GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF BRECCIAS By Ned Howard with help from Andrew Ford and David Brookes

Introduction Breccia Classification Summary

Despite showing an important association with numerous types of gold deposits,
5
Alteration
epigenetic breccias remain an enigmatic topic for many geologists. This
(temporally
classification of breccias is genetic and based on the inferred role of magmas, Diagram Energy Diameter Fragment Rock flour Juvenile Surface associated with
magmatic volatiles and their interaction with groundwaters. It is taken from a Code Breccia Category Source Mobile Phase Geometry (m) form matrix component Other features connection brecciation)
classification by Sillitoe (1985) and a modified and expanded classification in
Single or
Lawless et al (1998).
4 3 2 1 multiple Angular- Local to Sheeted contacts, Sericite,
Epigenetic breccia bodies are a not uncommon feature of numerous geological Magmatic- Magma Magmatic subvertical subrounded, common shingle breccia, tourmaline, K-
environments (especially magmatic arcs), and may show a spatial and indirect or 1 hydrothermal (directly) volatiles pipes up to 2,000 locally rounded (<50%) None exfoliated fragments None silicate
direct genetic relationship to ore formation. Commonly, breccias are usually just Explosion
one part of a protracted history of magmatic-hydrothermal activity. Some
examples of large gold deposits hosted within large epigenetic breccia bodies are
5 2 Magma
crater,
breccia
(through Pipe-like, Commonly apron,
Cripple Creek (alkalic low sulfidation epithermal), Olympic Dam (IOCG), Grasberg
(Au-rich porphyry) and numerous high sulfidation epithermal deposits. 7 2 Phreatic
circulating
groundwaters) Groundwater
irregular, pebble
dikes
Angular to
up to ~500 rounded
present
<50% None
Exfoliated fragments, hydrothermal
sinter fragments activity Silicification, clay
Before assigning a breccia body to a breccia type within this classification,
numerous pieces of evidence need to be observed. These include: dominant No juvenile clasts,
breccia texture and composition, particular important textural features (e.g. 3 wall-rock blocks,
accretionary lapilli, ragged juvenile clasts, etc), distribution and relationships Magma up to Subrounded to Present base surge deposits, Maar, tuff
between breccia facies and the overall geometry of the breccia body. 1 3 Magmatic-phreatic (indirectly) Groundwater Diatreme ~3,000 rounded (<90%) None accretionary lapilli ring, domes Minor
Clearly, the below classification system is not suitable for field use, and
considerable field work is required before it is used. In breccia hosted Wall-rock blocks,
base surge deposits,
hydrothermal systems, it is important that variations in breccia facies are 4 Tuff matrix, locally exfoliated
recognised and their distribution determined. This can help to vector towards
prospective zones within the breccia system. Field classification of breccia facies Magma 1,000 - Subrounded to Present cognate fragments, Maar, tuff
4 Phreatomagmatic (directly) Groundwater Diatreme 3,000 rounded (<90%) lithics accretionary lapilli ring, domes Minor
should be based on features such as clast composition (mono/polymictic), degree
Tuff matrix, Pyroclastic
of rounding, clast:matrix ratio (clast vs matrix supported), matrix composition
pumice, Wall-rock blocks, fall & flow
(hydrothermal infill vs milled rock) and the presence/absence of important clast 5 Magma Magmatic Diatreme, Subrounded to cognate locally exfoliated deposits,
types (e.g. soft-deformed sediments, accretionary lapilli, juvenile ‘whispy’ clasts). 5 Magmatic (directly) volatiles volcanic vent 500 - 5,000 rounded Present lithics fragments domes Minor
• Sillitoe, R.H., 1985, Ore-related breccias in volcanoplutonic arcs, Economic Irregular
66 Intrusion Intrusion Magma patches up to ~100 Angular Absent None Intrusive rock matrix None Variable (minor)
Geology, v. 80, p. 1467-1514.
Regional Steep tabular Angular to Present
• Lawless, J.V., White, P.J., Bogie, I., Paterson, L.A., Cartwright, A.J., 1998, 77 Tectonic tectonism N/A bodies up to ~50 subrounded (<100%) None Slickensides, gouge None Variable (minor)
Appendix 1: Genetic Classification of Breccias, Ore Deposits and Magmatic- 6
Hydrothermal Processes (Workshop manual), Kingston Morrison consulting, pp.
20.

4. Phreatomagmatic Breccias formed due to the direct interaction of 6. Intrusion Breccias

1. Magmatic Hydrothermal magma and external water. Commonly form diatreme breccias. Breccias caused by the emplacement of an
Also referred to as “carapace breccias”, these are the product intrusive body, but not associated magmatic-
of juvenile hydrothermal fluids exsolved from magmas. hydrothermal fluids.

Accretionary lapilli,
Wau gold district,

Quartz tourmaline breccia with

Schematic Diagram showing end-member Breccia Environments of Formation PNG

exfoliated fragments, Wheal Remfry Contact zone between

clay mine, Cornwall, UK 2. Phreatic Breccias caused by the expansion of steam and gas 3. Magmatic Phreatic Breccias caused by the flashing porphyritic andesite (top)
from circulating groundwater, but driven by magmatic heat. Involvement of /expansion of groundwater heated by a magma. No direct contact and a more mafic later
magmatic volatiles is unimportant. Also referred to as hydrothermal intrusive with brittle
between the magma and the water. Geologically and genetically fracturing and plucking of
eruption breccias. similar to phreatomagmatic breccias. Polymictic, milled wall rock into the later
diatreme breccia, magma.
Ntina pit, Placer Au
Accretionary lapilli, cryptic rounded shapes mine, Philippines
Characteristic “shingle texture” thought to form from accretion of wet ash
breccia, Wheal Remfry clay mine, onto rock fragments in eruption clouds, or
Cornwall, UK within ‘muddy’ breccia pipes, Lepanto,
Philippines
Vent explosion, Ukinrek Maar,
Alaska, 1964

Pebble dyke, Mt Bischolf Sn mine, Low Sulphidation vein breccia with minor Schematic X section showing progressive
Tasmania, Australia milling to sub-angular fragments, evidence of Tuff apron of pyroclastic material including development of a maar, with intrusion
7. Tectonic Breccias associated with
Tourmaline breccia, Kidston Breccia re-brecciation, Woolgar Australia surrounding maar volcano, Ukinrek Maar,
Pipe, Queensland Australia
following existing zone of weakness (fault) regional and local tectonism, brittle and ductile
Alaska USA
faulting.

Pronounced brittle fracture of

existing quartz vein by fault,
Schematic X Section of with later hydrothermal
Kerkil low sulphidation 5. Magmatic Breccias generated by the explosive decompression of alteration, Kangaroo Hills Tin
breccia system (Kalimantan, magmatic volatiles. These breccias include vent breccias and magmatic field, Qld Australia
Indonesia) showing alteration diatremes.
Energite breccia, Lepanto zonation and breccia Schematic cross section through
Cu–Au mine, Philippines distribution typical maar-diatreme showing
diatreme breccia pipe capped by
maar lake sediments and Altered rhyolitic autoclastic
surrounding tuff apron breccia, with clay
alteration of matrix and Tectonic breccia, Malibu fault,
clast margins, Oga California USA
Peninsula, Japan

Type 3. Magmatic-phreatic Breccias

Type 1. Magmatic-Hydrothermal Breccias caused by the flashing/expansion of groundwaters that is heated by a magma. No direct contact between the magma and the water (unlike phreatomagmatic breccias) and the groundwater does not
Also referred to as “carapace breccias”, these are the product of juvenile hydrothermal fluids exsolved from magmas. circulate to a shallower level before brecciation can occur (unlike phreatic breccias). Magmatic-phreatic breccias are difficult to differentiate from phreatomagmatic breccias and some bodies identified as the
• Genesis: Fractionation of intrusive magma may lead to the exsolution of an immiscible volatile phase (‘second boiling’), which exceeds lithostatic pressure resulting in latter may actually be magmatic-phreatic breccias. Altered polymict volcanic Tectonic breccia, showing
varying degrees of hydraulic fracturing. This process may occur multiple times as further magmatic fractionation and exsolution occur. • Genesis: Similar to phreatomagmatic breccias but not involving direct magma-water contact. An intruding magma leads to an increase in the temperature of ambient groundwater at a shallower level than fragmentation and imbrication
Subaerial rhyolitic lava dome with breccia with strong qtz-
• Geometry: Commonly sub- vertical pipe to tabular bodies. Single or multiple bodies and phases. the magma, causing the groundwater to flash/expand and overcome lithostatic pressure. The fluid pressure generated is enough to cause brecciation at the site of heating, rather than driving the circulation
• Diameter: 50-300m, locally >1,000m. carapace of autobreccia ser-chl alteration, Hellyer of wallrock clasts into foliation
of groundwater to shallower levels were confining pressures are low enough that boiling and brecciation can occur. Multiple stages of brecciation may occur.
• Breccia Characteristics: Angular to sub-rounded (locally rounded) clasts of country rock ± intrusions within a matrix of hydrothermal infill with local minor clastic • Geometry: Subvertical pipe-like bodies (similar to phreatomagmatic breccias), magmatic-phreatic diatremes. Breccia complexes may be formed by the coalescing and overprinting of adjacent breccia Mine, Tas, Australia
matrix. Infill minerals commonly indicative of high temperature and salinity (e.g. tourmaline, feldspar). bodies
• Geological Setting and Relationships: Spatially associated with intrusions but extending sub-vertically away. May grade downwards into cupolas of intrusives with • Diameter: up to >2,000m
or without intrusion breccias or pegmatites. May grade upwards into breccia pipes and then to veins through decreasingly fractured country rocks. May occur at any • Breccia Textures: Similar to phreatomagmatic breccias (i.e. generally polymictic, matrix supported with rounded to subrounded clasts) but lacking any juvenile clasts.
depth from >5km to ~1-2km depth. • Distinguishing Features: As for phreatomagmatic breccias. Distinguished from magmatic breccias by the lack of juvenile clasts and the separation of the root of the breccia body from coeval intrusions.
• Surface Expression: None Generally larger or deeper-seated and with evidence of higher temperatures than phreatic breccias.
• Associated Ore Deposits: Commonly closely spatially ± genetically associated with intrusion-related deposits and porphyry Cu-(Au/Mo) deposits (e.g. Kidston • Geological Setting: Similar to phreatomagmatic breccias. Base of the breccia body is separated from coeval intrusions. The breccia body gives way laterally to decreasingly fractured wallrock, though Type 5. Magmatic Breccias Type 6. Intrusion Breccias
breccia-hosted Au, Australia; Los Bronces porphyry Cu-Au, Chile; Ok Tedi porphyry Cu-Au, PNG; Galore Creek porphyry Cu-Mo, Canada). Brecciation is typically pre- boundaries between milled breccia and fractured wallrock may be sharp. Breccias generated by the explosive decompression of magmatic volatiles. These breccias include vent breccias and magmatic diatremes. Breccias associated with the emplacement of an intrusive body, but not associated
to inter-mineral and may be genetically associated with mineralisation. Mineralisation in breccia-pipe hosted deposits commonly occurs near the margins, while in • Surface Expression: Similar to phreatomagmatic breccias. Maars or post-breccia domes may occur at surface. Blind breccia bodies are known. • Genesis: Exsolution of volatiles from a hydrous magma results in explosive pressure release at the top of a near-surface magma magmatic-hydrothermal fluids.
porphyry systems, mineralisation is more common within the breccia itself. • Associated Ore Deposits: Similar relationship to porphyry and epithermal deposits as phreatomagmatic breccias. Gold deposits at Boulder County, USA and Cerro Violeta and Cerro Colorado, Chile may chamber and overlying rock. Magmatic breccias are essentially the near-surface equivalents of magmatic-hydrothermal breccias. • Genesis: Passive, mechanical brecciation associated with movement (intrusion) of
be associated with magmatic-phreatic breccias. Gold mineralisation at Kelly gold mine, Philippines is associated with an event interpreted as magmatic-phreatic in origin. • Geometry: Subvertical diatremes/pipes to upwardly-flaring funnels. magma and incorporation of country rock.
• Diameter: 500 to 5,000m, up to >1,000m vertical extent. • Geometry: Variably oriented lenses and patchy zones at intrusive margins
• Breccia Characteristics: Subrounded to rounded clasts of dominantly juvenile material within a matrix of variably comminuted vitric and • Diameter: up to ~100m
Type 2. Phreatic Breccias
Breccias caused by the expansion of steam and gas from circulating groundwater, but driven by magmatic heat. Involvement of magmatic volatiles is unimportant. Also Type 4. Phreatomagmatic Breccias lithic material (i.e. lapilli to tuffaceous rock flour). Generally breccias are clast supported. Near-surface breccias may contain recycled • Breccia Textures: Angular fragments of country rock (metamorphics, earlier
Breccias formed due to the direct interaction of magma and external water. Also known as diatreme breccias. volcanic bombs, slumped blocks of vent-wall material. intrusions, early crystallised intrusion) within a crystalline igneous matrix.
referred to as hydrothermal eruption breccias.
• Genesis: Contact between a rising magma and groundwater results in flashing of water to steam and the explosive fragmentation of country rock. Fluidisation of material may occur, resulting in mixing of • Geological Setting and Relationships: Magmatic breccias occur within volcanic vents and magmatic diatremes (i.e. excavative volcanic Gradational to fractured wallrock (± dykes) on one side and intrusive rock (±
• Genesis: Ground waters circulating above a cooling magma are heated and accent to a shallow subsurface level where flashing can occur, causing fracturing and
clasts and a high degree of milling. Diatremes are commonly the products of multiple stages of magma-water interaction. vents). They are intimately associated with the source magma chamber (below) and may grade into coherent intrusive rock. Passive xenoliths).
brecciation. Often deposition of silica and other minerals decreases permeability, allowing pressure to build up again and re-brecciation to occur.
• Geometry: Pipe to upwardly flared cone shape ascent of magma after brecciation may result in cross-cutting dikes and domes. • Geological Setting: Closely spatially associated with margins of causative
• Geometry: Commonly irregular but usually pipelike. Also pebble dikes.
• Diameter: up to >1500m horizontally and up to >2,500m vertically. • Surface Expression: Volcanic vent with local depression within a composite volcanic cone or a tuff ring or maar volcano above a intrusion. May occur at any depth below the surface where intrusions occur.
• Diameter: up to ~500m
• Breccia Characteristics: Typically subrounded to rounded polymictic clasts of wallrock matrix supported in rock flour with or without hydrothermal cement. . Clasts are commonly hydrothermally altered. magmatic diatreme. • Surface Expression: None
• Breccia Textures: Degree of clast mixing, rounding and proportion of matrix depend on longevity of brecciation. Commonly sub-surface breccias are monomictic to
Accretionary lapilli (fragments coated in a concentric rim of rock flour) are diagnostic of the involvement of water in formation of the breccia. Near the base of the diatreme ‘whispy’ juvenile clasts may occur • Associated Ore Deposits: Not directly genetically associated with mineralisation, but can be spatially associated with pre- or post- • Associated Ore Deposits: Not genetically related to ore deposits. May be
polymictic, clast-supported with angular to rounded clasts. Near surface and surface (eruptive) breccia products tend to contain more matrix, and more polymictic and
and are indicative of the involvement of magma. Towards the top of the diatreme, inclusion of blocks/fragments of fine grained surface sediments and wood may occur within the breccia and suggest a near- breccia porphyry-style mineralisation or post-breccia epithermal mineralisation. E.g. Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, Chile; Toquepala, Peru; spatially associated with any intrusion-related mineralisation.
generally thin and small volume relative to volcanic eruption products. Accretionary lapilli are common near surface. Clasts and matrix are commonly highly altered,
surface position. However, wallrock fragments can undergo considerable vertical transport and large blocks of near-surface material or basement can occur within the breccia body 100’s m below their Ashio, Japan and Casino, Yukon, Canada.
generally to low temperature, low pH minerals, such as silica, clays and sulphur.
• Distinguishing Features: Common low temperature hydrothermal alteration, accretionary lapilli, association with hotspring and fumarolic activity. Exfoliated fragments original position.
and sinter fragments may also occur. • Geological Setting and Relationships: Phreatomagmatic diatremes directly involve magma and commonly terminate down into dikes. The breccia body gives way laterally to decreasingly fractured
• Geological Setting: Typically occurring close to surface (<1-200m below ground) and associated with surface hydrothermal activity such as hotsprings and solfatars. wallrock, though boundaries between milled breccia and fractured wallrock may be sharp. Type 7. Tectonic Breccias
• Surface Expression: Blind deposits may occur but are not common. Small eruption vents flanked by surface breccia deposits, surface hydrothermal activity and low • Surface Expression: Diatremes vent out at maar or tuff ring volcanoes, maars where the vent floor has been excavated below the surrounding ground level. Tuff rings occur above small diatremes that do
Breccias associated with regional and local tectonism.
temperature (steam heated) alteration define the surface expression of these breccias. Phreatic breccias are poorly reserved within the geological record. not penetrate significantly into country rocks.
• Genesis: mechanical brecciation as a result of fault movement and fragmentation of country rock; “break–up breccias”
• Associated Ore Deposits: As hydrothermal fluid circulation is involved in the formation of phreatic breccias, it is not surprising that both clasts and matrix of phreatic • Associated Ore Deposits: Mineralisation is not directly associated with diatremes, but are commonly spatially associated with ore deposits in the porphyry-epithermal environments. Diatremes commonly
• Geometry: Diameter: up to ~50m
breccias are generally highly altered. Phreatic breccias are not generally associated with porphyry deposits, due to their near surface location, or post-date them. post-date porphyry-style (magmatic fluid-related) mineralisation (e.g. Braddon Pipe at El Teniente porphyry Cu-Mo, Chile; Dizon porphyry Cu-Au, Philippines; Guinaoang porphyry Cu-Au, Philippines), and
• Breccia Textures: Angular to sub-rounded as a result of milling, with variable rock flour matrix, clasts of local country rock, imbrication of fragments, slickensides
However, epithermal mineralisation commonly occurs genetically and spatially associated with phreatic breccias. Mineralisation commonly occurs within the breccia are pre- to inter-mineral to meteoric fluid-related (epithermal) mineralisation (e.g. Cripple Creek alkalic low sulfidation Au, USA; Kelian intermediate sulfidation Au, Indonesia; Martabe high sulfidation Au,
• Surface Expression: As pods or linear zones following fault trace, can be recessive or resistant to weathering depending on fault matrix.
cement itself (e.g. Red Mountain high sulfidation Au-Ag-Cu, USA; Hasbrouck Mountain low sulfidation Au-Ag, USA) but can also occur within clasts within breccias (e.g. Indonesia). In breccia-hosted deposits, mineralisation commonly occurs at the margins of the breccia (e.g. Acupan Au, Phillipines; Wau lode and stockwork Au, PNG) but may also occur within diatremes
• Associated Ore Deposits: Orogenic gold deposits, often as overprint to other styles.
Wau Au-Ag stockworks, PNG) or cross-cut breccias (e.g. Buckskin vein-stockwork Au-Ag, USA). (e.g. Cripple Creek, USA; and Montana Tunnels Au-Ag-base, USA).