dh t
qi t  qo  A 1
dt
dH t
Introducing deviation variables, Equation (1) becomes Qi (t )  A
dt
H S 1
Now, the transfer function 
Q S AS

b) when hs = 3 ft, there will be a discharge through both pump & valve. The mass
balance around the tank is,
dh t
qi t  qo  q1 (t )  A
dt
Introducing deviation variables & taking Laplace Transform,
Qi S Q1 S  AS H S

H S
Where Q1 S 
R
H S
 Qi S   AS H S
R
RQi S  1  ARS H S

H S R

Qi S 1  ARS

Let   AR (time constant in sec)

H S R

Qi S 1  S

11.b. Explain the batch process and continuous process with the help of examples. Give
the comparison between them. [16]
Continuous Process: A process in which the materials are stationary at one physical
location while being treated. A chemical that is needed in a large amount is usually
made by a continuous process. Production goes on all the time.
Batch Process: A process in which the materials [or] work flows continuously through
a plant apparatus while being treated. A chemical that is needed in a small amount or

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only as needed is usually made by a batch process. Production does not go on all the
time. Pharmaceutical drugs (medicines) are made by batch processes.

Batch Process Continuous Process

Can be interrupted.
Used in food, pharmaceutical &
fine chemical industries.
Cost of equipment is low.
Production rate is low.
Shut down time is often.
Automation is difficult.
Large man power is needed.
Cannot be interrupted.
Used in distillation of crude oil, manufacture
of bulk chemicals & fertilizers.
Cost of equipment is high.
Production rate is high.
Shut down time is Rare
Automation is easy.
Less man power is needed.

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12.a.i) Explain about the characteristics of on-off control and the effect of differential
gap of ON-OFF controller. [8]
The two position control action or On-Off control is most widely used type of control
for both industrial & domestic services. Two position control is a position type of
controller action in which the manipulated variable is quickly changed to either a
maximum or minimum value depending upon whether the controlled variable is
greater or less than the set point. The minimum value of the manipulated variable is
usually zero.
The equations for two-position control are
P t  Pon when e  0

P t  Poff when e  0

Where
P(t) : Manipulated variable or controller output
Pon : Maximum value of manipulated variable
Poff : Minimum value of manipulated variable
e : Deviation or actuating error
If the actuating error signal e(t) is noisy, an ON/OFF controller will try to control the
noise. This effect can be reduced by modifying the original design to include a dead
band or hysteresis band or differential gap.

 Pon if e  e 0 


 


P t  nochange if  e0  e  e0 


 


Poff
 if e  e 0 


The input-output relationships of the ON/OFF controllers are illustrated in fig a.

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Fig.a. Input-output relationships of Two position control

Whenever the signal to the controller is below set point the controller output is
maximum, and as the error signal crosses the set point, the controller output goes to
minimum, and this variation is shown in fig.b.

Fig.b. On – off controller characteristics

This cycle will continue indefinitely because the controller cannot balance the
supply against the load. Rapid cycling causes frequent upsets to the plant and leads to
excessive wear and tear to the final control element. Thus ON/OFF controller is
recommended for large capacity processes. The output of the system with ON/OFF
controller cannot follow the set point. A differential gap in two position control causes
the manipulated variable to maintain its previous value until the controlled variable has
moved slightly beyond the set point.
The period of oscillation is determined by the differential zone; with two-position action
a large but not excessive period is desirable since this reduces the frequency of

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operation of the moving parts, arcing at contacts, etc., & so prolong the life of the
apparatus. The wider Differential Gap causes less frequent cycling, but at the expense of
a larger deviation from the desired set point. The narrow gap causes an increase in
cycling with a smaller deviation from the desired set point as illustrated in Fig a & b.

12.a.ii) How to avoid bump less transfer and reset windup? [8]
One common problem resulting from the ideal PID implementations is integral or reset
windup. Following a large change in set point the integral term can accumulate an error
larger than the maximal value for the regulation variable (windup), thus the system
overshoots and continues to increase until this accumulated error is unwound. This
problem can be addressed by:
 Disabling the integration until the PV has entered the controllable region.
 Preventing the integral term from accumulating above or below pre-determined
bounds.
 Back-calculating the integral term to constrain the regulator output within
feasible bounds.

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When a controller is shifted from manual to automatic mode the controller output may
jump to another value even if the control error is zero. The reason is that the integral
part of the controller is not zero. The controller is a dynamic system and the integral
part represents one state that has to be known at all regulator mode changes. The
sudden jump of the controller output can be avoided and the transfer is then called
bumpless. We consider two situations:
 Shifting between manual and automatic mode
 Changing regulator parameters
To achieve bumpless transfer for an analog controller going from manual into
automatic mode, the control error can be made zero by manually controlling the system
until the measurement value is brought to the set point. Then the integral part is reset
(brought to zero). Since the error is zero, bumpless transfer is obtained. The same
procedure can be used for digital controllers.

Another method is to slowly bring the setpoint value up to its target value. Initially it is
set equal to the actual measurement value and is gradually adjusted. If sufficient time is
allowed then the integral part will be so small that the transfer is bumpless. This
method may be too slow for many applications.
12.b. Draw and explain the electronic circuit for realizing the P, PI, PID, PD controller
modes. [16]
Electronic P controller:
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by,
p(t )  kp e(t )  po

The op amp circuit implementation of this mode of controller is shown in Fig below.

R2
The gain of the controller is , kp 
R1

Electronic PI controller:
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by,

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t
kp
p t  kp e(t ) 
i  e t dt  p o
0
The op amp circuit implementation of this mode of controller is shown in Fig below.
R
The gain of the controller is , kp  2
R1
The integral time is ,  i = RiCi . The adjustment of this controller are the PB
R kp
through kp  2 , and integral gain is , ki 
R1 RiCi

Electronic PD controller:
Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by,
de(t )
p t  kp e(t )  kp  d  po
dt
The op amp circuit implementation of this mode of controller is shown in Fig below.
R2
The gain of the controller is , kp  . The derivative time is ,  d = RdCd
R1

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Electronic PID controller:

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by,
t
de(t )
p t  kp e(t )  ki  e t  dt  kd  po
0
dt

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The op amp circuit implementation of this mode of controller is shown in Fig below.
R2
The gain of the controller is , kp  . The derivative time is ,  d = RdCd . The
R1

R2 kp
adjustment of this controller are the PB through kp  , integral gain is , ki  and
R1 RiCi

derivative gain , kd  kp RdCd

13.a.i) Describe the working of a pneumatic actuator with positioner. [8]

A simplified diagram of a pneumatic actuator is shown in Fig. It operates by a
combination of force created by air and spring force. The actuator positions a control
valve by transmitting its motion through the stem. A rubber diaphragm separates the
actuator housing into two air chambers. The upper chamber receives supply air through
an opening in the top of the housing. The bottom chamber contains a spring that forces
the diaphragm against mechanical stops in the upper chamber. Finally, a local indicator
is connected to the stem to indicate the position of the valve. The position of the valve is
controlled by varying supply air pressure in the upper chamber. This results in a
varying force on the top of the diaphragm. Initially, with no supply air, the spring
forces the diaphragm upward against the mechanical stops and holds the valve fully
open. As supply air pressure is increased from zero, its force on top of the diaphragm
begins to overcome the opposing force of the spring. This causes the diaphragm to
move downward and the control valve to close. With increasing supply air pressure, the
diaphragm will continue to move downward and compress the spring until the control
valve is fully closed. Conversely, if supply air pressure is decreased, the spring will
begin to force the diaphragm upward and open the control valve. Additionally, if
supply pressure is held constant at some value between zero and maximum, the valve
will position at an intermediate position. Therefore, the valve can be positioned
anywhere between fully open and fully closed in response to changes in supply air
pressure.
A positioner is a device that regulates the supply air pressure to a pneumatic
actuator. It does this by comparing the actuator’s demanded position with the control
valve’s actual position. The demanded position is transmitted by a pneumatic or
electrical control signal from a controller to the positioner. The controller generates an
output signal that represents the demanded position. This signal is sent to the
positioner. Externally, the positioner consists of an input connection for the control
signal, a supply air input connection, a supply air output connection, a supply air vent
connection, and a feedback linkage. In Fig. the controller responds to a deviation of a
controlled variable from setpoint and varies the control output signal accordingly to

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correct the deviation. The control output signal is sent to the positioner, which responds
by increasing or decreasing the supply air to the actuator. Positioning of the actuator
and control valve is fed back to the positioner through the feedback linkage. When the
valve has reached the position demanded by the controller, the positioner stops the
change in supply air pressure and holds the valve at the new position. This, in turn,
corrects the controlled variable’s deviation from setpoint.
For example, as the control signal increases, a valve inside the positioner admits
more supply air to the actuator. As a result, the control valve moves downward. The
linkage transmits the valve position information back to the positioner. This forms a
small internal feedback loop for the actuator. When the valve reaches the position that
correlates to the control signal, the linkage stops supply air flow to the actuator. This
causes the actuator to stop. On the other hand, if the control signal decreases, another
valve inside the positioner opens and allows the supply air pressure to decrease by
venting the supply air. This causes the valve to move upward and open. When the
valve has opened to the proper position, the positioner stops venting air from the
actuator and stops movement of the control valve.

13.a.ii) Why does the flow-lift characteristic of a control valve change after installation
of the valve in a pipeline? [8]

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13.b. Write short notes on

i) Cavitation and flashing [8]
ii) I/P converter [8]
Solution:
13.b. i) Cavitation and flashing
Under normal conditions, fluid passing through the valve will undergo a pressure drop
across the valve orifice which at its lowest pressure is called the vena contracta. Further
down stream in the valve the fluid pressure will partially recover and line pressure is
again increased. Fig.a. illustrates a pressure drop and recovery when the fluid is a liquid
and remains a liquid as it passes through a valve.

When the liquid enters a valve and static pressure at vena contracta drops to
less than the fluid vapor pressure (Pv) and the valve outlet pressure is also less than the
fluid vapor pressure (Pv), the condition called flashing exists. In other words fluid
enters the valve as a liquid and exists as a vapor and illustrated in Fig.b.

A third condition called cavitations occurs in a valve when the pressure drop across the
valve first results in the pressure being lowered to below the fluid vapor pressure(P v),
and then recovers to above the fluid vapor pressure(Pv).This pressure recovery causes
an implosion or collapse of the vapor bubbles formed at the vena contracta and
illustrated in Fig.c.

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Flashing & cavitations must be considered to ensure proper valve sizing & to
allow selection of valve that will resist their effects. If the presence of cavitations &
flashing is neglected when valves are sized, undersized valves will be selected & rapid
valve detoriation can takes place.
13.b. ii)Working of current to pressure converter.
Fig. shows the schematic of current to pressure converter. The current input passes
through coils mounted on a core which is attracted towards a magnet, the extend of the
attraction depends on the size of the magnet. The movement of the core causes
movement of the lever about its pivot and so the movement of a flapper above the
nozzle. The position of the flapper in relation to the nozzle determines the rate at which
air can escape from the system and hence the air pressure in the system. Springs on the
flapper are used to adjust the sensitivity of the converter so that current of 4 to 20 mA
produce a pressure of 3 to 15 psi.

14.a.Discuss the procedure for setting controller parameters by using frequency

response method. [16]
Frequency response methods for tuning controllers involve first determining the
frequency response of the process.From this, tuning can be developed. Frequency
response methods (FRM) may have several advantages over other methods:
FRM require only one process bump to identify the process. The bump can be a change
in automatic or manual, and be either a pulse, step, or other type of bump. A set point
change provides excellent data from FRM.
FRM do not require any prior knowledge of the process dead time or time constant.
With the other time response methods, one often needs a dead time estimate and a time
constant estimate.
FRM do not require any prior knowledge of the process structure. Time response
methods often require the user to have such model structure knowledge, i.e., whether it

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is first or second order or whether it is an integrator. For FRM-based tuning none of this
is required; only the process data are needed.
The process frequency response is a graph of amplitude ratio and phase vs. oscillation
or sine wave frequency.
PID Tuning Based on Frequency Response
In most processes, both the amplitude ratio and the phase angle will decrease with
increasing frequencies. Assuming that the combined phase and amplitude ratio
decreases with frequency when the process and the controller frequency responses are
combined, the following general stability rule applies: A control system will be unstable
if the open-loop frequency response has an amplitude ratio that is larger than one when
the phase lag is 180 degrees.
To provide proper tuning, a margin of safety in the gain and phase is desired. Tuning
constants are therefore adjusted to result in the highest gain at all frequencies and yet
achieve a certain margin of safety or stability.
14.b.i) Write a note on Zeigher-Nichols tuning. [8]
This method is described as a closed loop method because the controller remains in the
loop as an active controller in an automatic mode. This method is also called the
continuous cycling method, is based on adjusting a closed loop until steady oscillations
occur. The ultimate gain Kcu and ultimate period Pu is computed from the frequency
response based on the model of the process.
Zeigler Nichols method is summarized as given below:
 Excluding controller, the process and measuring elements are considered in
series and by applying Bode stability criterion, the phase cross over frequency is
obtained.
 According to the Bode of stability criterion, amplitude ratio is equal to unity
at phase cross over frequency  p when the system is on the verge of
instability. Thus by equating G ( j )   1 the ultimate gain Kcu is
p

determined.
 The ultimate period Pu is defined as the period of the sustained cyclic that would
2
occur if a proportional controller with a gain Kcu where used and Pu 
p
The Ziegler Nichols setting for controllers are determined directly from K cu and Pu
according to the rule summarized in the table below.

Type of Gc (S) kc i d
controller
P kc 0.5 Kcu ------ ------

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PI   0.45 Kcu Pu/1.2 ---------

 kc  kc 
  i S 

PID   0.6 Kcu Pu/2 Pu/8
 kc  kc  kc  d S
 iS 
 

14.b.ii) Explain the process of tuning feedback controller using process reaction curve
method. [8]
This method of tuning is an open loop method in which control action is removed from
the controller by placing it in manual mode and an open loop transient is induced by a
step change in the signal to the valve.
A typical control loop in which the control action is removed and the loop opened for
the purpose of introducing a step change M/S to the valve is shown in Fig.a

Fig. a). Block diagram of a control loop for measurement of the process reaction curve.
The step response is recorded at the output of the measuring element. The step
change to the valve is provided by the output from the controller, which is in manual
mode. The response of the system is called the process reaction curve; a typical process
reaction curve exhibits an S shape as shown in fig below

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Fig.b)A typical process curve showing graphical construction to determine FOPDT

model
The Cohen coon method of tuning is summarized in following steps:
 After the process reaches the steady state at normal level of operation, the
controller is switched to manual mode. The controller output will remain at the
same value after as it had before switching. This is called bump less transfer.
 With the controller in manual, a small step change in the controller output is
introduced, that goes to the valve, & the transient is recorded, which is the
process reaction curve.
 A straight line tangent to the curve at the point of inflection is drawn as shown in
Fig.b. The location of inflection point on the transient is obtained by setting

d 2c  t 
 0 . The intersection of the tangent line with the time axis is the apparent
dt 2
transport lag (td); the apparent first order time constant ( ) is obtained from
 = B /S where B – amplitude
S – slope of the curve at the point of inflection.
td - time elapsed until the system responded or dead time.
K = B/M where M is the amplitude of the step input.

Ke-t dS
Thus the approximated transfer function is G  s  =
τS+1
Using the values of KP, td &  the controller settings are found from the relations given
in table.
Parameter Kp i d

 32+ 6t d   
1 τ  4 td 
td   td  
τ 4
PID  +     
K t d  3 4τ  t
 13+8 d   11+2 t d 
 τ   τ 

15.a.What is multivariable control? Explain three element controls in boilers. [16]

When more than one input and output exist in a process, several control configurations
are possible depending on which output is controlled by manipulating which input.
Consider a process with two inputs and two outputs:

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The schematic diagram of a MIMO plant with decentralized controller is shown in

Fig.6.

Any change in either of the inputs will lead to change in the values of both the outputs.
This phenomenon persists even when two control loops are formed as in Fig. (a). This is
termed as control loop interaction. There are two types of effects of an input on an
output, viz . direct and indirect.
The control objective is to control c 1 and c 2 independently, in spite of changes in
M1 & M 2 or other load variables. Two control loops are added to the process as shown
in fig. a.

Because of the interaction present in the system, a change in R1 will also cause c 2 to
vary because a disturbance enters the lower loop through the transfer function G 21 .
Because of interaction both outputs will change if a change is made in either input
alone. If G21 and G12 provide weak interaction, the two controller will give satisfactory
control. In the extreme, if G21= G12 = 0, we have no interaction and the two control loops
are isolated from each other.

Because a manipulated input affects more than one controlled output there occurs a
problems with control loop interaction. One approach to overcome this problem is to
use de couplers.
The relationship between the input vector and the process output vector is
Y (S )  G(S ) D(S )U (S )
For a TITO process,

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 y1 (s)   g11 (s) g12 (s)   u1 (s) 

 y (s)   g (s) g (s)  D(S) u (s) 
 2   21 22   2 
There are a number of possible choices for the target G p (s)D(s) matrix. Two common one
leads to ideal decoupling and simplified decoupling. Ideal decoupling has the major
disadvantage that, the resulting de coupler is the inverse of the process transfer function
matrix. There are numerous problems with this approach, including the fact that the de
coupler will be unstable if there are RHP transmission zeros associated with the process
transfer function matrix. Also this type of de coupler is extremely sensitive to model
error.
In simplified decoupling, the decoupling matrix is restricted to the form
 1 d12 ( s) 
D( s )  
 d 21 ( s) 1 
Here, a decoupled response and the de coupler is specified with the structure in the
equation given below.
 g  ( s) 0 
G p ( S ) D( S )   11 
 0 g 22 ( s) 

 g11 ( s) g12 ( s)   1 d12 (s)   g11* (s) 0 

 g (s) g (s)  d (s)   
 21 22   21 1   0 g 22* ( s) 
Solving the above matrix we get,
g12 ( s) g (s)
d12 ( s)   and d 21 ( s)   21
g11 ( s) g 22 ( s)
The decoupling elements must be stable and should be physically realizable.

A three element boiler water level control system is one which typically uses the
measured water level, the steam flow rate from the boiler and the water flow rate into
the boiler to regulate the flow of into the boiler.
The three process variables are

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 Boiler level
 Feed water flow and steam flow

Similar to feed flow, changes in steam flow can also cause large deviations in drum
level, and could possibly trip the boiler. Changes in steam flow rate are measurable and
this measurement can be used to improve level control very successfully by using a feed
forward control strategy.

For the feed forward control strategy, steam flow rate is measured and used as the set
point of the feed water flow controller. In this way the feed water flow rate is adjusted
to match the steam flow. Changes in steam flow rate will almost immediately be
counteracted by similar changes in feed water flow rate. To ensure that deviations in
drum level are also used for control, the output of the drum level controller is added to
the feed forward from steam flow. The combination of drum level measurement, steam
flow measurement, and feed flow measurement to control boiler drum level is called
three-element control.

15.b.i) Explain the inferential scheme with an example. [8]

Inferential control is one in which the desired parameter is controlled not by directly
measuring the controlled variable but inferring from another linked parameter. An
inferential control configuration is used if the disturbances cannot be measured.
Structure of an inferential control system:
Consider the block diagram of the process shown in Fig.a, with one unmeasured
controlled output, y, and one secondary measured output, z. The manipulated variable
m and the disturbance d affect both outputs. The disturbance is considered to be
unmeasured. The transfer functions in the block diagram indicate the relationships
between the various inputs and outputs, and they are assumed to be perfectly known.
The following input- output relationships are derived:

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y  mGP 1  Gd 1 d
z  mGP 2  Gd 2 d
Solving for d results in,
1 Gp 2
d z m
Gd 2 Gd 2
Using d in y results in,
 G  G
y   Gp 1  d 1 Gp 2  m  d 1 z
 Gd 2  Gd 2
 
The above equation provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured
controlled output to measured quantities like m and z. Fig. b shows the structure of the
resulting inferential control system. Notice that the estimated value of the unmeasured
output plays the same role as a regular measured output; that is, it is compared to the
desired set point and the difference is the actuating signal for the controller.
The inferential control will function perfectly provided:
 The process transfer functions Gp1, G p2, G d1, and G d2, are perfectly known.
 The perfect estimator is available.

Fig. Inferential control system

Distillation column’s overhead composition control:

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 EI 6602 – PROCESS CONTROL

Considering the control of overhead composition in a distillation column, the feed

composition is the unmeasured disturbance and the control objective is to maintain the
overhead composition. The reflux ratio is the manipulated variable. Since the feed and
overhead compositions are considered unmeasured, inferential control scheme is used.
The secondary measurement employed to infer the overhead composition is the
temperature at the top tray. Top tray temperature is normally selected because it will
reflect better the condition of overhead product.
The compositions of the top and bottom products are controlled indirectly by
controlling the temperatures of top and bottom end trays. But, the temperature is an
indication of composition only when column pressure remains constant. Since the
distillation separates materials according to their difference in vapor pressures and
since vapor pressure is a temperature- controlled function, temperature measurement
has been used to indicate composition.

Two temperature control loops are used to keep the product compositions at their set
points. Temperatures on the 9th and 22nd trays are used as controlled variables. Reflux
flow rate and reboiler heat duty are used as the corresponding manipulated variables.
The parameters of temperature controllers are tuned by trial and error. Holdups of the
reflux drum and the reboiler are controlled by manipulating distillate and bottom
product flow rates, respectively.

Fig.C. Inferential control system for a distillation column

15.b.ii) What is meant by feed forward control? Why it is preferred along with feedback
control? [8]

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Feed forward control scheme, measures the disturbance directly and then it anticipates
the effect that it will have on the process output. Subsequently, it changes the
manipulated variable by such an amount as to eliminate completely the impact of the
disturbance on the process output (controlled variable). Control action starts
immediately after a change in the disturbances has been detected. It is clear that
feedback acts after the fact in a compensatory manner, whereas feed forward acts
beforehand in an anticipatory manner.

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