NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

MAIN CAMPUS II, BAJUMPANDAN, DUMAGUETE CITY

CE 511: IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

(T-TH 9:00 – 10:30 AM)
Chapter 7: Irrigation Structures

Submitted by:
Abejero, Marianne L.
Alparo, Daniel A.
Banquerigo, Roland G.
Cadavid, Lenith C.
Canillas, Carlo R.
Chua, Claire S.
Delfino, Genaro A. Jr.
Maldo, Princess Mae L.
Patajo, Britney A.
Tugahan, Jefferson T.

Submitted to:
Engr. Irismay T. Jumawan

September 2019
Topic Outline
Chapter XIII: Irrigation Structures

1 Conveyance Structures
By Canillas, Carlo R.
Delfino, Genaro A. Jr.

2 Distribution Structures
By Patajo, Britney
Banquerigo, Roland G.

3 Protective Structures
By Abejero, Marianne L.
Cadavid, Lenith C.

4 Regulating or Control Structures

By Alparo, Daniel A.
Tugahan, Jefferson T.

5 Water Measurement Structures

By Maldo, Princess Mae L.
Chua, Claire S.
INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS.

1.1 IRRIGATION STRUCTURES

Help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the different branches of the
system and onward to the irrigated fields.
Structures play an important part in the use and management of irrigation water, whether by open
ditch or pipeline. Various kinds of structures are used for the storage, distribution and
conveyance of water, water measurement structures and for erosion and grade control.

1.2 Irrigation Water Conveyance

Irrigation water must be made available to each part of the farm irrigation system at a rate
and elevation that permits proper operation of the selected methods of water application.
Irrigation water should be conveyed as economically, efficiently, and safely as possible.
The delivery part of the farm irrigation system must be large enough to furnish the
required irrigation water to meet crop demands during peak-use periods.

1.3 Irrigation System

Figure 1. Irrigation System

Major Parts of an Irrigation System:

The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply,
such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.

The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main
pumping station up to the field ditches.

The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.

The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.

The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the
fields.

1. Conveyance Structures
2.1 Types of Conveyance Structure

The type of conveyance facilities varies with the method of application. Sprinklers require
pressure pipe, mains, and laterals, and subirrigation uses either ditches or tile. The contour-levee
method generally uses a head ditch and levees, and the furrow and border methods require either
ditches or pipelines with siphon tubes, gated pipes, or other forms of takeouts. They must be
accessible for operation and maintenance. They must be able to provide water to every part of an
irrigated area. They should be located so that they interfere with farming operations as little as is
practical.

Figure 2. Irrigation Ditch

2.2.1 Ditches
Irrigation ditches are open channels used to carry irrigation water to its point of use. They are
used more than any other type of conduit. Field Ditches convey water from the farm source of
supply to a field or fields within the farm unit. They are generally large and should always be
permanent installations.

Ditches work best in clay or loam soils since seepage is usually less and ditch banks are more
stable than those in sands or sandy loams. Open ditches can carry large volumes of water and
have the advantage of low cost per volume of water carried. On soils where seepage is not a
problem, they are easy to build.

Figure 3.
Concrete Ditch

Figure 4. Unlined Ditch

2.2.2 Flumes

Flumes are artificial channels supported by substructures, which carry water across areas where
ditches are not practical, such draws or swales or along steep or rocky hillsides. They must be big
enough to carry the full discharge of a ditch, and the substructures must be strong enough to
support the channel when it is filled with water. Timber, metal, or concrete are ordinarily the
materials used for open flumes. The kind of wood, the character of exposure and the amount of
stress have an important bearing on the life of timber flumes. If it were not for the warping and
change of dimension due to wetting and drying, lumber would be entirely satisfactory.

Figure 5. Metal Flume with Timber Substructure Figure 6. Timber Flume

Figure 7. Flume
supported by pillars

2.2.3. Drop Structures

A drop structure, also known as a grade control, is a manmade structure, typically small and
built on minor streams, or as part of a dam's spillway, to pass water to a lower elevation while
controlling the energy and velocity of the water as it passes over.

Figure 8. Drop Structure

Types of Drop Structures

a. Vertical Hard Basin

The vertical hard basin drop structure, also called a dissipation wall, is the basic type of drop
structure. The vertical hard basin drop consists of a vertical "cutoff wall", usually built of
concrete, that is usually laid perpendicular to the stream flow; and an impact basin, not unlike a
stream pool, to catch the discharged water.

Figure 9. Vertical Hard Basin Drop

b. Grouted Sloping Boulders
A grouted sloping boulder drop structure is the most versatile of drop structures. Able to
accommodate both a broad floodplain and a narrow channel, they can also handle many different
drop heights. These structures are built by creating a slope of riprap, which consists of large
boulders or less commonly, blocks of concrete. These are then cemented together ("grouted") to
form the drop structure.

Figure 10. Grouted Sloping Boulder

c. Baffle Chutes
The baffle chute drop is built entirely of concrete and is effective with low maintenance needs.
They typically consist of a concrete chute lined with "baffle" teeth to slow velocity of water as it
passes over the structure

Figure 11. Baffle Chutes

2.2.3 Inverted Siphons
An inverted siphon is a closed conduit with each end raised to form a U-shaped structure for
carrying water under streams and drains or under roads and other obstructions. Inverted siphons
usually are constructed of L corrugated or smooth metal pipe, concrete pipe or reinforced
concrete poured in place. They are particularly adapted for conveying water under roads where
the water level in the irrigation ditch is carried above the ground. The inverted siphon is different
from a culvert in that the top of the pipe is lower than the water surface at either end, and the
pipe always flows under pressure.

Figure 12. A cross-section of an Inverted Siphon

Figure 13. An example of an Inverted Siphon

CANALS

There are two types of canals: waterways and aqueducts.

Waterways are the navigable parts of a body of water, and can be located within a bay or open
sea, can connect two or more waterbodies, or may even form networks within a city.

EXAMPLES OF WATERWAYS

SUEZ CANAL
KIEL CANAL
PANAMA CANAL

The 193.30 km (120 miles)-long

Suez Canal is an artificial sea-
level waterway located in Egypt
and connects the Mediterranean
Sea with the Gulf of Suez, a
northern branch of the Red Sea.

When it opened, the Suez Canal

was only 25 feet deep, 72 feet
wide at the bottom, and 200 to 300
feet wide at the surface.

KIEL CANAL-Length: 98.6 km. In

1895, the present-day Kiel Canal
was officially opened by Emperor
William II as the Kaiser Wilhelm
Canal. The name was changed in
1948 to Nord-Ostsee-Kanal (North
Sea to Baltic Sea Canal).
Internationally, it is usually referred
to as the Kiel Canal.

The Kiel Canal is located at the root of the Jutland Peninsula near the border between Germany
and Denmark. It is formally called the North Sea-Baltic Sea Canal (Nord-Ostsee Kanal) and is
ranked among the world's three major canals with the Suez and Panama Canals.
 PANAMA CANAL

LENGTH: 82 KM

The Panama Canal is an artificial

waterway in Panama that connects
the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific
Ocean.

AQUEDUCTS

What is an aqueduct?

An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far
away. In modern engineering, the term aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals,
tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose. Aqueducts were used in ancient Greece,
ancient Egypt, and ancient Rome.

Aqueducts are used exclusively to transport water for drinking, agriculture, and hydroelectric
power. It is a structure that looks like a bridge and that is used to carry water over a valley or also
it is a pipe or channel that is used to bring water to an area.
The Romans constructed ((aqueducts throughout their Republic and later Empire, to bring water
from outside sources into cities and towns. Aqueduct water supplied public baths, latrines,
fountains, and private households; it also supported mining operations, milling, farms, and
gardens.

Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, along a slight overall downward gradient within
conduits of stone, brick, or concrete; the steeper the gradient, the faster the flow. Most conduits
were buried beneath the ground and followed the contours of the terrain; obstructing peaks were
circumvented or, less often, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit
was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic, or stone pipes
and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, which helped to
reduce any water-borne debris. Sluices and castella aquae (distribution tanks) regulated the
supply to individual destinations. In cities and towns, the run-off water from aqueducts scoured
the drains and sewers.

Based on discharge there are

five types of canals:

 Main Canal.
 Branch canal.
 Major distributary
 Minor distributary
 Watercourse or field
channel

Canals having discharge greater than 10 m3/sec are called as main canals. A main canal carries
discharge directly from river. It carries water from rivers (dams) and feed to branch canals,
distributaries. They do not supply water directly to fields.

A branch canal usually carries a discharge of more than 5 m3/s but less than 20 m3/s. It takes off
from a branch canal but sometimes may take off from the main canal. Distributaries supply
water to the fields through outlets.
Major distributary canal takes off from the branch canal or in some cases from the main canal.
They supply water to minor distributaries and field channels. A canal is said to be major
distributary when its discharge lies between 0.25 m3/sec to 5 m3/sec.

Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes directly from branch
canals depending upon the discharge of canals. Their discharge is generally below 0.25
m3/sec. These canals supply water to the field channels.

The discharge in watercourses is less than 0.25 m3/sec. A field channel either take off from a
significant distributary or minor- it solely depends on which extent the irrigation will happen.
In a few cases, it also takes off water from the branch canal for the field.

PIPELINES

What is a pipeline?

Pipelines are a long pipe, typically underground, for conveying water, oil, gas, etc. over long
distances.

TYPES OF PIPE:

 Cement Pipes
 Metallic Pipes

 Plastic Pipes

 Cement Pipes

Asbestos cement pipe, also commonly referred to as transite pipe, was contructed from cement
and asbestos fibers. It was highly resistant to corrosion and was widely used in drainage systems
and gas lines. An asbestos cement “collar” was attached as a way of fitting two sections of pipe
together.
 Sizes of Pipe Culvert

Pipe Culvert Dimension

Metallic Pipes
 Metallic piping is made of steel and iron, such as unfinished, black(lacquer) steel, carbon
steel, galvanized steel, brass and ductile iron. Iron based piping is subject to corrosion if used
within a highly oxygenated water stream.

Plastic Pipes

Plastic Pipe is a tubular section, or hollow cylinder, made of plastic. It is usually, but not
necessarily, of circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow liquids
and gases(fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small soils.

PVC piping is used for:

 Drain-waste-vent (DWV).
 Sewers.

 Water mains.

 Water service lines.

  Irrigation.

 Conduit.

 Various industrial installations.

PVC pipe system can be produced in a lot of colors and you could easily recognition it after take
a look:

 White for DWV and some low pressure applications.

 White, blue, and dark gray for cold water piping.

 Green for sewer service.

 Dark gray for industrial pressure applications.

Advantages of plastic pipes:

 Plastic pipes are light in weight, tough, resistant to chemical attack and available in large
lengths.
 They reduce the cost of handling, transportation and installation.

 Less number of joints facilitates the speed and reduces chances of leakage.

 They are rust resistant.

 These pipes have good elastic properties.

 Their adaptability to earth movements is superior.

 Smooth internal surface of the pipes offers less friction.

Disadvantages of plastic pipes:

 Due to their non-decomposing property, plastic pipes are not installed in high
temperature.
 They are easily cracked.

 At higher temperatures, the strength of plastic pipes reduces.

2. Distribution Structures
-assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields
-are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the irrigation system and on the
farm.

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION STRUCTURES

1. Division box
2. Turnouts
3. Checks
Division box
-a rectangular structure which is usually built along the main farm ditch to divide and distribute
the flow to the supplementary farm ditches.

 Proportional flow division structure

-flows in canal is divided equally between two or more smaller canals
-the flows in these canals are proportional to the areas to be irrigated by each of them
Turnouts

-serve as an outlet of water in irrigation canals whereby water passes through and discharges into
the main farm ditch or service area
Checks

-are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the upstream water
level.
 3. Protective Structures
WHY DO WE NEED PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES?

Canals need to be protected against the erosive force of flowing water. In particular, in
places that are susceptible to erosion, canals can be serious damaged by a scouring water flow.
For instance, canal sections immediately downstream of a structure can suffer from the effect of
a water jet; low sections of a canal embankment can easily overtop and will suffer from erosion
by water that spills over; or curves in a canal can be eroded by the water flow due to locally high
flow velocities

1. Overchutes - Refers to cross drainage strucures that pass over the normal water surface
elevation of the drainage being crossed. It is typically used to convey stormwater across an
irrigation canal or natural drainageway.

2. Culverts - A tunnel carrying a stream under a road or railway. They are typically found in a
natural flow of water and serves the purpose of controlling a current flow and acts as a bridge.
Types of culverts:

a. Box culvert - It is a rigid frame structure that is made up of concrete and especially, RCC
(Reinfored concrete). It can be made in large sizes to accomodate increased flow rates and
capacities.

b. Pipe Culvert - Are the most common types of culverts due to competitive price and easy
installation. they are found in different shapes such circular,elliptical and pipe arch. Generally,
their shapes depends on the site conditios and constraints.
c. Arch Culvert - Is made up of metal, stone masonry,concrete, RCC etc. Construction does not
take a lot of time and unlike box culvert, water diversion is not necessary, it can be installed
without disturbing the water current.

Flow Conditions of Culverts

a.) Full Flow – the hydraulic condition in a culvert flowing full is called pressure flow.
One condition which can create pressure flow in a culvert is the back pressure caused by a high
downstream water surface elevation. A high upstream water surface elevation.

b.) Partly Full – also known as, Free Surface Flow or Open Channel Flow may be
categorized as subcritical, critical or supercritical. A determination of the appropriate flow
regime is accomplished by evaluating the dimensionless number Fr, called the Froude Number.

where;

V = Average Velocity

g = gravitational acceleration

A = Area

B = diameter

Fr Flow
 Fr > 1.0 Supercritical

Fr < 1.0 Subcritical

Fr = 1.0 Critical

c.) ‘Just-full-flow’ – A special type of free surface flow. This is a special condition where pipes
flow full with no pressure. The water surface just touches the crown pipe. The analysis of this
type of flow is just the same as a free surface flow.

Types of Flow Control

a.) Inlet Control – Occurs when the flow is shallow, high velocity flow categorized as
“supercritical”. The flow capacity is controlled at the entrance by the headwater depth.

b.) Outlet Control – occurs when the flow is either subcritical or in pressure flow (full). The
control section is located at the barrel exit or further downstream.
Tailwater (TW)

- depth of downstream water surface measured from invert of culvert outlet

Headwater (HW)

depth of upstream water surface measured from invert to culvert entrance.

NOMOGRAPH

- Also known as nomogram

- Diagram designed to allow graphical computation of a mathematical function
Figure 1.1. Design Chart of Inlet Control Nomograph – Box Culvert
Figure 1.2. Design Chart of Outlet Control Nomograph – Concrete Box Culvert Flowing
Full with n = 0.012
• Hydraulic Calculations:

• Manning’s Formula:

Where;

n = manning’s roughness

R = Hydraulic Radius

S = slope of energy grade

Q = Discharge

A = Area

• Problem 1.
• A pipe culvert with a diameter of 1.60 m is flowing full with a manning’s
roughness of 0.012 and a slope of 0.002. Determine the Capacity of the
culvert in this condition.

Given:

n = 0.012

S = 0.002

D = 1.60 m

Q=?
• Problem 2.
A conduit flowing half full carries 14.17 /s at 3 m/s. If n = 0.013.

a.) Compute the diameter of the conduit.

b.) Compute the Froude no.

c.) Determine the type of flow

a. Q = AV

14.17 =

D = 3.468 m

b. A=

= 4.723

B = 3.468 m

c. Since Fr < 1.0, the flow is subcritical.

Problem 3.

A sewer pipe is partly full with a diameter of 1.2 m. The coefficient of

roughness n = 0.012 and slope of .001. Compute for the capacity of the pipe
which flows 75% of the conduit.

Given: S = 0.001

n = 0.012

Q=?
 =

= 0.356 m

Design Problem 4.

Given the following data, calculate a suitable (a.) pipe size, (b.) check whether it
is in outlet or inlet control and (c.) determine it’s velocity.

Flow Q = 0.5 m3/s

Culvert length, L = 50m

Ls = 1.0

Ke= 0.7

Wingwall flare angle = 65◦

Maximum HW = 2.0m
 Tail water = 1.5 m

Step 2 :Assume Inlet Control

Try 600mm x 300mm box culvert.

Enter Design Chart 27.4 with Q = 0.5 m3/s

Q/NB = 0.5/0.6 = 0.83 m3/s/m

Draw line as shown and obtain HW/D = 4.3

HW = 4.3 x 0.30 = 1.29m < 2.0m

Step 3 : Check for Outlet Control

TW = 1.50m > 0.30m therefore the box culvert is flowing full

A = 0.6 x 0.3 = 0.18m2

Calculate H from Design Chart 27.11, noting that B/D =2.0 so the chart is
applicable.

therefore H = 1.4 m

then,

HW = TW + H – Ls

=1.5 + 1.4 – 1.0

=1.9 m

Note that 1.9m > 1.29m, the headwater depth for inlet control, so outlet control applies.

However the design is not acceptable because of the risk of clogging of the 300mm deep
culvert due to debris.

Try 600mm x 400mm box culvert.

A = 0.240 m2

Repeating the above steps gives:

HW/D = 2.2 and HW = 0.880m for inlet control, and

 H = 0.85m and HW = 1.35m for outlet control.

This is acceptable because 1.35 < HW max = 2.0

And the culvert flows with outlet control since:

1.35m > 0.88m = HW (inlet control) and the velocity is,

v = Q/A = 0.5/0.240 = 2.083 m/s

SPILLWAYS

 A spillway is a structure built at a dam site for diverting the surplus water from a
reservoir after it has been filled to its maximum capacity. Spillways are provided to
ensure that the water does not overflow and damage anything downstream or destroy
the dam.

Spillways are divided into three main types based on frequency of use. These are Service
Spillways/principal and Auxiliary Spillway/secondary/emergency.

Service Spillways/principal

 use for normal operation and is used first during flood flows.

 responsible for maintaining the water at a desired level.

 constructed of durable materials, and are designed to withstand frequent use without
significant damage to themselves or the dams.

Examples of uncontrolled spillways

Examples of controlled spillways

Auxiliary Spillway/secondary/emergency

 Is a secondary spillway designed to provide additional protection against over topping of

a dam and or a dike and is intended for use under unusual or extreme conditions such as
misoperation or malfunction of the service spillway or outlet works during very large,
remote floods or other emergency conditions.
 Example of emergency spillway(Oroville Dam)

DRAINAGE INLETS

 These are openings through which the surface runoff and storm water is admitted and
conveyed to the storm water sewer or combined sewer.

 It is box of concrete or masonry with the clear opening not more than 25mm.

 Maximum spacing depends on road surface, it varies between 30 to 60 m.

 Its purpose is to collect storm water runoff from the roadway and convey it to an outfall

Types of drainage inlets

 curb-opening inlets,

 grate inlets,

 combination inlets and

 slotted drain inlets

Curb opening inlets

 are vertical openings in the curb covered by a top slab.

 Applicable in sumps and continuous grades but bot steep grades

 Advantages : Do not clog easily and it is bicycle safe.

 Disadvantages: Lose capacity when increasing grades

Grate inlets

 consist of an opening in the gutter covered by one or more gates

 Applicable in sumps and continuous grades(should be made bicycle safe)

 Advantages: Perform well over wide range of grades

 Disadvantages: Can become clogged and lose some capacity when increasing grade
Combination

 combination of gate, curb and slotted inlets

 Applicable in sumps and continuous grades

 Advantages :High capacity and do not clog easily

 Disadvantages: More expensive than grate or curb opening acting alone

Slotted

 consist of slotted openings with bars perpendicular to openings

 Applicable in the locations where sheet flow must be intercepted.

 Advantages : Intercept flow over wide section

 Disadvantages: Susceptible to clogging

4. Regulating Structures
Types of Regulatory Hydraulic Structures

Definition and Functions:

Regulatory works are the hydraulic structures constructed across the canals to facilitate complete
control over the flow of water in the irrigation canals.

The regulatory works are constructed to perform following functions:

1. A regulator regulates the flow of a canal by releasing measured quantity of water in the canal.

2. A fall or a rapid corrects the bed slope of a canal and prevents the canal from going into
excessive filling.

3. An escape is a surplussing channel which takes away excess flow from an irrigation canal.

4. A silt ejector or a sluice removes the deposited silt from an irrigation canal and keeps it clean.

5. An outlet releases measured discharge from a canal into a field channel for irrigating crops.

6. A flume and a gauge well helps in measuring the canal discharge at a desired point.

Regulators:
For equitable and efficient distribution of irrigation water it is very essential to regulate the
supply. A hydraulic structure constructed to regulate the water supply is called a regulator. The
regulators not only regulate the irrigation water supply but also control the silt entry into the
canal.

Depending upon the location of a regulator following broad classification of regulators may
be recognised:
(i) Canal head regulator.

(ii) Canal cross regulator.

(iii) Distributary head regulator.

(i) Canal Head Regulator:

It is a hydraulic structure constructed at the head of a canal system to regulate the irrigation
supplies.

(ii) Canal Cross Regulator:

It is a hydraulic structure constructed across a canal to regulate irrigation water supplies. It may
be constructed across any type of canal, main, branch or a distributary.

Following considerations make it necessary to construct a regulator across the canal:

(i) When due to inadequate supply the water level is lowered the off-taking channels do not get
their proper share. A cross regulator is provided to raise the water level.

(ii) Sometimes it becomes necessary to carry out some repair work on a canal. A cross regulator
if existing above, the canal can be closed and repairs can be done efficiently.

(iii) Sometimes it is necessary to close the canal below a particular point. Say when there is no
demand for irrigation water during a particular period.

(iv) Cross regulators divide a long canal reach into smaller ones and make it possible to maintain
the reach successfully and efficiently. For efficient functioning they should be spaced 10 to 13
km apart on the main canal and 7 to 10 km on the branches.
(iii) Distributary Head Regulator:
It is a hydraulic structure constructed, at the head of a distributary. This regulator performs the
same functions as that of a head regulator. That is regulation of supply of a distributary. It can be
used many times as a meter. It is also a silt selective structure. Only difference is that distributary
head regulator is much smaller in magnitude as compared to the head regulator. Fig. 17.2 shows
sectional end view of a distributary head regulator.

Falls:
A canal is given uniform bed slope. However, natural ground does not have uniform slope. When
the ground has a steep slope heavy earth filling is required to construct the canal with a flatter
bed slope. It is a very costly method. As an alternative, vertical fall or a drop may be provided at
a suitable section. It brings down the canal bed line. In this process water comes down the fall
with a great force. All the excess potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. Excess energy
of flow is destroyed with some suitable energy dissipation method.

Following points should be considered while selecting a site for a fall:

(i) Possibility of combining some other structure with a fall e.g. a cross regulator, road bridge,
etc. It reduces the cost of the project.

(ii) Command should not be reduced due to lowering of F.S.L. The fall may be located below the
outlets.

(iii) Cutting and filling required below and above the fall should be equal.

Types of Falls:
(a) Ogee Fall:
In early stages of fall design an ogee fall was commonly constructed. The body of the fall was
given the shape of a falling nappe. It was given to provide smooth changeover of water levels
(Fig. 17.3). In this type protection of the bed below the fall was found difficult because the
descending water used to acquire excessive kinetic energy.

(b) Rapid or Glacis:

Second stage of development of a fall was a rapid or glacis. It was nothing but an inclined fall
with steep slope (Fig. 17.4).

(c) Stepped Fall:

It was constructed with small drops. Short horizontal step was given after every drop. The fall is
something like a staircase. It also takes sufficient length.

(d) Vertical Fall:

It consists of a body wall constructed across the canal. Its crest is kept in level with the upstream
canal bed. The body wall is given slight batter on the downstream side. It is constructed with
masonry. Gates are generally provided on the top to regulate the flow. Then it acts as a regulator
also. Some energy dissipation device is provided below the fall. (Fig. 17.5)
(e) Notch Fall:
It consists of a body wall constructed across the canal. On the body wall there are notches in
between the piers. The notches may be trapezoidal or rectangular in shape. The sill of the notches
is in level with the upstream canal bed above the fall.

(f) Sarda Type Fall:

It is a fall with a raised crest. The body wall is constructed like a weir (Fig. 17.7). Below the fall
suitable device is provided for dissipating excess energy of falling water. This type of falls were
constructed on the Sarda canal in Uttar Pradesh and hence the name. As the crest of the fall is
raised silting of the upstream canal is possible.

(g) Flumed Fall:

In this type the length of the body wall of a fall is less than the normal canal width. The section is
restricted at site of the fall. The narrowing of the section is done gradually. Three main falls
come under this category.

(h) Fall Regulator:

It is designed as a fall cum regulator. Generally cross regulator is very well combined with a fall.
It is constructed in such a way that the regulating gates can be arranged to suit the water level
upstream of the fall. The fall regulator is shown in Fig. 17.1.

Canal Escape:
They are nothing but outlet structures provided in a canal bank with a side channel to relieve
irrigation canals of excess discharge, if any.

The outlet structure is of two types:

(i) Weir type, and

(ii) Sluice type.

The crest of a weir or the sill of a sluice is kept at F.S.L. to allow withdrawal of flow in excess of
full supply discharge only. The openings are generally controlled with gates.

Although maximum discharge of an irrigation canal is always fixed, the canal discharge
may increase in a particular reach due to any one of the following reasons:
(a) Excessive rainfall in the upstream reach.

(b) Faulty regulation at the head of the canal.

(c) Sudden closure of outlets in the upstream reach.

It is clear that if discharge in a canal is allowed to increase above the design discharge irrigation
canal is likely to be damaged. Hence provision of escapes is essential. The capacity of an escape
may be kept about 50 per cent of the design discharge of the irrigation canal. The excess water
may be taken through side channel to a natural drain or a river for proper disposal. The escapes
may be provided on the canal at intermediate points and also at the tail of a canal.

Then they are called by different names viz.:

(a) Surplussing escape, and
(b) Tail escape, respectively.

Silt Ejector and Sluices for Silt Removal:

That though silt has manurial property heavy silt concentration in the irrigation canal creates
troubles. It is very essential to keep perfect control over silt concentration.

Following two steps are essentially required to keep control over silt:
(i) Prevention of silt entry into the canal; and

(ii) Removal of silt which has entered into the canal.

The silt which has entered the canal and is likely to disturb the regime condition may be
removed in various ways:
(a) Silt Ejector:
This is a structure which extracts the bottom layers of silt laden water. It consists of a series of
tunnels constructed on the bed of a channel. They are parallel to the flow at entrance. The tunnels
are then turned through 90 degrees to take out the water from the canal (Fig. 17.13).

(b) King’s Vanes:

They are also termed as silt vanes. They are nothing but curved vanes (8 cm thick, made of
R.C.C.) of low height (height ranges from 1/3 to 1/4 depth of flow) constructed on the bed of a
parent channel in front of an off-taking channel. They are generally spaced 1.5 times the height.
They extend for half the width of the parent channel.
(c) Gibb’s Groyne Wall:
It is a solidand slightly curved wall which extends from the downstream junction point of an off-
taking channel into the parent channel (Fig. 17.15).

(d) Silt Escapes or Sluices:

They are nothing but scouring sluices provided in the body of a weir constructed in the bank at
the mouth of some natural drain as shown in Fig. 17.16.

The silt level of the sluices may be fixed below the bed of the canal for efficient working. The
accumulated silt is flushed through the sluices at intervals. The escapes are provided all along the
canal reach where possible. It is true that for flushing the silt large quantity of water is required.
Hence this procedure can only be used when irrigation water is available in excess.

(e) Silt Traps:

Sometimes pits of suitable size may be dug in the bed of a channel. When the canal runs silt goes
on accumulating in these pits. When the pits are filled and when the canal is dry accumulated silt
may be removed manually.

Canal escapes
These are structures meant to release excess water from a canal, which could be main canal,
branch canal, distributary, minors etc. Though usually an irrigation system suffers from deficit
supply in later years of its life, situations that might suddenly lead to accumulation of excess
water in a certain reach of a canal network may occur due to the following reasons:

• Wrong operation of head works in trying to regulate flow in a long channel resulting in
release of excess water than the total demand in the canal system downstream.

Excessive rainfall in the command area leading to reduced demand and consequent
closure of downstream gates.
• Sudden closure of control gates due to a canal bank breach.

The excess water in a canal results in the water level rising above the full supply level which, if
allowed to overtop the canal banks, may cause erosion and subsequent breaches. Hence, canal
escapes help in releasing the excess water from a canal at times of emergency. Moreover, when a
canal is required to be emptied for repair works, the water may be let off through the escapes.

Escapes as also built at the tail end of minors at the far ends of a canal network. These are
required to maintain the required full supply level at the tail end of the canal branch.

The construction feature of escapes allows it to be classified in to two types, as described below.

Weir or surface escapes

These are constructed in the form of weirs, without any gate or shutter (Figure 26) and spills over
when the water level of the canal goes above its crest level
Sluice or surplus escapes

These are gated escapes with a very low crest height (Figure 27). Hence, these sluices can empty
the canal much below its full supply level and at a very fast rate. In some cases, these escapes act
as scouring sluices to facilitate removal of sediment.

The locations for providing escapes are often determined on the availability of suitable drains,
depressions or rivers with their bed level at or below the canal bed level so that any surplus water
may be released quickly disposed through these natural outlets. Escapes may be necessary
upstream of points where canals takeoff from a main canal branch. Escape upstream of major
aqueducts is usually provided. Canal escapes may be provided at intervals of 15 to 20km for
main canal and at 10 to 15km intervals for other canals.

The capacity of an escape channel should be large enough to carry maximum escape discharge.
These should be proper energy dissipation arrangements to later for all flow conditions. The
structural and hydraulic design would be similar to that of regulators or sluices or weirs, as
appropriate.
 5. Water Measurement Structures
Cut-throat Flumes and Orifices
Reporter: Claire Sapico Chua

Cut Throat Flumes

 a class of flow measurement flume developed during 1966/1967 in Utah State University
Water Research Laboratory, Utah State, Logan, Utah. (by Skogerboe,Hyatt, Anderson,
and Eggleston)
 is used to measure the flow of surface waters, sewage flows, and industrial discharges.
 unlike the Parshall flume, the Cutthroat flume lacks a parallel-walled throat section and
maintains a flat floor throughout the flume.
 fixed hydraulic structure and designed to be use in flat gradient applications
 a total of 16 standard sizes of Cutthroat flumes have been developed, covering flow
ranges from 0.3536 gpm [0.0223 l/s] to 54,801 gpm [3,458 l/s].
 (Sample Images of Cut Throat Flumes)

How to measure the water flow using Cut Throat Flumes?

Q= C(HN) where C= KW1.025

Where
 Q is flow rate (cfs, m3/s, gpm, l/s)
 C is the free-flow coefficient
 H is the head at the primary point of measurement
 N is the free-flow exponent
 W is the throat width
 K is the flume discharge constant

Note: Both “K” and “N” vary by flume length alone.

Table 1: Different Values of Coefficients for Cut Throat Flumes according to its Dimensions

LENGTH WIDTH N K (I MP E R IA L ) K (S I) C ( IM P E R IA L ) C (S I)

18” 1" 2.150 6.100 7.4791 0.494 0.1802

18” 2" 2.150 6.100 7.4791 0.974 0.3553

18” 4" 2.150 6.100 7.4791 1.975 0.7205

18” 8" 2.150 6.100 7.4791 4.030 1.4701

36" 2" 1.840 4.500 3.7758 0.719 0.1811

 36" 4" 1.840 4.500 3.7758 1.459 0.3675

36" 8" 1.840 4.500 3.7758 2.970 0.7503

36" 16" 1.840 4.500 3.7758 6.040 1.5213

54" 3" 1.720 3.980 2.9394 0.960 0.2103

54" 6" 1.720 3.980 2.9394 1.960 0.4293

54" 12" 1.720 3.980 2.9394 3.980 0.8718

54" 24" 1.720 3.980 2.9394 8.010 1.745

108" 12" 1.560 3.500 2.1383 3.50 0.6322

108" 24" 1.560 3.500 2.1383 7.11 1.2843

108" 48" 1.560 3.500 2.1383 14.49 2.6175

108" 72" 1.560 3.500 2.1383 22.0 3.9741

(Source: https://www.openchannelflow.com/flumes/cutthroat-flumes/flow-characteristics)

Advantages of using Cut Throat Flumes:

• Available in countless styles and can be produced in a range of materials, including
fiberglass, stainless steel, etc.
• Minimal maintenance needs.
• Provide accurate readings than other devices.
• Ability to measure higher flow rates.
Disadvantages:
• Construction Cost and Flumes price (depending on type of material)
• Difficult Installation

Orifices

 an opening usually circular with a closed perimeter through which fluid flows.
 is primarily used to measure or control the flow of fluid.
  For irrigation use, orifices are commonly circular or rectangular in shape and are
generally placed in vertical surfaces, perpendicular to the direction of channel flow.
 the submerged orifice requires head measurements upstream and downstream.
 may be used to measure rates of flow when the size and shape of the orifices and the
heads acting upon them are known.

(Sample Images of Orifices and CHO/ Constant Head Orifices Turnouts)

Types of Orifices:

A. Fully Submerged Orifices

 In fully sub-merged orifice, the outlet side is fully sub-merged under the liquid and it
discharges a jet of liquid into the liquid of the same kind.
  It is also called totally drowned orifice.
 Discharge through fully sub-merged orifice is calculated as:

Or

Q = C x A x (√2gh)
Where:

 Q is flow rate (cfs, m3/s, gpm, l/s)

 C is the discharge coefficient
 A is the area of the orifice (circular or rectangular)
 g is acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
 h is the head difference

Sample Problem:
Find the discharge through a fully sub-merged orifice of width 2 m if the difference of the water
levels on the both sides of the orifice is 50 cm. The height of water from top and bottom of the
orifice are 2.5 m and 2.75 m respectively. Take Cd= 0.6.
Given,
Width of the orifice b=2m
Difference in water level H= 50 cm = 0.5 m
Height of water from top of orifice H1= 2.5 m
Height of water from bottom of orifice H1= 2.75 m
Now, discharge through fully submerged orifice is

=0.9396 m3/s Ans.

B. Partially Submerged Orifices

 the outlet side is partially sub-merged under liquid.

 It is also called partially drowned orifice.
 Discharge through fully sub-merged orifice is calculated as:
Where:
 Q is flow rate (cfs, m3/s, gpm, l/s)
 Cd is the discharge coefficient
 b is the width of the orifice (rectangular)
 g is acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
 H1 is height of water from the upper part of the orifice
 H2 is height of water from the lower part of the orifice

Sample Problem:
An orifice in one side of a large tank is rectangular in shape, 2 meters broad and 1 meter deep.
The water level on one side of the orifice is 4 meters above its top edge. The water level on the
other side of the orifice is 0.5 meter below its top edge as shown in fig. Calculate the discharge
through the orifice per second if Cd= 0.63.
Given,
 b = 2m
 d = 1m
 H1 = 4m
 H2 = 4+1 = 5m
 H = 4+0.5 = 4.5m
 Cd = 0.63
 Since the orifice is partially drowned, therefore let us split up the orifice into two portions will be
treated as a free orifice and the lower portion as a drowned orifice.

The discharge through the free portion of the orifice,

The discharge through the drowned portion of the orifice,

Total discharge = = 2.88 + 5.92 = 8.8m3 /s Ans.

Advantages of Orifice:

 Easy to install/remove.

 Offer very little pressure drop.

 The orifice meter can be easily maintained.

 Measures a wide range of flows.

 They have require simple construction.

 They are cheap; the price does not increase dramatically with size.

Disadvantages of orifice meter:

 Requires homogeneous fluid.

 It causes a pressure drop in the fluid.

 Its accuracy is affected by the density, pressure and viscosity of the fluid.

 Considerable sizes of sediments or impurities can cause blockage.

Sample Problem for Cut-Throat Flumes:

Compute the flow rate of the water if the head at the primary point of measurement is 3inches,
given that the dimension of the flume is 18inches in length and 1 inch width.

Given:

H= 18in
W=1in
N= 2.15

Using English Units:

3 inches (1ft/12 inches) = 0.25ft

Q= C(HN)
Q= (0.494) x (0.252.15)
Q= 0.0251 cfs

Using SI Units:

3 inches = 0.25ft (1m/3.281ft) = 0.0762m

Q= C(HN)
Q= (0.1802) x (0.07622.15)
Q= 0.0007111 m3/s

Convert to cfs to check:

0.0007111 m3/s x (3.28ft/1m)3 = 0.02508 or 0.251 cfs