‘ SPE/DOE 27766
A Review of IORIEOR Opportunities for the Brent Field:
Depressurisation, the Way Forward
C.I.M. Braithwaite, Shell UK E&P
SPE Member
Commht1994,SOCIW
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Engine-,Inc.
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ABSTRACT
Under the current waterflood development, S has been
preditied that gas production from the Brent Field will fa[l off
plateau in 1998 and, at field abandonment approximately
55% of the 8.9 Tscf GIIP and 54”A of the 38OO MMstb
STOIIP would be recovered.. .__.
A review of EOR/10R techniques was carried out at. an
early stage to define which of the various processes might
be applicable in the Brent Field and would warrant further
evaluation., The scouting study considered microbial,
thermal, chemical, gravfiy drainage and miscible processes
as well as reservoir depressurisation.
Of all the possibilities, surfactant flooding, immi%ib[e (or
near miscible) gas injection and depressurisation were found
to be technically viable. lHowever, baaad on an estimate of
the costs involved k was established that OnlY resW!ir
depressurisation was economically attractive under the
current and projected oil price trend.
Wtih Is high solution gas-oil-ratio (ranging from 1S00” to
3000 scflstb), depressurisation of the field, ultimately to
1000 PSI,”would liberate a significant proportion of the
remaining ‘Solutlon gas and raise recovory by 1.5 Tscf. It
was also established that, by e,~ending the fiddk life, Oil
and condensate recova?y would be increased by 30 MMstb
compared to a continuation of the ongoln9 wate~Ood ... .
Sefore the project could be initiated uncertainties such as
aquifer Influx’, reservoir souring, compaction, subsidence
and sand production had to be assessaG and contingency
measures Identiied. In addition, the full range of engineering
options for the four platforms had to be costed and
Referancasand lUusWations
at md 0! paper ‘-’” “--’””’”
329
Omk:, U.S.A.,
,7-’20April?994.
evaluated. Wtih a planned expenditure of fl.3 Billion, the
Brent Field will be able to sustain oil and gas sales well into
the next century.
INTRODUCTION
The Brent Field Is locatad 150 km north-east of the Shetland
Hands, and is one of the first and largest oil fields to be
deve[oped in the UK sector of the North Sea. (Fig. 1).
Discovered in 1971 in Shell/Esso” block 211/29, t was
brought on stream in 1976 and reached a peak oil
production of 500 Mstb/d in 1964.
The field has b-an devdopad with four Installations and a
remote flare. Brant Alpha is a steel pifed jacket, while Brent
Bravo, Charlie and Delta are concrete gravity structures
(Fig. 2).
In total, 83 oil producers have bean drillad from tha four
platforms and a further 38 down-dip water injectors wells
and 13 crestal gas injectors maintain resewoir pressures at
approximately 5400 psi.
Until the gas expoft pipeline was commissioned in 1982,
produced gas was re-injectad into tha primary gqs caps.
After 1982, a sales agreement with British Gas commenced,
and an average of 500 fdfvfscfld of dry gas has b-
supplied via the FLAGS he. Gas compression requirements
are minimised by operating with a high first stage separator
pressure (135 bar) which allows export directly into the
pipeline to. the onshore gas treatmant plant at St. Fergus.
Oil is expotied via the Brent Systems pipeline to Sullom
VOe.
By January 1994 cumulative production amounted to 1530
MMstb of oil (78% of waterflood UR) and 2740 Bscf of gas
(73% of waterflood UR). The Brent Field can thus be

2’. : A review of IoWEOR opportunities for the Brent Field -
Llepm=.risation, the way forward
considered a mature field, In whmh late life optimisation
becomes an important objective.
GEOLOGiCAL SETTING
The field lies in a westerly dipping tiited fault terrace some
40 km long that extends from the. North Alwyn Field In the
South to the Statfjord Field In the North. The Brent Field
kself is bouritied to the east by the Eastern Boundary Fault
with a throw in excess of 600 ft, and to the north and south
by bounda~ faults with maximum throws of 700” and 450 ff
respetilvely (Fig. 3).
There are IWOdistinct reservoirs, the Middle Jura&lc Brent
Group and the Lower Ju&slc/Triassi6 Staftjord-Formation
(Fig.4, Ref. land2), Thetopof the Brent Group llesgta
deflh of8500Rsi and”the sequemx”iiarles between 78o
and850 ft. inthickness. ”Th8 reservoiiboiisists of generally
good quality sandstones, shales and coals that were
deposited throughout the ..Ea.stSh6tland B~in and adjoining
Viki<g Gtaben. In Common with other deltaic deposits, tfre
reservoir sandstones are separated by extensive shales,
giving a number of semi-independent producing intervals.
The Stafl]ord- Formation flei-it & depth of 8900 ftss and
reaches amaximum thickmassof 10QOft. The main body of
the reservoir consists mainly of a complex alternation of
fluvlal sandbodies and intercalated flood plain shales. These
intervals are. overlzdn with a rather homogeneous
transgressive shallow marine sand.
In both the Brent and Statfjord Resetioirs, deformation of
thecrestal arezhasoccufred. Gravitational colfapse of the
unstable fault escarpments, created during mid-Kimmerlan
rotation of the Brent fault block and opening of the Viking
Graben, has lead to structurally complex sequences and
reworking of thesedimenfs.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Because of the thickness of the olkoh!mn and the relatively
shallow 8 degree dip, wells cannot be opiimally sited,for all
sub-r~semoirs slmultarieouslyl Tfieref_6ie, for management
purposes; the Brent Reservoir has been ~vided into four
Cycles, and Statfjord into three Uni&(FJg.”4,=P.ef. 3,4iind
5).
Resemolr pressure has beih maintahed primarily bywa!er
injectors positioned ln the aquifer. To reduce the number of
wells, injection has been ~@n91edover_Cyc!es I and 1!,
Cycles Ill and IV, and all Units with the StaQord Reservoir.
Producers, on the other hand, are only completed on one
Cycle or Unit to maintain control of the oil-rims.
As development progressed oil production steadly
increased until a peak production exceeding 500,000 sfbld
wasachleved in 1984 (Fig.. 5). Up to that mornentthe Gas-
011 Ratio (GOR) remained constant atZOO08cfbbl with a
Iowwatarcut of 10%. The in%ial row of producing wells on
the Brent Resewoh were placed deep in the oil column to
produce lowshrinkage oilandto avoid gascusping. These
330
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SPE 27766
Walls then began to water out and had to be replaced by
mid-row producers.
After 1984, water production began to increase resuiling in a
decllnlng oil rate. As the oil-rims move progressively
eastward towards the crest, full use is being made of .
through-tubing workovers techniques to recomplete
watered-out Intervals onto over-lying oil bearing zones. In
adtifiion, new wells and side-trackz are drilled to area?, that
cannot beconvenientiy reached from existing wellbores.
Thesharp decllne inprodutitonin 19890iarked thestartof
a three year period of platform shutdowns during the
execution of technical integrity related activity and
enhancement folloWing the Piper-Afpha Incident.
SCOPE FOR IMPROVED RECOVERY
If the field were to continue under watefllood, gas production
would fall off plateau in 1998, and at field abandonment it is
estimated that 55% of GIIP and 54%01 STOIIP would have
been recovered. The 1250 MMstb of oil remaining in the
westffank would be a combination of capilkwytrapped and
by-passed oil.
Because the waterflood motikty ratio for both Brent and
Statijord Reservoirs is very favorable (end-point mobillty
ratio of 0.25), the sweep efficiency of the wa$tflank
Waterflood will, ingeneral, be high. However, there are both
areal and vertical heterogeneities which will result in a by-
passed oil. Based on full fleldsimulation model result.s, the
distribution of the remaining by-passed and waterflood
residual oil in swept zones was defined (Fig. 6).
Capillary trapped
oil
Oil will be trappad as residual oil in both the original oil
bearing zone (SOIVI), and the original gas cap when oil is
displaced towards themest(Sorgw). Atthecurrent time ltis
estimated that for both res.ewoirs SWW and SOrgW are 28%
and 14% respectively. At the end of a waterflood atotzd
capillary trapped oil target close to 900 MMstb would
remain.
Waterflood by-passad oil
In broad terms there are three $and types which can be
Idendfiedgoodquallty sands, tight Intewals, and l&yrinth
sands (Fg. 7). The remaining ail in the good quafity sands
will be located in attic locations above existing wells and in
areas close to the onset of slump block faulting which may
compartmentalise the raservoh.
By-passing will occur in relatively fight sands which do not
compete when producing commingled with better quaky
sands, ahhough by selectively producing each sub-cycle In
turn, the volume of by-passed oil can be mlnlmlsed.
The fhwlal nature of the lower Stattjord sands are examples
of labyrinth sands whore high permeabla channels can
 ,.

SPE27766 C.I.M.Braithwaile 3

direct the waterflood away from the less permeable facies llw process involves the injection of a slug of su~actant
types. :-..::. with brine as a carrier fluld, and the slug pfus oil bsnk is
displacsd towards the producers by an aqueous polymer
In total, k has been estimated that 360- MMstb would have solution. This may be appfied as a secondary or tetiary
bean by-passed, and the estimated sweep efficiency of the process. The economics of this process are extremely
waterflood for the various sand types Is shown in Fig. 8. unfavourabfe, so a more rscently developsd idea is to
perform a Dilute Suktant Flood as part of the secondary
POTENTIAL IOR/EOR PROCESSES recovery process.

To Improve oil and gas recovery a review of 10RfEOR In this case surfactanl is added continuously to the injection
techniques was undertaken. I.n gener?f, f@ Ca!a90ries of water in extremely low concentrations, and the viscous
IORIEOR processes ‘“can be.. distinguished that may be sweep provided by the water moves the oil bank towards the
applicable:- producers. A much reduced polymer concentration is
therefore raquired, and the basic operating cost$ for the
. Microbial processes . platforms arenotcarried bythe EOR process.
. Thermal processes
. Chemical processes As@ IificaM amount of research has been done on Dilute
. Gravity Dralnage”an”d Miscible pmcasses Surfactant flooding in recent years, directed towards finding
. Depressufisation a suitable swfactant, and overcoming the operational
problems associated with the process.
Some of the processes aim to reduce the residual oil’
saturation in the flushed zones of a resewoir, while others Laboratory research has been focused on basic
are’appfied primarily to recover by-passed oil by enhancing displacement phenomena at ultra-low concentrations.
the sweep efficiency of a watwflood. Unfortunately, ff is thought to be very unfikely that a sukable
process will be developed In time for application in the Brent
In view of the depth of the Brent Fiald, and the light nature Field over the next few years. Moreover, since a large
of the oil, neither micro biologicsf nor thermal techniques are propof60n of the reservoir has already been flooded the
believed to be suitable. Evaluation of IORIEOR. opportunities primary targets for application would be the relatively small
therefore concentrated on chemical,. gravity slump block areas at the crest.
drainagelmiscible processes as well as resewoir
Depressurisation: Csustic Flooding Caustic flooding may be applicable
when the crude contains sufficient saponifiable acids. A
Chemical Pro.$6sses slug is injected Into the reservoir and displaced with water.
The caustic reacts with the saponfisble acids to form
During a s?condaty or late se?ndaty waterflood, chemicals surface-active compounds which reduce the intetiacis.1
can be added to the injectbn water eiiher to “reduce- the tens fen, giving alowerresidual oil saturation. Inaddition, at
capillary forces which cause oil to be trapped, or to Improve hlghsalinilies, awater-in-oil emulsion is created which has
the sweep efficiency of the waterflood. There are three an spparent viscosity which is higher than that of the crude.
main types of Chemical process; Polymer flooding, This emulsion can act to stabillse the flood front, giving
Su!?actant floo’dhg and Caustic flood[ng. improved $weep.

Polymer Flooding. Polymer flooding is usually apphed to
reservoirs whsre tha mobility ratio of the waterflood is
unfavorable. The polymers are dissolved in the injection
water to increase its viscosily, so improving the mobility ratio
of the flood, which in turn enhances the wate”ti[ood sweep
efficiency.
The crude must have an acid number greater than 0.1 mg
KOH/gmto besuitable forthistypeof EOR process. Brent
crude has a Iowacld number (0.03 mg KOH/gm), making
thlspmcess unsuitable.
Gravity drainage and miscible procasses

This type of EoR process is not seen to be sutable In”th@
Brent field because the mobility ratio of the Brent waterflood
1s extra mely favorable (end-paint mobility ratio of 0.25),
giving a very high waterflood ultimate recovery.
Swfacfanf Fhod;ng. Smfactant (or mlcellarlpolymer)
flooding is a process” which increases mcovary by reducing
the residual oil saturation In a water fkmdsd reservoir.
When residual oil is contacted by a sUIfaCfarIt, a So-ca!led
micro-emulsion phase is formed. This micro-emulsion
phase has an extremely low interracial tension against both
oil and btine, and so the residual oil is moblfised, forming a
bank in front of the surfactant,
The gravty drainage process involvas the injection of a
hydrocarbon or non-hydrocarbon gas at the crest of the field
(sometimes behind a slug of hydrocarbon hqulds), to give a
gravity-statillsed displacement of the Ilquids in the re$ewoir
down towards the orlg inal OWC.
Where the injection gas and oil are immiscible, gas injection
may allow effactive gravity drainage of the oil in the gas-
invaded zone. This process can result in very low residual
oil saturations, but may requhe excessively long times to
achieve. For miscible processes, the microscopic
displacement efficiency is Ideal, because capillary forces am
sbsent.

I 331

4 A mVieWof 10i7/EOR opportunities for the Brent Field -
D.pr.sxxlsatkm,
Bath the Brent and Statflord riservtirs contain light oil,
overlain by a gas cap and the hydrocarbon columns in ths
two reservoirs have compositions which vary with depth
(Rsf. 6). Howevsr, in the Statfjord Rsservoir a well deflnsd
gas-oil cDntaQt is not present. Instead the fluids change
grsdually from oil-like deep in the column to gas-like towards
the top. The point of inflection of the bubb[e.point ourve
defines the interface beween “gas4, and “oIV. With these
properties, the potential for a miscible diSplaC~ME!t was
highest for the Statfjord Rese-Weir.
Bearing this” In find, whenever gas production has
excaeded sales requirements it is preferentially injected into
tha Staffjord Resewolr. Although principally for storage,
some benefits from a limited miscible gas drive process are
being realised. ., , ..-
For any EOR procsss involving a gas flood, the Injected gas
is more mobile and less dense than the watwloil that it is
displacing, so over-running or viscous fingering Is a danger,
leading to low sweep efficiency. Thus the application of
these processes IS normally Nmitsd to steeply dpplng, high-
permeability resewoirs. Nevertheless, even for this type of
reservoir, there is a a limit to how fast the displacement can
be done before becoming unsfsble.
For Brent, the process should be inherently stable, except in
those sands where the horizonta[ permeability is less than
500 mD (Ref. 7), Tsking into account the inevitable bY-
passing of oil reserves In the less permeable layers reduces
the EOR target by 210 MMsib. ,.
However, a practical consideration for thu implementation of
a graviiy drainage process is tha large amount of well
activity that would be required. By the and of the waterflood
phase, most wells will have bean completed at the crest of
the reservoir. Assuming that it would be desirable to stat
produofion at an esrly stage, three to four rows of wells
would be required thst follow the downward progress of the
20 or more separate 6il.rims (Fig. 9). In total, approximately
140 side-tracks would be nsoessary with a similar number of
Well interventions to shut-off gassed-out zmes 1“ order to
msxlmlse recovery from each well bore.
In addiion, there remainss significant degrae of uncertainty
concerning the final thickness of the oil-rim once it has been
displaced down to the original oil-water contact. Simulation
studies indicated that, because of cusping and coning
effects around a producer, oil-rim thicknesses could not be
reduced below an average of 40ft.
The attractiveness of pwforming a misclblelnear miscible
gas flood of the Brent field, at or close to the end of the
waterflood phase, using @fiber nitrogen, carbon dioxide or a
hydrocarbon gas was evaluated. At an early stage options
involving air, flue gas and Wblne exhaust gsses were ruled
out for both practicsl and safety reasons.
Nitrogen The Introduofion of technology to produce large
volumes of the nitrogen from ah using cryogenic techniques
has raised interest In this option.
I process.
332
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I
SPE 27766
the way forward
Research into the miscibilly of nitrogm with Statfjord fluid
showed thsf the original crestal gas-like fhdds are almost
directly miscible with nitrogen and-would in time develop full
misoibiiiiy. The deeper oil would not develop miscibility, but
the properties of the equilibrium flulds .on the forward tie-line
are so favorable that, in a dispersion-free displacement,
residusl oil saturations could be as low as 50A.
This ValUe was initially confirmed by slim-tube experiments
performed in-house and at Winfriih (Ref. 8), but subsequent
experiments at reservoir condkions using reservoir cores dld
not find such low residual saturations. Component transfer
beween the nitrogen and the oil could be the cause,
resulting in oil shrinksge and an increase in viscosity which
would influence the spesd of the gravity drainage process.
At field displacement rates, however, a higher microscopic
displacement efficiency might be expeoted [eading to a
better recovery than seen in the resewoh condition
axperimenfs.
The Unit technical cost for a 15 year project staiiing after the
waterflood and requiring approximately 4 Tscf of nitrogen
was estimated to fm in exoass of $40rbbL Taking into
account the uncertainties in oil recovery, nitrogen injection
was therefore not an Immediately attractive EOR option for
Brent
Hydrocsrhon Gas Although Iesn hydrocarbon gas would
be dheotly miscible with the top Staffjord gas, the feasibMty
of performing a full tertiary hydrocarbon gas flood of the
Smnt Field wss not investigated in any detail. It wss
considered unlikely that an existing or undiscovered field
could supply the volumes of gas required at low enough
price to bring unit technical costs below $40hbl.
C.w’bon Diox;ds. C02 flooding Is normally conducted as a
slug process, and the displacement is done using water.
When the C02 contacts the oil, hydrocarbons are vaporised
into the gss. This extrati[on may be very ‘deep’, involving
components up to C30. The hydrocarbon-rich C02 Is then
recovered and the hydrocarbons extraoted. In addtiion, ss
in any miscible drive, an oil bsnk will form, supplementing
the vaporisation recovery process.
The C02 used for most small EORproji?cts In the USAIS
usually the unwsnted by-product of a manufacturing or
extraction process. Large scale C02f[oods are carried out
using gas produced from natural C02 reservoirs. There are
no known C02-rich resewoirs in the Brent area which would
be sb[e to provide the required volumes.
The feasibility of extrscfing C02 from the flue gss of power
sfsfions Iocsted in the north-east of England wss looked
into. However, the delivery cost alone equated to $18 to
$36 for evefy Incremental bbl,
Before a C02 flood could begin, significant addtional
expenditure would be Incurred to Install downhole and
topsides equipment suitable for C02 service, and to insfsll
the plant required to separate the produced fluids. [n view
of the costs, there was no scope for appliisflon of thks
 . .
SPE 27766 CM.4. Brafthwaife
D8pressu risatio n
With & high solution gas-oil ratio and almost 3 Tscf of
solution gss remain[ng in by-passed and residual oil at the
end of the waterlood, depressurisation of the field was sewr
as a potential IOR option. Following sn analysis of the rkks
involved and a systematic evaluation of the costs if was
established that depressurisation was an economically
attractive alternative to continuing with the Frrent
waterflood.
THE DEPRESSURISATION PROCESS
The various processes occurring during depressurisation are
sketched in Fig.” 10.-Unswept or by-passed oil, either in kw
permeability rock or in remaining oil-rims, would kberate gas
expelting oil in the process for possible later recovery. After
reaching a critical SXuratlon, the gas becomes mobile and
migrates vmtkdy to a shale layer and then begins to move
up:d~p towards the crest of the field. Gas migration would be
efhclent as long as permeabilities are above 100 MD, a
value exceeded in most regions of the Brent Field.
[n the water flooded regions of the reservoir, where the
volume of oil in the pores k smaller, lower reservoir
pressures are ..r.squired before the gas saturation starts to
exceed the critical value. One@this occurs, g.?z would begin
to migrate towards” the crest in a similar mann8r to ~hat
described above.
Depressurisation itself would be achlevqd by wthdrawal Of
large volumes of liquids and free gas from the reservoir. The
proposed scheme envisages using gas-lift i“ cresta[ oil wells
to maximise fluid offtake from existing producers, and, by
maintaining flow through the reservoir, ensures continued
production of any remaining waterflood movable oil during
the early stage of depressurisation.
As gas-lift performance decfines, back production of water
through the farmer water injectors using i3ectric
Submersible Pumps (ESPS) would be required to maintain
the required pressure dBplefiOn rate (Fig. 11). DWicated
facilities, installed as and when necessary, would handle the
Iwe volumes of aquifer water produced in this way.
UNCERTAINTIES AND RISKS
Depressuikation of an oil field of the magnitude of Brent has
never been attempted. Quantifying the risks, uncsrtalnties
and possible consequences has therefore been an impmtant
aspect of determining whether the process Is both
technically and economically viable (Ref. 9).
Oil-rim managemem
One of the major concerns with Depressurisation was the
possibi[fty that oil production would be compromised. As
reservoir pressures fall not only would well productivity
decline but the creation of a small gas cap in each of the
many layer could result In existing oil producers turning
333
i
5
predominantly into gas producers. To address this situation
an oil-rim management policy was formulated.
The growth of the gas cap depends on the rate of pressure
decline. If the depressurisation conforms to expectafkm,
more gas will be liberated than required to sustain the gas
contract. Tomamaget his situation, any excess gas will be
stored inthetop layers of both Brent and Statfjord (Cycle 1
and Unhl)where thegszcap will beal[owed to~xpandto a
pra-determined vo[umeand addtional oil recovery could be
realised through agravify drainage process (Fig. 12), The
drainage of both oil and condensate will help to sustain the
oil-rims and careful planning of mid-flank well locations in
these top layers will be required to maximise oil recovery.
For the remainder of the Cycles and Units, wells will be
locatsd at the crest. Conveniently this. ls alsothe optimum
position for the end of the waterflood, so no additional
drilling will be required. By ensuring that these wells are
preferentially produced to meet gas SalES, any small gas
caF that develop m’11be immediately blown-off and the oil-
rims will thus remain in touch with the perforations.
By having most well located in a crestal position, high
natural GORS will help to maintain productivity when
reservoir pressures fa[l.l%econversion of faciliies from the
current 110 bar flowing tubing head pressures to 36 bar will
also help to sustain productivity. Furthermore, the
Installation of gas-lift will assist high watercut wells and help
kick wells off following a process shutdown.
Wtih these oil-rim management policy in place full field
simulations indicste that oillcondensate production will be
sustained during the early stages of depressurisation and
total recovery will exceed that expected from a pure
waterflood.
Criticsl gas
Before Iberated gas csn migrate towards the crest acrkics[
gas saturation has to be built-up. Knowledge of this
parameter [s Important in order to establish when gas will be
released from by-passed and residual oil, which is essential
for estimating future gas ssles potential.
Core experiments have confirmed that Sgc in the waterflood
oil zone is dependent upon the pressure decllma rate.
Extrapolating measurements to field conditions using a
semi-log relationship between pressure decline rate and Sgc
indicstes a value of 107. (Ref. 10 and Fig. 13).
Theoretical work has suggested that, at pressure decline
rates seen in laboratory experiments, gas saturations are
dominated by nucleation effects, but at field decline rates,
gravity effects are dominant. This Mnearextrapolatlon from
one regime to the other is therefore open to Ulscussion.
Using the 10% value etirapolated from core experiments,
simulation studies of the depressurisat[on process
suggested that an additiona13°A should be included toalfow
forvetical transport effecfs within individual flow unifs, and
a fwthar 2% to account for possible geological trapping (e.g.

6 A review of IOR/EOR opportunlti~ for the Brent Field -
Depressurisaflon, the way fonv.srd
under small shale layers). Wflh this in min”d, a value of 15°%
has been used for planning purposes.
Since tio$t of the original gas cap will have bwn flooded,
first by oil and then by water prior to depressurisation, the
critical gti saturation In the flooded gas cap is ?m important
value to know, When the reservoir pressure declhres the
trapped gas saturation will increase as gas comes out of
solution and””the residual gas expands. This increased gas
saturation may immediately” be mobile, but timited
experiments to date suggest that it may reach a 507. higher
saturation than the tiapped gas saturation before mobifiry Is
achieved. Further theoretical analysis needs to be
conducted to understand the physical processes involved.
Aquifer influx
The size and strength of the aqufier is one .Of the most
important factors that will influence the success of the
depressurisation project. During” the history match of
resewoh pressures, the Brent full field simulation model
indicated’ that the aquifer connected to the Statfjord
Reservoir is hmited and of low permeabiiiiy. The Brent
Groop aqiiifer, iii” cbntrast, appears to be stronger, with a
pore volume some 15 times larger than the volume of the oil
column.
A review of regional geology. and .ps!OrMaOCE .o!. nW.rbY
fields has helped to define the timifs of the Brem Reservoir
aquifer. To the north, a fault zone separating the Brent and
Sttijord Fields Is currently exposed to a 1000 PSI pressure
differential with no indications of communication.
To the west, a major regional fault and deteriorating
reservoir properties are separating the Erent Field.!r!m the
Dunlin/Hutton area. These fields “have historically exhibited
very different pressure behavlour to that of BrenL Further
south, the Brent South accumulation and the Strathspey
Field are both in communication with the Brent Field at the
Brent Reservoh level. Pressure measurements in the Brent
Ninth accumulation of Alwyn North Field prior to production,
indicates a small degree of communication with Brent.
The largest impact of low Brent reservoir pressures would
be seen In Brent South, aithough the bulk of the ultimate
recovery from this accumulation will have been produced by
the time full depressurisation of the Brent reservoir is
initiated in the year 2000. The Stratfwpey Field would also
be influenced to a fimited extent, bm only at the very end of
its production life.
For design purposes, a range of possible aquifer volumes
have been considered (up to twice that contained within the
Brent fault block) to evaluate how much water would need to
be pumped from back-produced water wells with ESPS.
Reservoir compaction and well Integrity
Reservoir compaction aid reddng sub.sidenc.e could have
an impact on wellbore integrity and platform wave height
safety margins. To provide data upon which compaction and
subsidence estimates can be made, uniaxlal compaction
334
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sPE 27766
measurements under both drained and pore pressure
depletion conditions have been carri6d out The results
indicate that formation compressibility Is almost linear over
the stress range expected during depressurisation, with
vafues for the Statfjord roughly tvdce that of the Brent.
Predictions indicate that compaction is Ikkely to be in the
order of 1% of the gross reservoir thickness. Under extreme
worst case assumptions, compaction will never exceed more
than 2.5%. From a well integrity viewpoint, field exparlence
indicates that up to 5-674 compaction on gross reservoir
thickness can be accommodated, provided th@re are no
caviti%s behind the casing. With cavities, this hit reduces to
1-2%. The magnitude of expected compaofion is therefore
not likely to present any threat to sub-surface well integrity,
Finite element techniques have. been used to estimate
subsidence. This has taken into account the location of the
platform in relation to the shoulder of the subsidence bowl,
From reoent ah gap measurements on each of the platforms
fi appears that Brent Alpha is the only platform where
subddence could reduce the air gap below Ifs current safety
bmit of 2 m, Predictions indicate that between 1.6 and 2.4 m
of subsidence could develop during depressurisation,
although, even in the high case this would not accur until the
year 2004 (Fig, 14). since Brent Alpha would not form pad
of the main refurbishment program fis role at that time
would, at the most, be fimite.d to being a riser jacket for the
FLAGS line. Subsidence, therefore, is unfikely to
compromise the operabilFdyof any of the four platforms.
Sand failure
Predictions based on Iabcmtory measurements and
theoretical work indicate that the initial rock failure of sands
of average strength can be expected at a reservoir pressure
of around 3000 psi.
A field test, designad to calibrate and supporf this e.st[mate,
showed a burst of sand production at simulated reservoir
pressures of 4000, 3100 and 27OO psi. Once a stable
drawdown was established, sand production stabilised and
dropped to trace levels which would be manageable from a
well and facility point of view, Even at a simulated reservoir
pressure of tOOO psi, no massive sand failure was
observed.
Although further research Is in progress on this subject, t is
currently assumed that small but manageable amounts of
sand production will occur once Initial failur~ has been
experienced. On the bask of this test, sand exclusion will
not be incorporated In any of the wells, although contingency
measures will be in place to gravel-pack gas and back-
produced water wells it found to be necessary.
Reservoir souring
H2S is formed when bacteria, introduced with the injected
sea water, come into contact with nutrients in the form of
fatty acids within formation water. The bacteria reduce the
available sulphate in sea water to form hydrogen sulphide
which can pa!tition Into the oil.
 . .
SPE27766 c.I.M. Bralthwaite
Since production began in 1977; no noticeable increase in
H2S levels has been obsewad, amd it is expected that only
towsrds the end of the pressure maintenance phase will a
rise above Indigenous Ievsl.s occur. This favorable situation
is thought tobe a result of a c0rpk3!natiOnOf an actk water
shut-off policy, which reduces sea water breakthrough in the
producers, and scavenging by the abundance of iron
containing minerals In the Brent Reservoir rock.
During depressuris.atlon, however, H2S formed In the
reservoir, but not produced during the waterflood phase,
may be absgrbad by the llberateU gas as it .~grstes towards
the crest, resuiting in Increased levels of H2s.
Sulphate and chloride concentrations in water samples from
high watercut wells have been used to determine sea Water
fractions, and the loss of sulphate Indicates how much H2S
may have been. generated in the reservoir. The results
provide a range and an upper limit fo the amount of H2S
that may have been generated.
Souring data from nearby fields producing from the same
geological formations have shown errat(c variations in
behaviour. However, using the Ostribufion of such H2S
producing wells, simulation results of a model that describes
the Br.snl souring mechanism have been scaled to create a
range of probabilistic souring forecasts (Ref. 11). These
predict a greater than 50% chaiice” of average H2s levels
exceeding th@3.3 ppm contract liriiit for dry gas, but only a
25% probabihty of ever exceeding the 25 ppm FL4GS fine
timit, which would require OffShOrB treatment. However,
individual wells may produce up to 150 ppm H2S.
As a contingency, weight and space would be resewed on
the platforms to allow offshore sweetening facilities to be
installed in the unfikely event thai.they.ar9 needed..
PLATFORM CONFIGURATION
Proving that depressurisation was a viable project depended
to a large extent on a. systemauc evaluation of the
engineering options and the associated. costs..These options
had to considec ‘ capital costs.
. Safety standards following the Cullen enquiry
. LQWpressure facilities for depressurisation
. Reliability throughout the fields extended Me
. Environmental aspects
At the outset it was clear that certain assets, such as the
substructure of all platforms, welfs and pipehnes were in
good ccmdtion and the cost benefit of re-usin9 them was
substantlaf. Therefore sub-sea options wwe not considered,
Early scouting studes identified six possitiliiles:
One centrsl platform - three satellites
In this option, all main production facilities would be located
on Brent Charlie, and the other threm platforms would
become satellites with minimum mannln.g levels.
335
1
7
Although an attractive possibllky, the topside weight required
to procsss d[ Brent’s oil and gas exporl far exceeded the
load carrying capacky of any of the platforms.
New centrsl platform - four satellites
To overcome the weight limitations of the csntral platform
concepts, the construction of a new central processing
platform, bridge-linksd to Bravo, was evaluated.
This option gainsd the benefit in terms of low OPEX but was
reJecfed because of the increased vulnerability with respect
to meeting gas sales commitments from a single
installation.
Two producing pfsfforms, two satellites
Maintaining full processing on two central platforms and
converting the two outboard platforms to satellites should, in
theory, spread the weight of processing facilities over two
platforms. However, to maintain gas sales while one
processing platform is undergoing routine maintenance
during the summer pwiod would require each platform to
have 80% of the total processing capacity. Tip-side weight
[Imitations would onca qain be exceeded.
Refurbishment of existing fscififies
Inthisoption each installation woufc produce, process and
expartoil and gas in the same manner ascurrentlyt aking
plac+ although a number of existing modules would be
replaced by new modules with changed functlonalitiy. The
aim would be to minimise captal costs by limiting the
amount of new equipment required.
RepIa~ all topside fscifities
A “green field approach was considered In which the existing
topsides (except the wellhead module anu the drilling rig)
would be removed and replaced with two new modules on
each platform. The scheme would incur lowar long term
operating costs but this had to be weighed against higher
A analysis of the costs and rewards of the six options
lndlcatad that only two (the refurbishment and replacement
options) were approaching the economic crtierla. However,
fuflher rationalisation was required in ordw to make tha
project attractive.
Subsequent studies indicated that depressurisation could be
carried out with three out of the four platforms wlh
significant cost ssvlngs and only a marginal loss of recovery.
The foufth platform, Brent Alpha would funcfion as a riser
platform for the FLAGS Iineonce its production rate falls
below the economic threshold.
In addition, by combining the cost savings of the
refurbishment option with the OPEX benefits of the
replacement option, aflnal redevelopment engineering plan
was defined (Fig. 15).

8 A revfew of IOWEOR .apportunilk for the Brent Fbld.
DePresswkmtLm, tfl. way forward
The new facilities will be designed to opersts at 36 bar first
stage separator pressure snd handle a total ofhake of
240,000 .stbld of oil. Suff[clent gas processing capacity will
be available on any two of the three refurbist,ed platforms to
meet gss commitments while the third is shutdown for
routine maintenance, and also cope with possible increases
in gas export. levels. The spare compression during normal
operations will be used to satisfy gas-fift demands.
Water injection facihies till be rstained to allow normal
wsferflood development of the nearby prospects and any
non-commun[catlng slump blocks. Sufficient capacity is also
planned to permit an intermediate pressure waterflood to
start if depressurisation psrformancs is better than
expected. For late Depressurisation, when gas -fift
performance declines, Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESPS)
will be installed in the water Injsctors. In addtion, space and
weight provision is being maintained for offshore sweetening
facilities to reduce H2S COntent to at least 25 ppm FLAGS
line fimit Mrequlrsd.
Taksn together, the installation of new processing .f@ClliieS,
refurbishment of Wing quarters, completion of required
safety upgrades, as well as improvements to the drilling and
utility modules, will result in an exlentive engineering
programme costing 21.3 Billion that will fske approximately
SIXyears to wmplete (Ref. 14).
ADDITIONALRECOVERY
By lowering reservoir pressures to 1000 psi, up to 2.3 Tscf
of wet gas is expecrsd to. be mobilised (Ffa. 16), and a large
fraction will be csptured by crestal producers. The results of
the full field simulation model have been used to provide an
initial estimate of the additional recovery. Following a
stochastic analysis of the risks and their possible
Consequenos, a discount was. applied to reflect the
uncertainty associated w[th the project. Taking everything
into account, depressurlsatimr is likely to yield over 1.5 Tscf
additloim wet gas.
COntraly to initial expectations, depressurisation will not lead
to a loss of oillcondensate recovery. In the westf lank,
condensate that would have been trapped in by-passed and
residual gss at the end of a waterflood will drop out during
depressurisation.” Of this condensate, a proportion will
aooumulate at the oil-rims to be produced via the oil-rim
wells with the assistance of gas-lfi.
In addtion, the combined effect of gravty drainage of
watetilood residual oil in the expanding gascaps and the
extended waterf looding of the oil-rims using aquifer influx,
could help to incresse of recovery. As gas saturations bulld-
uP, oil exPu!siOn from IOWPefmeabilky areas, and from by-
passed oil in small geological traps will also. occur.
Taking the above factors into account t has bee” estimated
that depressurisation would. yield approximately 30 MMstb
addiional oil compared to a normal waterflood. Predictions
336
,,
SPE 27766
indicates that the project would extend the hfe of ths Brent
Field to at least the year 2010 (Fig. 17).
CONCLUSIONS
A review of the 10RiEOR options for the Brent Fie[d
indicatsd that surfactsrd flooding, Immiscible (or near
mkclble) gss injection and depressurisation are technically
viable. However, based on an estimate of the costs
Involved it was established that only ressrvoir
depressurisation was economically attractive under the
current and projected oil pries trend.
To initiate this new development phase, a 21.3 million
refurbishment programme of three of the four existing
platforms will be undertaken. It is expscted that the gas
plateau oould be exfendsd to ths year 2003 with incremental
gasrecov8ry ofl.5TWfcomparedtoano rmalwaterflood.
The risks associated with depressurisation have been
assessed sod where possible, engineering solutions have
been Identiied in order to minimise their impact on the
Project. From a “Wb-sutiace viewpoint, reservoir
man2gBment procedures have been Outlindto ensure that
oil recovery Is msximised while maintaining gas sales Into
the 21st Century.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would ~keto thank Shell U.K. Exploration and
Production and Esso Exploration and Production U.K.
Limned for their permission to publhh this paper, and
acknowledge the contribution of C. Joly (now with Dansk
Shell) who carried out a significant proportion of the EOR
evaluation work outlined in this paper.
REFERENCES
t. Johnson, H.D.and Krol, D.E?<’..Geologicz[ ModeUingofa
Heterogeneous Sandstone Reservoic Lower Jurassic
Statfjord Formation, Brent Field,” pzpar SPE 13050
presented at the 59th Annual Technical Conference,
Houston, Sept. 1984.
2. Struijk, A, P., and Grean, R.T., 1991, The Brent field,
Block 211/29, UK North Sea. In: Abotts,l.L. (cd.), The
Geo[ogica! Society Msmoir No.14, United Kingdom Oil and
Gss Fields, 25 Years Commemorative volume,
3. Bath, P.G., Fowler, W.N. and Russel M. P.: “The Brent
Field, A Resarvoir Engineering Review,” paper EUR 164
presented at the European Offshore Petroleum Conference,
London, Oct. 1980.
4. Kingston, P.E. and Niko, H.: ‘“Development Planning of
the Brent field,’ JPT (Oct. 1975) 1190-1198.
5. Diehl, A.L. :“The Development of The” Brent Ffeld . A
Complex Of Projects,’’EUR 108presented atthe European
Pstroleum Conference, London, Oct. 1978.
. .
sPE 27766 C.1.M.Brdthwalte
6.” “Schulte, A.M.: “Compositional Variations Wtihin a
Hydrocarbon Column Due to Gravity; pressmtsd at the 55th
Annual tschnical Conference, Texas, Sept. 1960.
7. Schulte, A.M., Niko, H,, Swlnkels, W.J,A., “Analytical
modelling of 2.-D flow In Gravity Stable Secondary Gas or
Water Drives; SPE 20899, Oct. 1990.
8. Naylor, P. and Frorup. fd.,”Gravily Stable Nitrogen
Displacement of QT, SPE 1964!, 1989.
9. Eraithwafte, C.L M. and Schulte, W. M.: “Transforming the
future of thB Brent Field: Depressurisation - the next
development phsse,” SPE 25026. presented at EUROPEC,
Nov. I 992. “’.
10. Kortekaas, T. FM. and van PoelgeeS, F.: ‘“Liberation of
Solution Gas Durlna Pressure Deoletion of Virgin and
Watered-out Oil R&ervolrs,” pap6’r presented ;! 64th
Annual tschnical Conference, San Antonio, Oct. 1989.
337
9
11. Llgthelm, D.J., de Boer, R.B., 8rint, J. F., Schulte, W. M.:
“Resewolr Souring An Analytical Model for H2S Generation
and Transportation in an Oil Reservoir Owing to Bacterial
Activity,” SPE 23141 presented Offshore Europe, Aberdeen,
September 1991.
12. Tollas, J.M. and McKinney, A: ‘“Brent Field, 3-D
Resewoir Simulation; Paper presented at 63rd Annual
Technical Conference, Houston, Oct. 1“986.
13. Tollss, J.M. and Sayers, J.R.: “Brent Field 3-D Reservoir
Simulation,” Paper presented at 56th Annual Technical
Conference, San Francisco, Oct. 1983.
14. Schulte, W. M., wan Rossum, P.A. H., van de Vljver, W.:
I ,,Current Challenges in the .Brent Field; SPE 2678a,
Offshore Europe, Aberdeen, Sep. 1993.
I
 lb A reviewof IOR/EOR.Pp.rtu. itiesf., the Brent Rdd.
SPE 27766
Depressmi,dbII theway forward

Figure 1. Location of the Brent Field

!,* - .,
,,ms”KL).3$o\ I A

Figure 2. Brent Field Overview

Figure 3. Top Brent Btructure.

338
SPE 27766 C.I.&f. Braithwaite 11

‘:~”“EE!zl. . ---J:
L BRENT WESTFMNK .,8,)0
1-
CSESTAL SLUMPS
H=l s~,rmaro~n
SLUMPS

Fiauwe 4. Schematic Cross Section Of Base Development

Plan Well Locations

Figure 5. Historical Production Performance

End d WaIedlood mmai”!”goil

~ =Q >

GXPILMJ* *..:..:.:..:.:.:..
.:.:..: ,..

..m
A% ~gm

,.7WWS
,----
G ..0,, W03

Figure 6. EOR Target Oil Volumes (MMstb)

339
 .

12 A review of IORIEOR .mtmtunitks for the Brent Fldd. SPE 27766

Depressaris& the way forward

ResidualOil in
Bypassed oil Presence of Gas

P&rly Connected Sands

Figure 7. Location Of Remaining Oil After waterflood

-.
loooo — ——

*
Ight Sand, ●
g
~
.—
3
● Good
m“:””-”””..”
+ Labytinth
%rds
Sad.
~~
““-”
E. 1Coo- ——————————————-—————-———-
●
:.
-8—— $:
●
*
*

‘
a
. ●
● ‘***
~
● *
5 . ..
+
% .
$
100- —-———-— ——— —-— ——— ——— ———-— ———-— —
*
*
102030. ZO 5060 .70..8C 90100
Waltilmxl Valumelrk Sweep Effide”cy (%)

Figure 8. Waterflood Sweep Efficiency - Based on Full Field Model

Figure 9. Gas Floodlng A Layered Reservoir

“,.

CJ.h4. BwJthwaite 13
SPE 277G

(40 BAR ~HP1

Cmluvllti c.ff.taue

ANDMIQBATION
y.a,wm
~~ EXVULS!ON
OF
7RAPPEOMYPASSED
OIL

Figure 10. Reservoir Depressurisation Prooess Within One

Geological Layer

— Exm.tatim of U.R.
-- Highcaaa
I
W%%d + I D.pr,murkatim
““d”a’ +
x ,000
&
2
,
: 4000
:
&
-.

:
.
0

.... YEAR

I (3AS
PLATEAU . . . . .

Figure 11. Time Scale For Gradual Depressurisation

I n==+-

Figure 12. Oil-Mum Management

341
 .,.

A review of 10 fUEOR opportunitiesfor the Brent Iidd. SPE 27766

DePress”ri@im the War forward

, D.,
Modal fluid SY.t,lll

; ~77:,,7

/“
lo~ F I // ,~

!—l-d.<.— %y..
-—-—-—-— 5 Yam% R.sav.,,
-—- —-—-— 10 Ymr$ \ C“ndM”m

i% —--—-—--zoy..=
J
01’oz’oia 40s0
G.. S.t.rati.n [%)

Figure 13. Critical Gas Saturation Measurements

Brent

---- —----
Allowable Subsidence

1.00

929496982GQ3G2 04080810
Year

Figure 14. Predicted Subsidence Of Brent Alpha Platform

Figure 15. Bravo Redevelopment - Weather Deck

342
-,-

SPE 27766 C.1..M.S@uiwalte 1s

80 A

ASSUMES CRITICAL GAS

50 SATURATION OF 15°A
Recovetv to date
2.5 Tcf (360%)
1

3 1, +
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
AVERAGE ABANDONMENT PRESSURE (psi)

Figure 16. Scope For Wet Gas Recovery During Depressurisation

mxeswisatbn
athspey & ~.mt
her fields ~ ---

WET GAS

d OIL
:..%
oil
I Eq”Wdmt :
---- t..:
1
-l %_, ~-~
‘1 :..*
%... ..__.%...
-1, L
>..; L.,
,..q--- -.
HISTORY FORECAST ‘-=.-t-. ,..“q..... LI”..% ‘“
%
\
,,%4 ,,98 ,938 2W$ 2W2 20M 20C6 2000 S

YEAR

Figure 17. Oil And Wet Gas Export