Review
Blanchard Sylvain et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports
Current Soccer Footwear, Its Role in Injuries and Potential for
Improvement
Authors
Sylvain Blanchard1, Jérôme Palestri2, Jean-Luc Guer2, Michel BEHR1
Affiliations
1 Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée, Aix-Marseille
Univ, IFSTTAR, LBA UMR_T24, Marseille, France
2 Wizwedge SARL, Research Department, Marseille, France
Key words
sports medicine, athletic injuries, biomechanics, footwear
received 11.12.2017
revised 24.03.2018
accepted 30.03.2018
Bibliography
DOI  https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0608-4229
Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York
ISSN 2367-1890
Correspondence
Dr. Sylvain Blanchard
Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée
Aix-Marseille Univ
IFSTTAR, LBA UMR_T24
boulevard Pierre Dramard
13015, Marseille
France
Tel.:  + 33/491/658 014, Fax:  + 33/146/316 625
sylvain.blanchard@ifsttar.fr
Introduction
Soccer is a very popular sport worldwide and generates great finan-
cial revenue [78]. It is also a sport whose practice has evolved sig-
nificantly in terms of intensity and commitment. Athletic and tech-
nical skills such as speed, strength, vertical jump, endurance and
reactivity are continually increasing [43]. These expanded athletic
and technical skills correlate with an increase in injuries, averaging
8 per 1000 h of practice, with an overall average of 2 injuries per
player/per season among professional players [29]. It represents
significant health costs, estimated at 1.6 billion USD each year
worldwide [107]. The most common injuries are hamstring strain
(12 %), adductor pain/strain (9 %), ankle sprain (7 %), quadriceps
E52 Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
Thieme
Medicine International Open 2018; 00: 00–00
Abs trac t
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Soccer is the most popular sport in the world and generates
great financial revenue. It is also a sport whose practice has
evolved considerably in terms of intensity and commitment,
and in which the intrinsic risk of injury (not directly related to
an interaction with the environment) is particularly high. In this
context, the cleated shoe as a major component of soccer
equipment may play a key role in the overexposure to injury.
Soccer shoe evolution is all the more challenging, because de-
sign and mechanical structure differ in many points compared
to other modern shoes developed for sports such as running,
tennis and basketball.
This critical review aims to elucidate the characteristics of mod-
ern soccer footwear and their possible link to soccer-specific
injuries, focusing on the following areas: (1) ergonomics, com-
fort and proprioception; (2) shoe mechanical characteristics;
(3) field surfaces and shoe design.
strain (5 %) and MCL knee sprain (5 %) [43]: the majority of these
injuries concern intrinsic mechanisms (i. e., not directly related to
an interaction with the external environment, ball or another play-
er) and are located in the lower limbs. Otherwise, overuse injuries
are consistent, accounting for almost one third of total injuries [43].
The cleated shoe, the main equipment of the soccer player, is the
interface between the player and the surface on which he evolves:
as such, it represents a critical point of injury prevention.
When considering other popular sports, one can note that icon-
ic models, such as basketball’s Converse All Star (1921) or tennis’s
Adidas Stan Smith (1964) shoes are characterized by a single-ma-
terial outsole with minor anterior-posterior pitch. However, the
modern versions of these sports shoes are much more complex:
several different materials, significant anterior-posterior pitch,
greater arch support, and stress absorption and/or motion control
elements. Compared to these shoes, the soccer shoe outsole may
appear less technical. As emphasized in Walter [112], regular soc-
cer outsoles do not include specific devices for absorbing impacts
or supporting plantar arches. In the most recent models, the vamp
is often directly stuck to a mono-material polyurethane outsole
without significant anterior-posterior pitch and with a relatively
constant thickness.
In this context, the objective was to identify the possible links
between soccer shoe design and the most common soccer-specif-
ic injuries in order to suggest possible directions for improvement.
A comprehensive and critical review of the current available lit-
erature regarding the main characteristics of modern soccer shoes,
their link to constraints and biomechanics and finally their poten-
tial role in injury is proposed. Papers were collected through a re-
view of the literature using PubMed and ScienceDirect databases,
targeting the following terms: “soccer, football, footwear, shoes,
cleat, boot, biomechanics, risk of injury, risk factor, injury and pre-
vention”. All titles and abstracts were carefully read and relevant
articles were retrieved for review. Running shoe research predates
that of soccer shoe research and is more complete. Thus, some key
words were cross-referenced with the term “running” in order to
collect data that could provide transposable and comparative anal-
yses to those of the soccer shoe. Results were grouped and com-
mented according three major themes: (1) ergonomics, comfort
and proprioception; (2) shoe mechanical characteristics; (3) field
surfaces and shoe design.
Ergonomics, Comfort and Proprioception
Ergonomics and comfort
Comfort was previously reported as being paramount when pur-
chasing a pair of soccer shoes [44]. The ergonomic inadequacies of
the soccer shoe have been regularly associated with a feeling of im-
paired comfort as well as an increased risk of injury [56, 57, 68, 78].
In a study conducted among professional rugby players, it was em-
phasized that a program of customization of footwear would offer
higher levels of protection against injuries, as well as comfort per-
ception [58]. More recently, same authors correlated comfort with
improved performance in soccer and concluded by recommending
greater consideration for playing conditions, particularly playing
field surfaces [57]. They added that inadequacies of today’s soccer
shoe lead to a decrease in movement efficiency and serve as an ob-
stacle to performance and injury prevention.
The relationship between plantar pressure peak levels and per-
ceived comfort was previously underlined in several studies
[13, 45, 50, 73, 97]. The soccer shoe’s lack of protection against high
peak pressures had already been pointed out by the 1990s [67]. The
surface distribution of plantar pressure decreases by 8 % in a soccer
shoe compared to a running shoe, while pressure peaks rise 35 %
[19, 89]. Debiasio et al. [23] recorded plantar pressures during jump-
ing on three different shoes: cleated soccer shoes, artificial-turf-spe-
cific soccer shoes, and running shoes. Forefoot pressure was found
to significantly increase with cleated shoes, while the running shoes
Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
presented lower overall peak stress levels and larger contact surface
in the midfoot region. These effects of midfoot arch support have
been also clearly described by Zhang and Li [122].
Proprioception
The importance of improving proprioceptive stimulation was re-
cently pointed out [110]–[111]. Inadequate sensory feedback in-
duces poor balance control and is correlated with a high risk of
ankle sprain [109]–[110]. This proprioceptive alteration in soccer
players is even more negative because stability diminishes with fa-
tigue, thus increasing the risk of injury [120]. It seems that there is
also a strong interest in developing models of boots that include a
midfoot arch support. Indeed it significantly increases the area of
plantar contact and thus the sensatory input and balance control
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[12, 14, 66, 76, 121]. At the same time, it improves constraints dis-
tribution and comfort with a positive correlation with injury pre-
vention [56, 58] and performance [57].
As proposed in Waddington [111], an original sole design with
textured areas of plantar stimulation could be incorporated to im-
prove proprioception. Furthermore, an unsmooth insole surface
could limit the foot slipping inside the shoe. However, the comfort
or discomfort that such relief might produce needs to be considered.
Fit
In order to improve the foot-shoe interface, avoid bothersome slips
and improve sensing the ball, players also tend to severely tighten
their shoe laces and compress their feet in the shoe, and often buy
shoes one or two sizes too small [44]. Compressing the forefoot is
apt to result in a hallux valgus, tensing up the medial collateral lig-
ament and risking “turf toe” [108]. In addition, the narrowness of
the vamp is probably linked to toe convergence and deformities
such as hallux valgus, quintus varus, corns, calluses and nail lesions
or fungi [26]. Kinchington et al. [58] suggested that programs of
individualization and customization of soccer shoes should be pro-
posed, in order to prevent inadequate behaviors such as voluntar-
ily choosing a model that is too small.
Shoe Biomechanical Characteristics
Mediolateral stresses
From a dynamic point of view, there is a natural predominance of
pronation in most runners [13, 77]. As exercise time increases, pro-
nation tends to increase due to eccentric fibular muscle fatigue
[39]. The increasing distance of running in modern soccer exposes
the player to this phenomenon [43]. The pronation tendency and
medial stress predominance were identified in typical soccer move-
ments (running straight, side-steps, 45 ° directional changes, jump
landings) [118]–[119] (▶ Fig. 1). Medial hyperpressure could be
the cause of overexertion injuries of the first ray such as early hal-
lux rigidus or valgus [108] (especially from tight shoes [60]) or first
metatarsal stress fracture [113]. Overpronation is also described
as a risk factor for patellofemoral disorders, calcaneal tendinopa-
thy and plantar fasciitis [11, 81, 88, 114].
Soccer is not limited to the four movements mentioned above
and the tendency to medial hyperpressure does not explain the
high incidence of fatigue fractures of the fifth metatarsal
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 Review
45° Directional Run straight
change (sprint)
Significant increase
▶Fig. 1 Pressure distribution in three typical soccer play maneuvers.
[53, 94, 96]. A supination tendency and hyperpressure at the lat-
eral part of the support foot in movements such as the instep kick
have been previously noted (▶Fig. 1) [27, 41, 43].
Soccer is a multitask sport and depending on the type of move-
ment being considered, opposite arches are respectively over-
stressed. Incorporating a longitudinal midfoot arch support could
limit and better distribute stresses to minimize injury risks, but un-
like running, which is a sport whose constraints vary little for a de-
fined subject, it does not seem appropriate to develop specific
models of soccer shoes targeted on antipronation or antisupina-
tion. Possible benefits of a midfoot support were previously sup-
ported, possibly even coupled to a wraparound heel designed to
contain the mediolateral roll movements [122].
However, plantar morphotypes are extremely varied. A flat foot
cannot tolerate a pronounced arch support, whereas a pes cavus
requires a more pronounced height in order to receive the benefits
of effective support. A design for a standardized arch support can
be difficult to define and must remain moderate, even if it needs to
be corrected through a custom-made orthotic for significant de-
formations.
Tendency to dorsiflexion and decreased range of
motion
From a static perspective, the stresses related to body weight are
distributed according to a tripod formed at the rear by the calca-
neal support, at the anteromedial level by the first metatarsal head,
and at the anterolateral level by the fifth metatarsal head. The pos-
terior region supports 50 % of the body weight, 35 % is supported
by the anteromedial arch and the anterolateral arch supports 15 %
[51].
Apart from the hard ground on which some forms of indoor
football are practiced, all the playing surfaces (natural grass, syn-
thetic turf, hybrid turf or stabilized) have a potential for compress-
ibility. Taking into account the distribution of static body weight in
the shoe, the heel, which supports most of the weight, will tend to
E54 Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
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Instep kick
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Significant decrease
sink more into the playing field, especially as the heel area’s bear-
ing is lower than the forefoot. Thus, as described in Walter [112],
the static reference position of a shod player on the field is charac-
terized by a slight deflection of the rear foot on the ground and a
tendency to dorsiflexion (▶Fig. 2).
Most soccer players are in a heel strike pattern for the greater
part of their activities: most of the distance is run at a moderate
pace, followed, in descending order, by walking, sprinting and run-
ning backwards [118]. During walking, the heel impacts on the
ground with a force on the order of 1.5 times body weight; for run-
ning speeds ranging between 3 m/s to 5 m/s, it reaches around 2
times body weight [2, 77]. The tendency to dorsiflexion in soccer
players is even noticeably stronger on soft ground.
Moreover, an athlete wearing cleated soccer shoes has an ankle
dorsiflexion angle that is 7 ° greater compared to running shoes,
both in the standing position and during the support phases of run-
ning [112]. This initial ankle dorsiflexion decreases the functional
range of motion (RoM) of the remaining available dorsiflexion and
seems to be correlated with the high stress to which the sural/Achil-
les/plantar complex and calcaneus is exposed: twice as much in
soccer shoes as compared to running shoes, according to Walter
[112]. This reduced functional RoM could be a risk factor for vari-
ous lower limb disorders [52], as discussed hereafter.
Ankle dorsiflexion limitation is identified as a risk factor for both
lateral ankle sprains [20, 30, 32, 101] and syndesmosis sprains
[69, 80, 116]. Tibiofibular syndesmosis, and particularly the ante-
ro-inferior tibiofibular ligament, tenses up with ankle dorsiflexion.
The soccer players’ tendency to dorsiflexion therefore decreases
ankle ability to absorb an important dynamic dorsiflexion, which
thus increases the risk of injury. The functional dorsiflexion stance
in soccer shoes promotes repeated microtrauma of the anterior
part of talocrural joint and contributes to the development of an-
terior ankle impingement [102–104]. The evolution of chronic an-
terior ankle impingement consists in chronic inflammation with
bone and fibrous remodeling that leads to a progressive anatomi-
cal and irreversible limitation of ankle dorsiflexion RoM. Thus, it ap-

▶Fig. 2 Schematic profile of a foot in a cleated shoes on natural
grass. Tendency to dorsiflexion.
pears a vicious circle in which the functional limitation and the an-
atomical limitation are increased respectively.
Limitation of ankle dorsiflexion RoM is described as a risk factor
in foot and ankle posterior chain disorders: Sever’s disease [7, 112],
plantar fasciitis [55, 85] and calcaneal tendinopathy [82]. As the
posterior chain can be considered as an overall functional entity, it
would be interesting to assess how ankle dorsiflexion limitations
could predispose one to injuries of farther elements, whether it is
calf, hamstring or even the lumbar spine erector muscles. In fact,
these three entities in the large posterior chain are also frequently
injured in soccer practice [28]–[29].
Limitation of ankle dorsiflexion is also suspected to increase an-
terior and posterior intracompartmental pressures in the leg, re-
sulting in an accrued risk of chronic compartment syndrome and
tibial fractures [105].
Several studies report that initial dorsiflexion upon landing from
a jump is a risk factor for the knee, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
injury in particular [9, 10, 17, 62]. Conversely, an increase in ankle
dorsiflexion RoM during landing provides improved knee flexion,
while reducing the stresses transmitted to the lower limb, thus lim-
iting the risk of ACL injury [31]. Limitation of ankle dorsiflexion was
also associated with knee pain and patellar tendinopathy
[11, 70, 72, 90, 95].
To reduce the dorsiflexion RoM limitation observed in the shod
soccer player, incorporating a posterior elevated heelpiece might
be possible. This kind of device has already been proposed to treat
primary and secondary posterior chain injuries [1, 4, 65, 71, 79,  game’s outcome.
92, 122]. The heelpiece is usually made of visco-elastic materials
and it is difficult to clearly determine if the benefits come from a
posterior chain release or from stress absorption by the materials
[122].
The release of the posterior chain with a heel-rise poses anoth-
er problem: that of mechanical efficiency and energy costs. Even if
restitution of elastic energy stored at the plantar fascia and calca-
Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
neal tendon play an important role in both propulsion and energy
economy while running [91], in many sports having long, signifi-
cant exertion periods and varied stresses, footwear with an anteri-
or-posterior pitch has been widely adopted. The loss of elastic en-
ergy seems to be offset by other factors such as comfort and pro-
tection, which also contribute to performance [93]. For example,
the thrust in volleyball and basketball plays a fundamental role in
performance, yet the shoes for these sports usually present an an-
terior-posterior pitch.
However, any heel elevation must be thoughtfully evaluated in
order to avoid an ankle position with pronounced plantar flexion.
Indeed, an ankle position in plantar flexion would expose the play-
er to increased pressure on the forefoot [48, 89] and other specific
injuries such as posterior impingement syndrome [38]. Moreover,
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one observes in plantar flexion an unlocking of tibiofibular syndes-
mosis, which could be a source of instability and damage [69].
A more acute analysis of sports shoes that present an anterior-
posterior pitch determines that the heel-rise is never isolated; it is
systematically associated to a midfoot arch support. Indeed, it was
demonstrated that such a design allows limiting the load displace-
ment from the rearfoot to the forefoot so that no (or less marked)
overloading is observed in the forefoot [12, 66, 121].
Field Surfaces and Shoe Design
Field surfaces
Based on epidemiological studies, no significant difference in the
average risk of acute injury (including ACL) was previously report-
ed if we compare the practice of football on natural grass and most
recent synthetic turf [64, 117].
Nevertheless, it was shown that nonfilled synthetic turf leads to
lower stress levels in rotational movements than natural grass [98].
On the other hand, filled synthetic turf leads to higher stress levels
so is more constraining than natural grass [33, 98]. Moreover, the
feet of soccer players were reported to experience more medial
edge stress on natural grass and conversely, more lateral edge
stress on synthetic surfaces [33]. Bentley et al. [8] hypothesized
that players are at lower risk of injury when subjected to stress lev-
els close to those observed on natural grass. Because soccer is a
multitask activity with a global tendency to pronation [119] that
also induces significant hyperpressure on the lateral side of the foot
during practice [27] (▶Fig. 1), the safest surface between natural
and synthetic grass remains unclear.
Cleats
Cleats play a fundamental role in the traction process. Under opti-
mal conditions, the type and location of cleats influence the run-
ning speed by only 3 % [99]. Still, 3 % can be a decisive factor in the
The number and distribution of cleats is assumed to diffuse
stress, reduce pressure peaks and improve stability and comfort
[63, 68], although there is no clear ideal definition of cleat position-
ing, given the wide variations in feet morphology [18]. Nonethe-
less, to reduce injury risks, Coyles and Lake [18] proposed increas-
ing the number of cleats as well as incorporating protective mate-
rials at the forefoot.
E55
 Review
Cleat behavior may be also sensitive to ground stiffness: cleats
do not completely sink into a hard surface, and the contact does
not occur on the entire outsole. In this context, changes in traction
properties are observed with a greater risk of injury and impaired
performance. On hard surfaces, it can be inferred that increasing
the number of cleats improves stress distribution, and cleat height
should be limited in order to maximize penetration and allow bet-
ter-distributed stress along the outsole [16, 59]. However, increas-
ing the number and distribution of cleats needs to be thoughtfully
evaluated in order to avoid a design which might strongly resist
axial rotations.
The issue of cleats involves finding a compromise between trac-
tion, penetration and stress distribution versus rotational torque,
which is associated with a risk of injury to the knee central pivot.
The cleat geometry debate began in the 1990s [68], and the po-
tential risk associated with the use of bladed cleats continues. For
example, publications investigating the influence of cleat geome-
try on ACL stress in rotation point to conflicting results [25, 37, 98].
Studies that found no significant difference used a very high pre-
axial stress on the order of 1000 N [37]. Conversely, significant dif-
ferences with increased constraints for the bladed design were
highlighted for less significant pre-axial stress on the order of 500 N
and under [98]. Drakos et al. [25] demonstrated that the ligament
tension progressively increased to 500 N before reaching a steady
state, probably due to the limits for joint contacts, identified by au-
thors as a natural protective strategy for the ACL. From these re-
sults, they established that 500 N is the most indicated axial load-
ing force that should be exerted before rotation when studying
cleat effects on the ACL. For studies that did not show any differ-
ence, it seems that the level of axial stress was not realistic and did
not allow for detecting any influence of cleat geometry during ro-
tations.
Despite the lack of evidence, we observe a trend towards the
gradual disappearance of blades. The bladed cleats still in use have
significantly shortened longitudinally so as to reduce any resistance
to rotational movements. Many new models are returning to con-
ical shapes, offer a mix of short blades and conical cleats, or adopt
original designs with poor resistance to rotation (▶Fig. 3).
The height of the ankle cut
A newly designed soccer shoe has recently emerged with a woven
synthetic fiber vamp extending above the ankle in order to achieve
a shoe with a high-cut ankle (▶ Fig. 4). Strictly speaking, a high-cut
soccer shoe is not a novelty, because the first soccer shoes in the
late 19th century evolved from workers’ leather boots and had nails
driven through the sole for cleats. The debate on the height of the
ankle cut is not new and has seen lively deliberation on the risks of
lateral ankle sprain in certain sports. A study by Johnson et al. in
1976 [49] suggested that high-cut shoes are effective in prevent-
ing ankle sprains provided they are, above all, rigid and of sufficient
height. The efficiency of high-cut shoes in preventing lateral ankle
sprains remains controversial [5, 6, 40, 87]. Based on twenty pro-
spective studies, Barker et al. [5] reported that a high cut did not
reduce the risk of recurrent ankle sprain, as opposed to using spe-
cific orthotics. More recently, it was shown that wearing high-cut
shoes may cause a pre-activation delay and a decrease in the am-
plitude of the ankle eversion muscle activity [36], which is a risk
E56 Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61
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factor for a potential lateral ankle sprain [54, 61, 84]. The recent
study published by Fu et al. compared both high-cut and low-cut
basketball shoes and linked the high-cut design to electromyo-
graphic disturbances of the ankle eversion muscles [36]. This rais-
es some safety concerns about the new high-cut soccer models.
Nevertheless, although still unconfirmed, it seems that the tested
basketball shoe’s ankle stiffness is greater than that observed in the
new soccer shoe, which implies that we cannot directly transpose
their results to those models.
The player’s frame in basketball, his repeated jumps, reflex
ground support, and contacts all overexpose him to lateral ankle
sprain. This sport has kept its stereotypical high-cut shoes until re-
cently, although more and more players, including the highest NBA
achievers, are currently playing in mid-cut and even low-cut shoes.
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On the one hand, the basketball shoe is evolving towards a lower
ankle cut based on scientific data. On the other hand, although soc-
cer footwear did follow that path more than 60 years ago, it seems
to be taking the opposite path in the form of this new type of de-
sign (▶Fig. 4).
The soccer shoe’s trend towards minimalism
The minimalist running shoe is characterized by ultralightweight
materials, reduced sole thickness, little to no anterior-posterior
pitch, and a very thin vamp, aimed at providing the runner with a
supposedly natural, almost barefoot sensation. It obviously has lim-
ited protection against shocks, and many studies underline in-
creased stresses and injur y risk with the minimalist style
[21, 22, 24, 46, 74, 87].
Several authors mention that soccer shoe brands update their
shoes with claims of increased player speed and power shoot, im-
proved endurance and improved ball touch by proposing increas-
ingly lighter and thinner materials along minimalistic lines, yet they
still harbor the risks [41, 44, 75, 78].
The Amos and Morag study is the only to mention increased foot
speed when kicking with lighter shoes [3]. On the contrary, Hennig
and Sterzing suggest that the increased inertial energy related to
weight compensates for any reduction of the kinetic energy asso-
ciated with decreased speed [42]. The highest foot speed and force-
ful kicking strength are observed in bare feet. This phenomenon is
not due to lack of extra weight but to two other parameters. First,
the support foot’s proprioception is significantly higher than it is
with a shod foot: this has been described as crucial in both preci-
sion and kicking power [15, 42]. Secondly, without footwear, and
therefore without a rear abutment at the Achilles tendon, an in-
creased degree of plantar flexion occurs upon impact. This trans-
lates to optimal alignment, a significant lever arm and increased
torque [42, 100].
Lighter shoes are often assumed to be responsible for lower en-
ergy consumption. According to Frederick, each additional 100 g
of shoe weight increases energy consumption by 1 % [35]. More re-
cently, Shorten reported that reducing energy consumption should
not compromise protection against injuries: the mechanical ben-
efits and special features incorporated for a moderate surplus
weight can prevent patellofemoral pain, calcaneal tendinopathy,
stress fractures or other diseases of the lower limbs [94]. Moreo-
ver, long-term performance significantly benefits from footwear
with high technical characteristics, compared to the cost of any
 ▶Fig. 3 Pictures of recent models. Left, conical cleats. Right, polyhedra cleats without strong longitudinal component.

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▶Fig. 4 a low-cut soccer shoe, b recent high-cut soccer shoe, c high-cut basketball shoe, d recent low-cut basketball shoe.

slight increase in instantaneous energy consumption. According Conclusion

to Wierzbinski [115] and Tung et al. [106], shoes with dynamic ma-
terials can be more efficient in terms of energy consumption than
running barefoot. This result was confirmed by Franz et al. [34]:
even if low shoe weight is generally related to low energy consump-
tion, the shoe’s mechanical properties with specific devices can ul-
timately obtain better energy efficiency.
Slade et al. reported that only 30 % of players were able to accu-
rately perceive the shoe weight [97]. A difference of weight great-
er than 140 g was required in order for most subjects to be able to
identify the heaviest shoe model between those tested. By con-
trast, 92 % of the volunteers were able to identify the heavier shoe
when using their hands. When buying a pair of shoes in a store, the
customer usually handles the shoes before trying them on. This
first impression, along with the advertising message touting the
benefits of lightweight shoes, may lead the customer to buy the
lightest pair, which is sometimes at the expense of technical, com-
fort and aesthetic criteria.
The analysis proposed in this paper reveals a number of areas in
which the soccer shoe could be optimized:
(1) Optimized ergonomics such as arch supports and the use of
specific materials (possibly combined) seem capable of reduc-
ing the potentially pathogenic stress peaks and improving per-
ceived comfort. Introduction of proprioceptive stimulation
devices should be considered with interest.
(2) The structure of the soccer shoe should contribute to the pres-
ervation of RoM in ankle dorsiflexion and consequently mini-
mize exposure to acute and chronic pathologies associated
with the limitation of this parameter.
(3) Given the conflicting results reported in literature, it seems
prudent to opt for a cleat design that moderately resists axial
rotational movements in order to avoid injuries of the knee’s
central pivot. In addition, simple, accurate and reliable guide-
lines should be developed to enable users to choose a type of
cleated shoe best suited to their specific playing conditions.

Blanchard S et al. Current Soccer Footwear, Its …  Sports Medicine International Open 2018; 2: E52–E61 E57
 Review
(4) Woven-synthetic soccer shoe models with a high-cut ankle
recently appeared on the market. To date, there is no scientific
evaluation for this type of shoe. On the other hand, basket-
ball’s shift from a traditionally high-cut ankle to a lower cut is
based on scientific evidence.
(5) There is no strong argument favoring extreme weight reduc-
tion of the soccer shoe, whether for comfort or for perfor-
mance. On the contrary, many studies endorse a heavier shoe
with embedded technical devices to improve protection, com-
fort and performance. The right balance between weight and
technical features needs to be found.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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