Electrostatics 2 PDF

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18 Electrostatics
Chapter Snapshot
18.1 Electric Charge
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● Electric Charge
Conductors and Insulators
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The electrical nature of matter is inherent in atomic ●
structure. An atom consists of a small, relatively massive

● Charging of a Body
● Coulomb’s Law
nucleus that contains particles called protons and ● Electric Field
neutrons. A proton has a mass 1.673´ 10 -27 kg, while a ●
ing
Electric Potential Energy
neutron has a slightly greater mass 1.675 ´ 10 –27 kg.
● Electric Potential
● Relation between Electric Field and Potential
Surrounding the nucleus is a diffuse cloud of orbiting ● Equipotential Surfaces
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particles called electrons. An electron has a mass of ● Electric Dipole

9.11 ´ 10 -31 kg .
● Gauss’s Law
● Properties of a Conductor
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Like mass electric charge is an intrinsic property of ● Electric Field and Potential due to Charged Spherical Shell of Solid
protons and electrons, and only two types of charge have Conducting Sphere
been discovered positive and negative. A proton has a ● Electric Field and Potential due to a Solid Sphere of Charge
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positive charge, and an electron has a negative charge. A ● Capacitance

neutron has no net electric charge.
The magnitude of the charge on the proton exactly
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equals the magnitude of the charge on the electron. The

proton carries a charge +e and the electron carries a
charge -e. The SI unit of charge is Coulomb ( C ) and e has
pic
the value, e =1.6 ´ 10 -19 C

Regarding charge following points are worth noting:
2. The protons and neutrons are combination of other entities called quarks,
1. Like charges repel each other and unlike charges
w.
2
attract each other. which have charges 1 e and ± e. However, isolated quarks have not been
3 3
2. Charge is a scalar and can be of two types positive observed, so, quantum of charge is still e.
ww
or negative.
4. During any process, the net electric charge of an
3. Charge is quantized. The quantum of charge is e. isolated system remains constant or we can say
The charge on any body will be some integral that charge is conserved. Pair production and pair
multiple of e, i.e., annihilation are two examples of conservation of
q = ± ne charge.
where, n = 1, 2, 3¼ 5. A charge particle at rest produces electric field. A
æ1 ö charge particle in an unaccelerated motion
Charge on any body can never be ç e ÷ , 1.5e, etc. produces both electric and magnetic fields but
è3 ø
does not radiate energy. But an accelerated
Note charged particle not only produces an electric and
1. Apart from charge, energy, angular momentum and mass are also quantized. magnetic fields but also radiates energy in the
h
The quantum of energy is hn and that of angular momentum is . Quantum form of electromagnetic waves.
2p
1
of mass is yet not known. 6. 1 Coulomb = 3 ´ 109 esu = emu of charge.
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2 Objective Physics Volume 2
Example 18.1 How many electrons are there in one coulomb ––– – Ebonite rod
– ––––
–––––– –– – – –
of negative charge? – – –
– –
Solution The negative charge is due to the presence of –– –
–––– – –
– –
excess electrons, since they carry negative charge. Because an – –
electron has a charge whose magnitude is e =1.6 ´ 10-19 C, the Metal – – ––
number of electrons is equal to the charge q divided by the charge sphere
e on each electron. Therefore, the number n of electrons is Insulated
q 1.0 stand
n= = = 6.25 ´ 1018
e 1.6 ´ 10 -19
Fig. 18.1
18.2 Conductors and Insulators electrons from the rod are transferred to the sphere. Once
the electrons are on the metal sphere, where they can
For the purpose of electrostatic theory all substances move readily, they repel one another and spread out over
can be divided into two main groups — conductors and the sphere’s surface. The insulated stand prevents them
insulators. In conductors electric charges are free to move from flowing to the earth. When the rod is removed the
from one place to another, whereas in insulators they are sphere is left with a negative charge distributed over its
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tightly bound to their respective atoms. In an uncharged surface. In a similar manner the sphere will be left with a
body there are equal number of positive and negative positive charge after being rubbed with a positively
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charges. charged rod. In this case, electrons from the sphere would
The examples of conductors of electricity are the be transferred to the rod. The process of giving one object a
net electric charge by placing it in contact with another
metals, human body and the earth and that of insulators
object that is already charged is known as charging by
are glass, hard rubber and plastics. In metals, the free
ing
contact.
charges are free electrons known as conduction electrons.
Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and (iii) Charging by Induction
their electrical properties are somewhere between those of
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insulators and conductors. Silicon and germanium are It is also possible to charge a conductor in a way that
well known examples of semiconductors. does not involve contact.
––– – Ebonite rod
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––– –
– –––– – ––––
–––––– + ++ –– ––––––
– + ++ ––
– + – + –
18.3 Charging of a Body +
+
–
– Metal
+
+
– Grounding
– wire
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+ – sphere + –
Mainly there are following three methods of charging + – + –
++ –– ++ ––
a body:
Insulated Earth
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(i) Charging by Rubbing stand
The simplest way to experience electric charges is to (a) (b)

rub certain bodies against each other. When a glass rod is
pic
rubbed with a silk cloth the glass rod acquires some positive + + ++ +
+ +
charge and the silk cloth acquires negative charge by the + +
+ +
same amount. The explanation of appearance of electric + +
+ +
w.
charge on rubbing is simple. All material bodies contain ++

++
large number of electrons and equal number of protons in
their normal state. When rubbed against each other, some
ww
electrons from one body pass onto the other body. The body
that donates the electrons becomes positively charged
while that which receives the electrons becomes negatively (c)
charged. For example when glass rod is rubbed with silk Fig. 18.2
cloth, glass rod becomes positively charged because it
donates the electrons while the silk cloth becomes In Fig. (a) a negatively
negatively charged because it receives electrons. charged rod brought close to (but + –
Electricity so obtained by rubbing two objects is also known does not touch) a metal sphere. In Ebonite rod + –
–––––– + – Plastic
as frictional electricity. The other places where the the sphere, the free electrons + –
frictional electricity can be observed are when amber is close to the rod move to the other + –
rubbed with wool or a comb is passed through a dry hair. side (by repulsion). As a result, Fig. 18.3
Clouds also become charged by friction. the part of the sphere nearer to
the rod becomes positively charged and the part farthest
from the rod negatively charged. This phenomenon is
(ii) Charging by Contact called induction. Now if the rod is removed, the free
When a negatively charged ebonite rod is rubbed on a electrons return to their original places and the charged
metal object, such as a sphere, some of the excess regions disappear. Under most conditions the earth is a
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Chapter 18 · Electrostatics 3
good electric conductor. So when a metal wire is attached Example 18.6 Why a third hole in a socket provided for
between the sphere and the ground as in Fig. (b) some of grounding?
the free electrons leave the sphere and distribute
themselves on the much larger earth. If the grounding Solution All electric appliances may end with some charge
wire is then removed, followed by the ebonite rod, the due to faulty connections. In such a situation charge will be
sphere is left with a net positive charge. The process of accumulated on the appliance. When the user touches the
giving one object a net electric charge without touching appliance he may get a shock. By providing the third hole for
the object to a second charged object is called charging by grounding all accumulated charge is discharged to the
induction. The process could also be used to give the ground and the appliance is safe.
sphere a net negative charge, if a positively charged rod
were used. Then, electrons would be drawn up from the
ground through the grounding wire and onto the sphere. 18.4 Coulomb’s Law
If the sphere were made from an insulating material
The law that describes how charges interact with one
like plastic, instead of metal, the method of producing a
another was discovered by Charles Augustin de Coulomb
net charge by induction would not work, because very
in 1785. With a sensitive torsion balance, Coulomb
little charge would flow through the insulating material
and down the grounding wire. However, the electric force measured the electric force between charged spheres. In
of the charged rod would have some effect as shown in Coulomb’s experiment the charged spheres were much
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figure. The electric force would cause the positive and smaller than the distance between them so that the
negative charges in the molecules of the insulating charges could be treated as point charges. The results of
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material to separate slightly, with the negative charges the experiments of Coulomb and others are summarized in
being pushed away from the negative rod. The surface of Coulomb’s law.
the plastic sphere does acquire a slight induced positive The electric force Fe exerted by one point charge on
charge, although no net charge is created.
ing
another acts along the line between the charges. It varies
inversely as the square of the distance separating the
Example 18.2 If we comb our hair on a dry day and bring
charges and is proportional to the product of charges. The
the comb near small pieces of paper, the comb attracts the
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force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign and

pieces, why? attractive if the charges have opposite signs.
Solution This is an example of frictional electricity and The magnitude of the electric force exerted by a
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induction. When we comb our hair it gets positively charged charge q1 on another charge q2 a distance r away is thus,
by rubbing. When the comb is brought near the pieces of given by
paper some of the electrons accumulate at the edge of the k | q1q2|
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paper piece which is closer to the comb. At the farther end of Fe = …(i)
the piece there is deficiency of electrons and hence, positive r2
charge appears there. Such a redistribution of charge in a The value of the proportionality constant k in
kM
material, due to presence of a nearby charged body is called Coulomb’s law depends on the system of units used. In SI
induction. The comb exerts larger attraction on the negative units the constant k is,
charges of the paper piece as compared to the repulsion on
N-m 2
the positive charge. This is because the negative charges are k = 8.987551787 ´ 109
pic
closer to the comb. Hence, there is a net attraction between C2

2
the comb and the paper piece. N-m
» 8.988 ´ 109
C2
w.
Example 18.3 Does the attraction between the comb and the
piece of papers last for longer period of time? The value of k is known to such a large number of
significant digits because this value is closely related to
ww
Solution No, because the comb loses its net charge after
some time. The excess charge of the comb transfers to earth the speed of light in vacuum. This speed is defined to be
through our body after some time. exactly c = 2.99792458 ´ 108 m / s. The numerical value of
k is defined in terms of c to be precisely.
Example 18.4 Can two similarly charged bodies attract
each other? æ N - s2 ö 2
k = çç10 -7 ÷c
Solution Yes, when the charge on one body (q1 ) is much è C 2 ÷ø
greater than that on the other (q2 ) and they are close enough to 1
This constant k is often written as , where e0
each other so that force of attraction between q1 and induced 4 pe0
charge on the other exceeds the force of repulsion between q1 (epsilon-nought) is another constant. This appears to
and q2 . However two similar point charges can never attract complicate matters, but it actually simplifies many
each other because no induction will take place here.
formulae that we will encounter in later chapters. Thus,
Example 18.5 Does in charging the mass of a body change? Eq. (i) can be written as,
Solution Yes, as charging a body means addition or removal 1 | q1q2|
Fe = …(ii)
of electrons and electron has a mass. 4 pe0 r 2
3
1 æ N - s2 ö 2 (2) The electric force is an action reaction pair, i.e., the

Here, = çç10 -7 ÷ c
÷ two charges exert equal and opposite forces on
4 pe0 è C2 ø each other.
Substituting value of c = 2.99792458 ´ 108 m / s, we (3) The electric force is conservative in nature.
get (4) Coulomb’s law as we have stated above can be
1 used for point charges in vacuum. If some
= 8.99 ´ 109 N - m 2 /C2 dielectric (insulator) is present in the space
4 p e0
between the charges, the net force acting on each
In examples and problems we will often use the charge is altered
approximate value, because charges Fe q1 q2 Fe
r
1 are induced in the
= 9.0 ´ 109 N - m 2 /C2 molecules of the In vacuum
4 pe0 Fig. 18.4
intervening
Here, the quantity e0 is called the permittivity of free medium. We will
space. It has the value, describe this effect later. Here at this moment it is
e0 = 8.854 ´ 10 –12 C2 /N - m 2 enough to say that the force decreases K times if
Regarding Coulomb’s law following points are worth the medium extends till infinity. Here K is a
m
noting: dimensionless constant which depends on the
medium and called dielectric constant of the
(1) Coulomb’s law stated above describes the medium. Thus,
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interaction of two point charges. When two
charges exert forces simultaneously on a third 1 qq
Fe = × 12 2 (in vacuum)
charge, the total force acting on that charge is the 4 pe0 r
vector sum of the forces that the two charges would
ing Fe 1 qq 1 q1q2
exert individually. This important property, called Fe¢ = = × 12 2 = × (in medium)
the principle of superposition of forces, holds for K 4 pe0 K r 4 pe r 2
any number of charges. Thus,
Here, e = e0 K is called permittivity of the medium.
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Fnet = F1 + F2 + ¼ + Fn
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Objective Galaxy 1 8 . 1
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1. In few problems of electrostatics Lami’s theorem is very F1 F F

= 2 = 3
useful. sin a sin b sin g
According to this theorem, ‘if three concurrent forces F1, F2
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2. Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q2 are r1

and F3 as shown in figure are in equilibrium or if
and r2 , then, electric force on charge q1 due to charge q2 is,
F1 + F2 + F2 = 0, then
1 q q
F2 F1 = × 1 2 ( r1 – r1 )
4pe0 | r1 – r2|3
pic
g Similarly, electric force on q2 due to charge q1 is

F1 1 q1q2
a F2 = × ( r2 – r1 )
4pe0 | r2 – r1|3
w.
b
Here q1 and q2 are to be substituted with sign.
r1 = x 1$i + y 1$j + z1k$
ww
F3
and r2 = x 2 i$ + y 2 $j + z2 k$
Fig. 18.5 where ( x 1, y 1, z1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) are the co-ordinates of
charges q1 and q2 .
Example 18.7 What is the smallest electric force between Substituting in Eq. (i), we have
two charges placed at a distance of 1.0 m. (9.0 ´ 109 ) (1.6 ´ 10-19 ) (1.6 ´ 10-19 )
( Fe )min =
1 q1 q2 (1.0)2
Solution Fe = × …(i)
4pe0 r 2 = 2.304 ´ 10-28 N
For Fe to be minimum q1 q2 should be minimum. We know
Example 18.8 Three charges q1 = 1 mC , q2 = – 2 mC and
that
q3 = 3 mC are placed on the vertices of an equilateral triangle of
(q1 )min = (q2 )min
side 1.0 m. Find the net electric force acting on charge q1 .
= e = 1.6 ´ 10 -19 C
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How to Proceed Charge q2 will attract q3 y q3

charge q1 (along the line joining them)
and charge q3 will repel charge q1 .
Therefore, two forces will act on q1 , one
due to q2 and another due to q3 . Since, x
the force is a vector quantity both of q1 q2
these forces (say F1 and F2 ) will be added q 1 q2 Fig. 18.8
by vector method. Following are two Fig. 18.6
methods of their addition. 1 q1 q2
= × (r1 – r2 )
4pe0 |r1 – r2|3
Solution Method 1. In the figure,
q3 (9.0 ´ 109 ) (1.0 ´ 10–6 ) (–2.0 ´ 10–6 )
=
(1.0)3
´ [(0 – 1) $i + (0 – 0) $j + (0 – 0) k$ ]
q1
F1
q2 = (1.8 ´ 10-2 i$) N
a
120° and F2 = force on q1 due to charge q3
m
F2 F net 1 q1 q3
= × (r1 – r3 )
Fig. 18.7 4pe0 | r1 – r3|3
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1 q1 q2 (9.0 ´ 109 ) (1.0 ´ 10–6 ) (3.0 ´ 10–6 )
|F1| = F1 = × =
4pe0 r 2 ing (1.0)3
= magnitude of force between q1 and q2 ´ [(0 – 0.5) $i + (0 – 0.87) $j + (0 – 0) k$ ]

9 -6
(9.0 ´ 10 ) (1.0 ´ 10 ) (2.0 ´ 10 ) -6
= ( – 1.35 i$ – 2.349 $j) ´ 10-2 N
=
(1.0)2
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Therefore, net force on q1 is,

-2
= 1.8 ´ 10 N F = F1 + F2
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Similarly, = (0.45 $i – 2.349 $j) ´ 10–2 N

1 q1 q3 Note Once you write a vector in terms of $i , j$ and k,
$ there is no need of writing the
|F2| = F2 = ×
4pe0 r 2
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magnitude and direction of vector separately.

= magnitude of force between q1 and q2
Example 18.9 Two identical balls each having a density r
(9.0 ´ 109 ) (1.0 ´ 10-6 ) (3.0 ´ 10-6 )
kM
= are suspended from a common point by two insulating strings

(1.0)2 of equal length. Both the balls have equal mass and charge. In
equilibrium each string makes an angle q with vertical. Now,
= 2.7 ´ 10-2 N both the balls are immersed in a liquid. As a result the angle q
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Now, |Fnet | = F12 + F22 + 2F1 F2 cos 120° does not change. The density of the liquid is s. Find the
dielectric constant of the liquid.
æ æ 1ö ö
= ç (1.8)2 + (2.7)2 + 2 (1.8) (2.7) ç – ÷ ÷ ´ 10-2 N Solution Each ball is in equilibrium under the following
w.
ç è 2 ø ÷ø
è three forces:
-2 (i) tension
= 2.38 ´ 10 N
ww
F2 sin 120° (ii) electric force and

and tan a =
F1 + F2 cos 120° (iii) weight
-2 So, Lami’s theorem can be applied.
(2.7 ´ 10 ) (0.87)
=
æ 1ö
(1.8 ´ 10-2 ) + (2.7 ´ 10-2 ) ç - ÷
è 2ø
or a = 79.2° q q
Thus, the net force on charge q1 is 2.38 ´ 10-2 N at an q q
angle a = 79.2° with a line joining q1 and q2 as shown in T T¢
the figure. Fe Fe¢
Method 2. In this method let us assume a co-ordinate

axes with q1 at origin as shown in figure. The co-ordinates w w¢
of q1 , q2 and q3 in this co-ordinate system are (0, 0, 0), In vacuum In liquid
(1 m, 0, 0) and (0.5 m, 0.87 m, 0) respectively. Now,
Fig. 18.9
F1 = force on q1 due to charge q2
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Fe The electric field is a vector quantity and its direction

In the liquid, Fe¢ =
K is the same as the direction of the force Fe on a positive test
where, K = dielectric constant of liquid charge. The SI unit of electric field is N/C. Here, it should
be noted that the test charge q0 does not disturb other
and w ¢ = w - upthrust
charges which produces E. With the concept of electric
Applying Lami’s theorem in vacuum field, our description of electric interactions has two parts.
w Fe First, a given charge distribution acts as a source of
=
sin (90° + q) sin (180° - q) electric field. Second, the electric field exerts a force on
w F any charge that is present in this field.
or = e …(i)
cos q sin q
An Electric Field Leads to a Force
Similarly in liquid, Suppose there is an electric field strength E at some
w¢ F¢ point in an electric field, then the electrostatic force acting
= e …(ii) on a charge +q is qE in the direction of E, while on the
cos q sin q
charge – q it is qE in the opposite direction of E.
Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get
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Example 18.10 An electric field of 105 N/C points due west
w Fe
= at a certain spot. What are the magnitude and direction of the
w¢ F¢
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e force that acts on a charge of + 2 mC and - 5 mC at this spot?
w æ F ö
or K= ç as e = K ÷ Solution Force on + 2 mC = qE
ç F¢ ÷
w – upthrust
è e ø
ing = (2 ´ 10–6 ) (105 )
Vrg = 0.2 N (due west)
= (V = volume of ball)
Vrg – Vsg – 5 m C = (5 ´ 10–6 ) (105 )
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Force on
r = 0.5 N (due east)
or K=
r-s
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Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

Note In the liquid F e and w have been changed. Therefore, T will also change.
The electric field produced by a point charge q can be
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obtained in general terms from Coulomb’s law. First note

that the magnitude of the force exerted by the charge q on
18.5 Electric Field a test charge q0 is,
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A charged particle cannot directly interact with q0

q + r
another particle kept at a distance. A charge produces Fe
something called an electric field in the space around it
pic
and this electric field exerts a force on any other charge q + E

(except the source charge itself) placed in it.
Thus, the region surrounding a charge or distribution E
q –
w.
of charge in which its electrical effects can be observed is

called the electric field of the charge or distribution of Fig. 18.10
charge. Electric field at a point can be defined in terms of
ww
1 qq
either a vector function E called electric field strength or a Fe = × 20
4 p e0 r
scalar function V called electric potential. The electric
field can also be visualised graphically in terms of lines of then divide this value by q0 to obtain the magnitude of
force. the field.
1 q
Electric Field Strength ( E) E= × 2
4 pe0 r
Like its gravitational counterpart, the electric field
strength (often called electric field) at a point in an electric If q is positive E is directed away from q. On the other
field is defined as the electrostatic force Fe per unit positive hand if q is negative, then E is directed towards q.
charge. Thus, if the electrostatic force experienced by a The electric field at a point is a vector quantity.
small test charge q0 is Fe , then field strength at that point is Suppose E1 is the field at a point due to a charge q1 and E2
defined as, is the field at the same point due to a charge q2 . The
F resultant field when both the charges are present is
E = lim e
q0 ® 0 q
0 E = E1 + E2
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If the given charge distribution is continuous, we can that of a point charge. To an observer far from the
use the technique of integration to find the resultant ring, the ring would appear like a point, and the
electric field at a point. electric field reflects this.
Example 18.11 Two positive point charges q1 = 16 m C and dEx
(iii) Ex will be maximum where = 0. Differentiating
q2 = 4 mC , are separated in vacuum by a distance of 3.0 m. dx
Find the point on the line between the charges where the net Ex w. r. t. x and putting it equal to zero, we get
electric field is zero. R 2 æ 1 q ö
x= and Emax comes out to be, 3 çç × 2 ÷÷ .
Solution Between the charges the two field contributions 2 3 è 4 pe0 R ø
have opposite directions, and the net electric field is zero at a
point (say P), where the magnitudes of E1 and E2 are equal. Ex
However, since, q2 < q1 , point P must be closer to q2 , in order
that the field of the smaller charge can balance the field of the
Emax
larger charge. E2 P E1
q1 + + q2
At P, E1 = E2
1 q1 1 q2 r1 r2
or = ×
4pe0 r12 4pe0 r22 Fig. 18.11 R x
m
2
r1 q1 Fig. 18.13
\ =
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r2 q2
16 Electric Field of an Infinitely Long Line
= =2 …(i)
4
ing
Charge
Also, r1 + r2 = 3.0 m …(ii)
Electric field at distance r from an infinitely long line
Solving these equations, we get charge is given by
ch
r1 = 2 m l
E=
and r2 = 1 m 2 pe0 r
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Thus, the point P is at a distance of 2 m from q1 and 1 m Here l is charge per unit length. Direction of this
from q2 . electric field is away from the line charge in case of
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positively charged line charge and towards the line charge

Electric Field of a Ring of Charge in case of negatively charged line charge.
Electric field at distance x from the centre of uniformly
+ +
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charged ring of total charge q on its axis is given by,

+ +
æ 1 ö qx
Ex = çç ÷÷ 2 + +
è 4 pe0 ø ( x + R )
2 3/2
+ + r r E
pic
+ + E P
Direction of this electric field is along the axis and P
+ +
away from the ring in case of positively charged ring and + +
towards the ring in case of negatively charged ring. + +
w.
+ + + +
+ l l
+
+ Fig. 18.14
ww
x x Ex
+ Ex P
+ R R
+ 1
+ or Eµ
+ r
+
+ Thus, E-r graph is as shown in Fig. 18.15.
Fig. 18.12
E
From the above expression, we can see that
(i) Ex = 0 at x = 0, i.e., field is zero at the centre of the
ring. We should expect this, charges on opposite
sides of the ring would push in opposite directions
on a test charge at the centre, and the forces would
add to zero.
r
1 q Fig. 18.15
(ii) Ex = × for x >> R , i.e., when the point P is
4 pe0 x 2
The direction of E is radially outward from the line.
much farther from the ring, its field is the same as
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1. Suppose a charge q is placed at a point whose position vector is rq and we want to find the electric field at a point P whose position
vector is rp Then in vector form the electric field is given by,
1 q
E = × ( rp – rq )
4pe0 | rp – rq|3
Here, rp = x p $i + y p $j + z p z$
and rq = x q i$ + y q $j + zq k$
Example 18.12 A charge q = 1 mC is placed at point 2. Electric field lines always begin on a positive
charge and end on a negative charge and do not
(1 m, 2 m, 4 m). Find the electric field at point P (0 m, – 4 m, 3 m).
start or stop in midspace.
Solution Here, rq = $i + 2$j + 4k$ 3. The number of lines leaving a positive charge or
entering a negative charge is proportional to the
m
and rp = – 4$j + 3k$
magnitude of the charge. This means, for example
\ rp – rq = – $i – 6$j – k$ that if 100 lines are drawn leaving a + 4 mC charge
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then 75 lines would have to end on a –3 mCcharge.
or | rp – rq| = (–1)2 + (– 6)2 + (–1)2
= 38 m
ing
1 q
Now, E= × (rp – rq)
4pe0 | rp – rq|3 q –q
ch
Substituting the values, we have

(9.0 ´ 109 ) (1.0 ´ 10–6 ) $
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E= (– i – 6$j – k$ )
(38)3 / 2
(a) (b)
N
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= (–38.42 $i – 230.52 $j – 38.42 k$ )

C
Electric Field Lines

kM
As we have seen, electric charges create an electric + q q +

field in the space surrounding them. It is useful to have a q
+ –
q
kind of map that gives the direction and indicates the
pic
strength of the field at various places. Field lines, a

concept introduced by Michael Faraday, provide us with
an easy way to visualize the electric field.
w.
“An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve (c) (d)

drawn through a region of space so that its tangent at any
point is in the direction of the electric field vector at that
ww
point. The relative closeness of the lines at some place

give an idea about the intensity of electric field at that
point.”
EQ q
– –q q – + 2q –
Q
Ep B
A
P
|EA| > |EB|
Fig. 18.16
(e) (f)
The electric field lines have the following properties: Fig. 18.17
1. The tangent to a line at any point gives the
direction of E at that point. This is also the path on 4. Two lines can never intersect. If it happens then
which a positive test charge will tend to move if two tangents can be drawn at their point of
free to do so. intersection, i.e., intensity at that point will have
two directions which is absurd.
8
5. In a uniform field, the field lines are straight Note Here work done by electrostatic force is positive. Hence, the potential
parallel and uniformly spaced. energy is decreasing.
6. The electric field lines can never form closed loops

as a line can never start and end on the same Electric Potential Energy of Two Charges
charge. The idea of electric potential energy is not restricted to
the special case of a uniform electric field as in example
7. Electric field lines also give us an indication of the 18.13. Let us now calculate the work done on a test charge
equipotential surface (surface which has the same q0 moving in a non-uniform electric field caused by a
potential) single, stationary point charge q.
a b
8. Electric field lines always flow from higher
q q0
potential to lower potential. r
9. In a region where there is no electric field, lines are
ra
absent. This is why inside a conductor (where
rb
electric field is zero) there, cannot be any electric
Fig. 18.19
field line.
10. Electric lines of force ends or starts normally from The Coulomb’s force on q0 at a distance r from a fixed
m
the surface of a conductor. charge q is,
1 qq
F= × 20
.co
4 pe0 r
18.6 Electric Potential Energy If the two charges have same signs, the force is
If the force F is conservative, the work done by F can repulsive and if the two charges have opposite signs, the
ing
always be expressed in terms of a potential energy U. force is attractive. The force is not constant during the
displacement, so we have to integrate to calculate the
When the particle moves from a point where the potential
work Wa® b done on q0 by this force as q0 moves from a to b.
energy is Ua to a point where it is Ub, the change in
ch
rb rb 1 qq
potential energy is, DU = Ub – Ua. This is related by the \ Wa® b = ò F dr = ò × 20 dr
ra r a 4 pe r
work Wa ® b as 0
oa
Wa® b = Ua – Ub = – (Ub – Ua) = – DU …(i) æ1 1ö qq0

=
çç – ÷÷
Here Wa® b is the work done in displacing the particle 4 pe0
è ra rb ø
yC
from a to b by the conservative force (here electrostatic) Being a conservative force this work is path
not by us. Moreover we can see from Eq. (i) that if Wa ® b is independent. From the definition of potential energy,
positive, D U is negative and the potential energy Ub – Ua = - Wa – b
kM
decreases. So, whenever the work done by a conservative qq0 æ 1 1 ö

= ç – ÷
force is positive, the potential energy of the system 4 pe0 çè rb ra ÷ø
decreases and vice versa. That’s what happens when a
We choose the potential energy of the two charge
pic
particle is thrown upwards, the work done by gravity is

negative, and the potential energy increases. system to be zero when they have infinite separation. This
means U¥ = 0. The potential energy when the separation is
Example 18.13 A uniform electric field E0 is directed along
w.
r is Ur
positive y-direction. Find the change in electric potential
qq0 æ 1 1 ö
energy of a positive test charge q0 when it is displaced in this \ Ur – U¥ = ç – ÷
field from y i = a to y f = 2a along the y-axis. 4 pe0 è r ¥ ø
ww
qq0 1
Solution Electrostatic force on the test charge, or Ur =
Fe = q0 E0 (along positive y-direction) 4 pe0 r
E0 This is the expression for electric potential energy of
q 0E 0 two point charges kept at a separation r. In this expression
both the charges q and q0 are to be substituted with sign.
+ q0
Electric Potential Energy of a System of
Charges
Fig. 18.18 To find electrical potential energy of a system of
charges, we make pairs. If there are total n charges then
\ Wi - f = – DU n( n -1)
total number of pairs are . Neither of the pair should
or DU = – Wi - f = – [ q0 E0 (2a – a)] 2
= – q0 E0 a be repeted, nor should be left.
9
For example electric potential energy of four point 1 é q3 q2 qq qq ù

– ê + 3 1 + 2 1ú
charges q1, q2 , q3 and q4 would be given by, 4pe0 ë (r32 )i (r31 )i (r21 )i û
q2
Here, (r21 )i = (r21 )f and (r32 )i = (r31 )i = ¥
1 é q3 q2 qq ù
q3 \ W= ê + 3 1ú
4pe0 ë (r32 )f (r31 )f û
q1 Substituting the values, we have
é (1) (1) (1) (–1) ù
q4 W = (9.0 ´ 109 ) (10–12 ) ê + ú
1 é q4 q3 q4 q2 q4 q1 q3 q2 q3 q1 q2 q1 ù ë (1.0) (2.0) û
U= + + + + +
4 pe0 êë r43 r42 r41 r32 r31 r21 úû = 4.5 ´ 10–3 J
…(ii) (b) The total potential energy of the three charges is
given by,
Here, all the charges are to be substituted with sign.
1 æ q3 q2 qq qq ö
Example 18.14 Four charges q1 = 1 mC , q2 = 2 mC , U= çç + 3 1 + 2 1 ÷÷
4pe0 è r32 r31 r21 ø
q3 = – 3 mC and q4 = 4 mC are kept on the vertices of a square of
m
side 1 m. Find the electric potential energy of this system of é (1) (1) (1) (–1) (1) (–1) ù
charges. = (9.0 ´ 109 ) ê + + –12
ú (10 )
q4 q3 ë (1.0) (2.0) (1.0) û
.co
= – 4.5 ´ 10–3 J
Example 18.16 Two point charges q1 = q2 = 2 mC are fixed
1m
ing
at x1 = + 3 m and x2 = – 3 m as shown in figure. A third particle
of mass 1 g and charge q3 = – 4 mC are released from rest at
1m y = 4.0 m . Find the speed of the particle as it reaches the
q1 q2
ch
origin.
Fig. 18.20 y
oa
Solution In this problem,

q3 y=4m
r41 = r43 = r32 = r21 = 1 m
and r42 = r31 = (1)2 + (1)2 = 2 m
yC
Substituting the proper values with sign in Eq. (ii), we get

U = (9.0 ´ 109 )(10–6 )(10–6 ) q2 q1
kM
x
O
é (4)(–3) (4)(2) (4)(1) (–3)(2) (–3)(1) (2)(1) ù x 2 = –3 m x1 = 3 m
êë 1 + 2
+
1
+
1
+
2
+
1 úû Fig. 18.21
pic
é 5 ù
= (9.0 ´10–3 ) ê –12 + = – 7.62 ´ 10–2 J
ë 2 úû How to Proceed Here the charge q3 is attracted towards q1
and q2 both. So, the net force on q3 is towards origin.
w.
Note Here negative sign of U implies that positive work has been done by y
electrostatic forces in assembling these charges at respective distances from infinity.
q3
ww
Example 18.15 Two point charges are located on the x-axis,

q1 = – 1 mC at x = 0 and q2 = + 1 mC at x = 1 m.
(a) Find the work that must be done by an external force to Fnet
bring a third point charge q3 = + 1 mC from infinity to
q2 q1
x = 2 m.
x
(b) Find the total potential energy of the system of three O
charges. Fig. 18.22
Solution (a) The work that must be done on q3 by an
By this force charge is accelerated towards origin, but this
external force is equal to the difference of potential energy U
acceleration is not constant. So, to obtain the speed of particle
when the charge is at x = 2 m and the potential energy when it
is at infinity. at origin by kinematics, we will have to find first the
acceleration at same intermediate position and then will have
1 é q3 q2 qq qq ù
\ W = Uf – Ui = + 3 1 + 2 1 to integrate it with proper limits. On the other hand it is easy
4pe0 êë (r32 )f (r31 )f (r21 )f úû to use energy conservation principle as the only forces are
conservative.
10
Solution Let v be the speed of particle at origin. From The SI unit of potential is volt ( V ) which is equal to
conservation of mechanical energy, joule per coulomb. So,
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf 1 V = 1 volt = 1 J /C = 1 joule / coulomb
1 é q3 q2 qq qq ù The work done by the electrostatic force in displacing
or ê + 3 1 + 2 1ú + 0 a test charge q0 from a to b in an electric field is defined as
4pe0 ë (r32 )i (r31 )i (r21 )i û
the negative of change in potential energy between them,
1 é q3 q2 qq qq ù 1 or
= ê + 3 1 + 2 1 ú + mv2
4pe0 ë (r32 )f (r31 )f (r21 )f û 2 DU = – Wa – b
\ Ub – Ua = – Wa – b
Here, (r21 )i = (r21 )f
We divide this equation by q0 ,
Substituting the proper values, we have Ub Ua Wa – b
é (– 4) (2) (– 4) (2) ù - =–
(9.0 ´ 109 ) ê + –12 q0 q0 q0
ú ´ 10
ë (5.0) (5.0) û Wa – b U
or Va – Vb = as V =
é (– 4) (2) (– 4) (2) ù 1 q0 q0
= (9.0 ´ 109 ) ê + –12 –3
ú ´ 10 + ´ 10 ´ v
2
ë (3.0) (3.0) û 2 Thus, the work done per unit charge by the electric
force when a charged body moves from a to b is equal to
m
æ 16 ö æ 16 ö 1
\ (9 ´ 10–3 ) ç – ÷ = (9 ´ 10–3 ) ç – ÷ + ´ 10–3 ´ v2 the potential at a minus the potential at b. We sometimes
è 5 ø è 3ø 2 abbreviate this difference as Vab = Va – Vb.
.co
æ2ö 1 Another way to interpret the potential difference Vab is
(9 ´ 10–3 ) (16) ç ÷ = ´ 10–3 ´ v2
è15 ø 2 that the potential at a minus potential at b, equals the work
that must be done to move a unit positive charge slowly
\ v = 6.2 m /s
ing
from b to a against the electric force.
( Wb – a)external force
Va – Vb =
18.7 Electric Potential q0
ch
As we have discussed in Article 18.5 that an electric

field at any point can be defined in two different ways:
Absolute Potential at Some Points
oa
(i) by the field strength E, and Suppose we take the point b at infinity and as a
reference point assign the value Vb = 0, the above
(ii) by the electric potential V at the point under equations can be written as
yC
consideration. ( Wa – b )electric force ( Wb – a )external force

Both E and V are functions of position and there is a Va – Vb = =
q0 q0
fixed relationship between these two. Of these, the field
( Wa – ¥ ) electric force ( W¥ – a )external force
kM
strength E is a vector quantity while the electric potential V or Va = =

is a scalar quantity. In this article we will discuss about the q0 q0
electric potential and in the next the relationship between Thus, the absolute electric potential at point a in an
pic
E and V. Potential is the potential energy per unit charge. electric field can be defined as the work done in displacing
Electric potential at any point in an electric field is defined a unit positive charge from infinity to a by the external
as the potential energy per unit charge, same as the field force or the work done per unit positive charge in
strength is defined as the force per unit charge. Thus, displacing it from a to infinity.
w.
U
V=
q0
ww
or U = q0 V
Following three formulae are very useful in the problems (W a – b ) external = q 0 (V b – V a ) = – (W a – b ) electric force
force
related to work done in electric field. (W ¥ – a ) external force = q 0V a
(W a – b ) electric force = q 0 (V a – V b ) Here, q 0 , V a and V b are to be substituted with sign.
Example 18.17 The electric potential at point A is 20 V q0 = – 1.6 ´ 10–19 C

and at B is – 40 V. Find the work done by an external force VA = 20 V
and electrostatic force in moving an electron slowly from B
and VB = – 40 V
to A.
Work done by external force
Solution Here, the test charge is an electron, i.e., (WB – A)external force = q0 (VA – VB)
11
= (– 1.6 ´ 10–19 ) [(20) – (– 40)] 1 q q0

×
= – 9.6 ´ 10–18 J U 4 pe0 r
V= =
Work done by electric force q0 q0
(WB – A)electric force = – (WB – A)external force
1 q
= – (– 9.6 ´ 10–18 J) or V= ×
4 pe0 r
= 9.6 ´ 10–18 J
Note Here we can see that the electron (a negative charge) moves from B Here, r is the distance from the point charge q to the
(lower potential) to A (higher potential) and the work done by electric force is point at which the potential is evaluated.
positive. Therefore, we may conclude that whenever a negative charge moves If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive
from a lower potential to higher potential work done by the electric force is
positive or when a positive charge moves from lower potential to higher at all points; if q is negative, it produces a potential that is
potential the work done by the electric force is negative. negative everywhere. In either case, V is equal to zero at
Example 18.18 Find the work done by some external force r = ¥.
in moving a charge q = 2 m C from infinity to a point where
electric potential is 104 V. Electric Potential Due to a System of
Charges
Solution Using the relation,
m
Just as the electric field due to a collection of point
(W¥ – a )external force = qVa
charges is the vector sum of the fields produced by each
force = (2 ´ 10–6 ) (104 )
.co
We have, (W¥ – a)external
charge, the electric potential due to a collection of point
= 2 ´ 10–2 J charges is the scalar sum of the potentials due to each
charge.
Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge q
ing
1 q
From the definition of potential, V= å i
4 pe0 i ri
ch
oa
1 qi Example 2. A charge q is uniformly distributed over the

In the equationV = å
4pe0 i ri
if the whole charge is at equal
circumference of a ring in Fig. (a) and is non-uniformly
yC
distance r0 from the point where V is to be evaluated, then distributed in Fig. (b).
+ + ++
we can write, + + q + +
+ +
1 q net
kM
+
V = × + + +
4pe0 r0 +
+q +
+
+
+
+ + +
where q net is the algebraic sum of all the charges of which + R + R
pic
the system is made. +

+
+ +
Here are few examples: +
+ + + ++
Examples 1. Four charges are placed on the vertices of a (a) (b)
square as shown in figure. The electric potential at centre of Fig. 18.24
w.
the square is zero as all the charges are at same distance

from the centre and The electric potential at the centre of the ring in both the
+4 mC –2 mC cases is
ww
R 2+r 2
R
r
C P
–4 mC +2 mC
Fig. 18.23
Fig. 18.25
q net = 4 mC – 2 mC + 2 mC – 4 mC
1 q
= 0. V = × (where R = radius of ring)
4pe0 R
12
and at a distance r from the centre of ring on its axis would 1 q

V = ×
be, 4pe0 R2 + r 2
Example 18.19 Three point charges q1 = 1 mC , q2 = – 2 mC 1 q

In the figure, V0 = ×
and q3 = 3 mC are placed at (1 m, 0, 0), (0, 2m, 0) and (0, 0, 3 m) 4 pe0 R
respectively. Find the electric potential at origin.
Example 18.21 Find out the points on the line joining two
Solution The net electric potential at origin is, charges + q and – 3q (kept at a distance of 1.0 m), where
1 é q1 q2 q ù electric potential is zero.
V = + + 3ú
4pe0 êë r1 r2 r3 û
Solution Let P be the point on the axis either to the left or to
Substituting the values, we have the right of charge + q at a distance r where potential is zero.
æ 1 2 3 ö Hence,
V = (9.0 ´ 109 ) ç – + ÷ ´ 10
–6
è1.0 2.0 3.0 ø P +q 1.0 m – 3q
= 9.0 ´ 103 V
r
Example 18.20 A charge q = 10 mC is distributed uniformly
over the circumference of a ring of radius 3 m placed on x-y +q P –3q
m
plane with its centre at origin. Find the electric potential at a or
point P(0, 0, 4 m). r 1.0 – r
.co
Fig. 18.28
Solution The electric potential at point P would be,
z
q 3q
P VP = – =0
4 pe0 r 4 pe0(1 + r )
ing
r0 4m
+ + + + y Solving this, we get r = 0.5m
+ +
ch
+ 3m +
x q 3q
+ + Further, VP = – = 0,
+
+ +
q 4 pe0 r 4 pe0 (1 – r )
+ + +
oa
Fig. 18.26 which gives r = 0.25 m.

1 q Thus, the potential will be zero at point P on the axis
V = × which is either 0.5 m to the left or 0.25 m to the right of
yC
4pe0 r0
charge + q.
Here r0 = distance of point P from the circumference of
kM
ring
= (3)2 + (4)2 = 5 m
18.8 Relation between Electric
and q = 10 mC = 10–5 C
Field and Potential
pic
Substituting the values, we have Let us first consider the case when electric potential V
9 –5 is known and we want to calculate E. The relation is as
(9.0 ´ 10 ) (10 ) under,
V = = 1.8 ´ 104 V
w.
(5.0)
In Case of Cartesian Coordinates
Variation of Electric Potential on the Axis
ww
E = Ex $i + Ey $j + Ez k$
of a Charged Ring V0
V
¶V
We have discussed in Here, Ex = – = – (partial derivative of V wrt x )
¶x
Medical Galaxy that the electric ¶V
potential at the centre of a Ey = – = – (partial derivative of V wrt y )
¶y
charged ring (whether charged
uniformly or non-uniformly) is r=0 r ¶V
Fig. 18.27 Ez = – = – (partial derivative of V wrt z)
1 q ¶z
× and at a distance r from
4 pe0 R
é ¶V $ ¶V $ ¶V $ ù
the centre on the axis of the ring \ E=-ê i+ j+ k
1 q ë ¶x ¶y ¶z úû
is × . From these expressions we can see that
4 pe0 R + r2
2
This is also sometimes written as,
electric potential is maximum at the centre and decreases
E = – gradient V
as we move away from the centre on the axis. Thus
potential varies with distance r as shown in figure. = – grad V
13
= – ÑV Note In uniform electric field we can also apply,

V = Ed
Example 18.22 The electric potential in a region is
represented as, Here V is the potential difference between any two
V = 2x + 3y – z points, E the magnitude of electric field and d is the
obtain expression for electric field strength. projection of the distance between two points along the
é ¶V $ ¶V $ ¶V $ ù electric field.
Solution E=–ê i+ j+ kú For example, in the figure if we are interested in the
ë ¶x ¶y ¶z û
potential difference between points A and B we will have
¶V ¶ to keep two points in mind,
Here, = (2x + 3y – z) = 2
¶x ¶x
(i) VA > VB as electric lines always flow from higher
¶V ¶ potential to lower potential.
= (2x + 3y – z) = 3
¶y ¶y
(ii) d ¹ AB but d = AC
¶V ¶
= (2x + 3y – z) = – 1 Hence, in the above figure, VA – VB = Ed.
¶z ¶z
Example 18.24 In uniform electric field E = 10 N / C as
\ E = -2i$ - 3$j + k$
We have determined how to calculate electric field E from shown in figure, find :
m
the electrostatic potential V. Let us now consider how to A E
calculate potential difference or absolute potential if
.co
electric field E is known. For this use the relation,
dV = – E × dr 2m 2m
B B
or ò A dV = – òA E × dr
ing
B 2m C
B
or VB – VA = – ò A E × dr Fig. 18.30
ch
Here, dr dx i$ + dy $j + dz k$ (a) VA – VB (b) VB – VC
When E is Uniform Solution (a) VB > VA , so, VA – VB will be negative.

oa
Let us take this case with the help of an example. Further dAB = 2 cos 60° = 1 m
\ VA – VB = – EdAB
yC
Example 18.23 Find Vab in an electric field

N = (–10) (1) = – 10 V
E = (2 $i + 3 $j + 4 k$ )
C (b) VB > VC , so, VB – VC will be positive
kM
where $ $ $
r = (i – 2 j + k) m Further, dBC = 2.0 m
a
and rb = (2 $i + $j – 2 k$ ) m. \ VB – VC = (10) (2) = 20 V
Solution Here the given field is uniform (constant). So Example 18.25 A uniform electric field of 100 V/m is
pic
using, directed at 30° with the positive x-axis as shown in figure. Find
dV = – E × dr the potential difference VBA if OA = 2 m and OB = 4 m.
a
w.
or Vab = Va – Vb = – ò b E × dr B
(1,–2 , 1 )
=-ò (2 $i + 3 $j + 4 k$ ) × (dx $i + dy $j + dz k$ )
ww
(2 , 1,–2 ) O 30°
(1,–2 , 1 ) A
=–ò (2 dx + 3 dy + 4 dz)
(2 , 1,–2 )
( 1, – 2, 1 )
= - [2x + 3y + 4z]( 2, 1, – 2 ) = – 1 volt
Fig. 18.31
Solution This problem can be solved by both the methods as

discussed above.
B E Method 1. Electric field in vector form can be written
as, E = (100 cos 30° $i + 100 sin 30° $j) V / m
= (50 3 i$ + 50$j) V/m
A º (–2 m , 0, 0)
A C and B º (0, 4 m, 0)
d \ VBA = VB – VA
Fig. 18.29
14
B
=– ò A E × dr surface, it follows that E must be perpendicular to
the surface at every point so that the electric force
(0 , 4 m , 0 ) q0 E will always be perpendicular to the
= –ò (50 3 $i + 50 $j) × (dx i$ + dy $j + dz k$ )
( -2 m , 0 , 0 ) displacement of a charge moving on the surface.
(0 , 4 m , 0 )
Thus, field lines and equipotential surfaces are
= – [50 3 x + 50 y](–2 m , 0, 0 ) always mutually perpendicular. Some
= – 100 (2 + 3 ) V equipotential surfaces are shown in Fig. 18.32.
Method 2. We can also use, V = Ed The equipotential surfaces are a family of concentric
spheres for a point charge or a sphere of charge and are a
With the view that VA > VB or VB – VA will be negative. family of concentric cylinders for a line of charge or
Here, dAB = OA cos 30° + OB sin 30° cylinder of charge. For a special case of a uniform field,
where the field lines are straight, parallel and equally
3 1 spaced the equipotentials are parallel planes
=2 ´ + 4 ´ = ( 3 + 2)
2 2 perpendicular to the field lines.
\ VB – VA = – EdAB = – 100 (2 + 3)
Note While drawing the equipotential surfaces we should keep in mind the two
main points.
18.9 Equipotential Surfaces 1. These are perpendicular to field lines at all places.
m
2. Field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.
The equipotential surfaces in an electric field have the
.co
same basic idea as topographic maps used by civil engineers Example 18.26 Equipotential spheres are drawn round a
or mountain climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines point charge. As we move away from the charge, will the
are drawn passing through the points having the same spacing between two spheres having a constant potential
ing
elevation. The potential energy of a mass m does not change difference decrease, increase or remain constant.
along a contour line as the elevation is same everywhere.
Solution V1 > V2
By analogy to contour lines on a topographic map, an
equipotential surface is a three dimensional surface on 1 q
V1 = ×
ch
4pe0 r1 q
which the electric potential V is the same at every point on it. +
An equipotential surface has the following characteristics. 1 q r2 r1 V1 V2
and V2 = ×
oa
1. Potential difference between any two points in an 4pe0 r2

equipotential surface is zero.
q æ1 1ö
2. If a test charge q0 is moved from one point to the Now, V1 – V2 = çç – ÷÷ Fig. 18.33
yC
other on such a surface, the electric potential 4pe0 è r1 r2 ø

energy q0 V remains constant. q æ r2 – r1 ö
= çç ÷÷
3. No work is done by the electric force when the test 4pe0
kM
è r1 r2 ø
charge is moved along this surface.
(4pe0 ) (V1 – V2 )
4. Two equipotential surfaces can never intersect \ (r2 – r1 ) = (r1 r2 )
each other because otherwise the point of q
pic
intersection will have two potentials which is of For a constant potential difference (V1 – V2 ),
course not acceptable. r2 – r1 µ r1 r2
5. As the work done by electric force is zero when a i.e., the spacing between two spheres (r2 – r1 ) increases as
w.
test charge is moved along the equipotential we move away from the charge, because the product r1 r2
will increase.
ww
10 V 40 V
20 30
V V
30 20
40V
V
10V
V
18.10 Electric Dipole
+ – A pair of equal and opposite point charges ±q, that
are separated by a fixed distance is known as electric
dipole. Electric dipole occurs in nature in a variety of
situations. The hydrogen fluoride (HF) molecule is
typical. When a hydrogen atom combines with a fluorine
atom, the single electron of the former is strongly
E attracted to the latter and spends most of its time near the
fluorine atom. As a result, the molecule consists of a
strongly
negative –q
P
+q
fluorine ion – +
40 V 30 V 20 V 2a
Fig. 18.32 Fig. 18.34
15
some (small) distance away from a strongly positive ion, p

or V= (as 2aq = p)
though the molecule is electrically neutral overall. 4 pe0 ( y 2 – a2 )
Every electric dipole is characterized by its electric i.e., at a distance r from the centre of the dipole ( y = r )
dipole moment which is a vector p directed from the p
negative to the positive charge. V=
4 pe0 ( r 2 – a2 )
The magnitude of dipole moment is,
p
p =(2 a) q or Vaxis » (for r >> a)
4 pe0 r 2
Here, 2a is the distance between the two charges.
V is positive when the point under consideration is
Electric Potential and Field Due to an towards positive charge and negative if it is towards
negative charge.
Electric Dipole
Moreover the components of electric field are as
Consider an electric dipole lying along positive
y-direction with its centre at origin. under,
p = 2aq $j Ex = 0, Ez = 0 (as x = 0, z = 0)
The electric potential due to this dipole at point q é 1 1 ù
and Ey = –
4 pe0 êë( y – a)2 ( y + a)2 úû
m
A ( x , y , z) as shown is simply the sum of the potentials due
to the two charges. Thus, 4 ayq
.co
y =
A (x, y, z) 4 pe0 ( y 2 – a2 )2
x 2 + z 2 + (y – a)2
1 2 py
or Ey =
+q
+
ing 4 pe0 ( y 2 – a2 )2
x 2 + z 2 + (y+a)2
a
Note that Ey is along positive y-direction or parallel
x to p.
a
ch
–q – Further, at a distance r from the centre of the dipole

z ( y = r ).
oa
Fig. 18.35 1 2 pr
Ey =
4 pe0 ( r – a2 )2
2
1 é q q ù
yC
V= ê – ú 1 2p
4 pe0 ê x 2 + ( y – a)2 + z2 or Eaxis » × (for r >> a)
ë x 2 + ( y + a)2 + z2 úû 4 pe0 r 3
By differentiating this function, we obtain the electric
kM
field of the dipole. (ii) On the perpendicular bisector of dipole

¶V Say along x-axis (it may be along z-axis also).
Ex = –
¶x y = 0, z = 0
pic
q ì x x ü
= í 2 – 2 2 3 /2 ý 1 é q q ù
4 pe0 î [ x + ( y – a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] þ \ V= ê – ú =0
4 pe0 ê x 2 + a2 x 2 + a2 úû
¶V ë
w.
Ey = –
¶y or V^ bisector = 0
ww
q ì y–a y+a ü Moreover the components of electric field are as

= í 2 – 2 2 3 /2 ý
4 pe0 î [ x + ( y – a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] þ under,
¶V Ex = 0, Ez = 0
Ez = –
¶z q ì –a a ü
and Ey = í 2 – 2 2 3 /2 ý
q ì z z ü 4 pe0 î ( x + a ) 2 3 /2
(x + a ) þ
= í 2 – 2 2 3 /2 ý
4 pe0 î [ x + ( y – a) + z ]
2 2 3 /2 2
[ x + ( y + a) + z ] þ – 2 aq
=
4 pe0 ( x 2 + a2 )3 / 2
Special Cases 1 p
or Ey = – × 2
(i) On the axis of the dipole ( i.e., along y-axis) 4 pe0 ( x + a2 )3 / 2
x = 0, z = 0 Here negative sign implies that the electric field is
q é 1 1 ù 2 aq along negative y-direction or antiparallel to p.
\ V= ê – ú =
4 pe0 ë y – a y + a û 4 pe0 ( y 2 – a2 ) Further, at a distance r from the centre of dipole( x = r ),
the magnitude of electric field is,
16
1 p or t =p´E
E=
4 pe0 ( r + a2 )3 / 2
2
Thus, the magnitude of torque is t = PE sin q. The
direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane of paper
1 p inwards. Further this torque is zero at q = 0 ° or q = 180 °, i.e.,
or E^ bisector » × (for r >> a)
4 pe0 r 3 when the dipole is parallel or antiparallel to E and
maximum at q = 90 °.
Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field
As we have said earlier also a uniform electric field Potential Energy of Dipole
means, at every point the direction and magnitude of When an electric dipole is placed in an electric field E,
electric field is constant. A uniform electric field is shown a torque t = p ´ E acts on it. If we rotate the dipole through
a small angle dq, the work done by the torque is,
by parallel equidistant lines. The field due to a point
charge or due to an electric dipole is non-uniform in dW = t dq
nature. Uniform electric field is found between the plates dW = – pE sin q dq
of a parallel plate capacitor. Now let us discuss the The work is negative as the rotation dq is opposite to
behaviour of a dipole in uniform electric field. the torque. The change in electric potential energy of the
m
dipole is therefore
Force on Dipole dU = – dW
.co
Suppose an electric dipole of dipole moment| p| = 2aq = pE sin q dq
is placed in a uniform electric field E at an angle q. Here q Now at angle q = 90 °, the electric potential energy of
is the angle between p and E. A force F1 = qE will act on the dipole may be assumed to be zero as net work done by
ing
positive charge and F2 = – qE on negative charge. Since, F1 the electric forces in bringing the dipole from infinity to
and F2 are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. this position will be zero. Integrating,
Hence,
ch
+q
E
+q
F1 p 90°
oa
a A
O
a q
yC
–q E –q
F2
B
Fig. 18.37
kM
Fig. 18.36
dU = pE sin q dq
F1 + F2 = 0 From 90° to q, we have
q q
Fnet = 0
or
ò90 ° dU = ò90 ° pE sin q dq
pic
Thus, net force on a dipole in uniform electric field is q

or U ( q) – U (90 ° ) = pE [– cos q]90 °
zero. While in a nonuniform electric field it may or may not
\ U ( q) = – pE cos q
w.
be zero.
= – p×E
Torque on Dipole If the dipole is rotated from an angle q1 to q2 , then
ww
The torque of F1 about O, work done by external forces =U ( q2) – U ( q1)

t1 = OA ´ F1 or Wexternal forces = – pE cos q2 – (– PE cos q1 )
= q (OA ´ E) or Wexternal forces = pE (cos q1 – cos q2 )
and torque of F2 about O is, and work done by electric forces,
t2 = OB ´ F2 Welectric force = – Wexternal force
= – q (OB ´ E) = pE (cos q2 – cos q1)
= q(BO ´ E)
The net torque acting on the dipole is, Equilibrium of Dipole
t = t1 + t2 When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric
= q (OA ´ E) + q (BO ´ E) field net force on it is zero for any position of the dipole in
= q (OA + BO) ´ E the electric field. But torque acting on it is zero only at
q = 0 ° and180°. Thus, we can say that at these two positions
= q (BA ´ E)
of the dipole, net force or torque on it is zero or the dipole is
17
in equilibrium. Of this q = 0 ° is the stable equilibrium other hand at q = 180 °, the potential energy of the dipole is
position of the dipole because potential energy in this maximum (U = – pE cos 180 ° = + pE) and when it is
position is minimum (U = – pE cos 0 ° = – pE) and when displaced from this position, the torque has a tendency to
E E E E
+q –q
F1 F1
–q +q +q –q Torque in opposite
Restoring torque direction
p p
–q
F2 +q F2
q = 0° When displaced from mean position q = 180° When displaced from mean position,
U = minimum = - PE a restoring torque acts on the dipole. U = maximum = + PE torque acts in opposite direction.
Fnet = 0, t = 0 ®
Fnet = 0, t = 0
Fig. 18.38
displaced from this position a torque starts acting on it rotate it in other direction. This torque is not restoring in
m
which is restoring in nature and which has a tendency to nature. So this equilibrium is known as unstable
bring the dipole back in its equilibrium position. On the equilibrium position.
.co
ing
1. As there are too many formulae in electric dipole, we have 3. On the perpendicular bisector of dipole :
summarised them as under: (i) V =0
ch
–q 2a +q 1 p
(ii) E = (opposite to p)
4pe0 ( r 2 + a2 )3 / 2
oa
P
Fig. 18.39 1 p
» × (for r >> a)
4pe0 r 3
| p | = ( 2a ) q
yC
4. Dipole in uniform electric field

2. On the axis of dipole :
(i) F net = 0
1 p
(i) V = × (ii) t = p ´ E and | t| = pE sin q
kM
4pe0 r 2 – a2
(iii)U ( q) = – P × E = – pE cos q with U ( 90° ) = 0
1 p (iv) (W q1 ®q2 ) external force = pE (cos q2 – cos q1 )
or V axis » if r >> a
4pe0 r 2 (v) (W q1 ®q2 ) electric force = pE (cos q2 – cos q1 )
pic
1 2pr = – (W q1 ®q2 ) external force

(ii) E = (along p)
4pe0 ( r 2 – a2 )2 (vi) At q = 0° , F net = 0, tnet = 0, U = minimum
1 2p (stable equilibrium position)
w.
or E axis » × for r >> a

(vii) At q = 180°, Fnet = 0, t net = 0, U = maximum
4pe0 r 3
(unstable equilibrium position)
ww
Example 18.27 An electric dipole of dipole moment p is

placed in a uniform electric field E in stable equilibrium
position. Its moment of inertia about the centroidal axis is I. If it
is displaced slightly from its mean position find the period of For small angular displacement sin q » q
small oscillations. t = – pE q
E at an angle q, from its mean E The angular acceleration is,
Solution When displaced +q
position the magnitude of restoring torque is, t æ pE ö
t a= = – ç ÷ q = – w2 q
–q +q t = – pE sin q
Þ q I è I ø
P 2 pE
where w =
–q I
I
\ T = 2p
Fig. 18.40 pE
18
We first divide S into infinitesimal elements with areas

18.11 Gauss’s Law dS1, dS2 , ¼, etc. and unit normals n$ 1, n$ 2 , ¼, etc. Since, the
Gauss’s law is a tool of simplifying electric field elements are infinitesimal, they may be assumed to be
calculations where there is symmetrical distribution of planar and E may be taken as constant over any element.
charge. Gauss’s law is a relation between the field at all The flux dfe through an area dS is given by,
the points on the surface and the total charge enclosed
within the surface. dfe = E dS cos q = E × n$ dS
The net flux is the sum of the infinitesimal flux
Electric Flux elements over the entire surface.
E \ fe = ò E × n$ dS (open surface)
S
E q To distinguish between the flux through an open
surface and the flux through a closed surface, we
represent flux for the latter case by,
S1
S1
S2 fe = ò E × n$ dS (closed surface)
S
q
(a) (b) Direction of n$
m
Fig. 18.41 Since, n$ is a unit vector normal to a surface, it has two
possible directions at every point on that surface. On a
.co
Electric flux ( fe ) is a measure of the number of field closed surface n$ is usually chosen to be the outward
lines crossing a surface. normal at every point. For an open surface we can use
Fig. (a) shows a planar surface of area S1 that is either direction, as long as we are consistent over the
ing
perpendicular to a uniform electric field E. The number of entire surface. It is sometimes helpful to visualize electric
field lines passing through per unit area ( N /S1) will be flux as the flow of the field lines through a surface. When
proportional to the electric field. Or, field lines leave (or flow out of) a closed surface, fe is
N positive, when they enter (or flow into) the surface, fe is
ch
µE negative. But remember that field lines are just a visual

S1 aid, these are just imaginary lines.
\ N µ ES1 …(i) Here are two special cases for calculating the electric
oa
The quantity ES1 is the electric flux through S1. It is a flux passing through a surface S of finite size (whether
scalar quantity and has the SI unit N-m2 /C. Eq. (i) can also closed or open)
yC
be written as,
Case 1. fe = ES
N µ fe
If at every point on the surface, the magnitude of
Now let us consider a planar surface that is not
electric field is constant and perpendicular (to the
kM
perpendicular to the field. How would the electric flux

then be represented Fig. (b) shows a surface S2 that is surface).
inclined at an angle q to the electric field. Its projection E E
perpendicular to E is S1. The areas are related by, E
pic
90° 90°
S2 cos q = S1 E
90°
Because the same number of field lines cross both S1
S Closed
and S2 , the fluxes through both surfaces must be the same.
w.
surface E
The flux through S2 is therefore, 90°
fe = ES1 = ES2 cos q 90°
ww
Designating n$ 2 as a unit vector normal to S2 , we obtain E 90°

90°
fe = E · n$ 2 S2 E
This result can be easily generalized to the case of an E
arbitrary electric field E varying over an arbitrary surface S. Fig. 18.43
Ù
n1 Case 2. fe = 0
E1 If at all points on the surface the electric field is
q1
tangential to the surface.
Ù
n2
E2
q2 E
E
S
Closed
surface
Fig. 18.42
Fig. 18.44
19
Gauss’s Law electric field has the same magnitude E and it is

This law gives a relation between the net electric flux perpendicular to the surface itself. Hence, we can apply
through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the the simplified form of Gauss law,
surface. q
ES = in
According to this law, “the net electric flux through e0
any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside the Here, S = area of sphere = 4 pr 2 and
surface divided by e0 .” In symbols it can be written as,
qin = net charge enclosing the Gaussian surface
qin =q
fe = ò E × n$ dS = …(i)
e0 q
S \ E (4 pr 2 ) =
e0
where qin represents the net charge inside the surface
1 q
and E represents the electric field at any point on the \ E= ×
4 pe0 r 2
surface.
In principle Gauss’s law is valid for the electric field of It is nothing but Coulomb’s law.
any system of charges or continuous distribution of (ii) Electric field due to a linear charge
m
charge. In practice however, the technique is useful for distribution
calculating the electric field only in situations where the
Consider a long line charge
.co
degree of symmetry is high. Gauss’s law can be used to with a linear charge density +
evaluate the electric field for charge distributions that (charge per unit length) l. We +
have spherical, cylindrical or plane symmetry. have to calculate the electric field +
+
Gauss’s law in simplified form can be written as
ing
at a point, a distance r from the
line charge. We construct a
under, Gaussian surface, a cylinder of
r
any arbitrary length l of radius r l
ch
qin
ES = …(ii) and its axis coinciding with the E E
e0 axis of the line charge. This
cylinder have three surfaces. One
oa
but this form of Gauss’s law is applicable only under is curved surface and the two
following two conditions : plane parallel surfaces. Field lines +
at plane parallel surfaces are +
yC
(i) the electric field at every point on the surface is tangential (so flux passing +
either perpendicular or tangential. through these surfaces is zero). Fig. 18.46
The magnitude of electric field is
(ii) magnitude of electric field at every point where it is
kM
having the same magnitude (say E

perpendicular to the surface has a constant value ) at curved surface and simultaneously the electric field is
(say E). perpendicular at every point of this surface.
Here S is the area where electric field is perpendicular Hence, we can apply the Gauss law as,
pic
to the surface. q
ES = in
e0
Applications of Gauss’s Law
w.
As Gauss’s law does not provide expression for

electric field but provides only for its flux through a
ww
closed surface. To calculate E we choose an imaginary E

closed surface (called Gaussian surface) in which Eq. (i) E
or (ii) can be applied easily. In most of the cases we will
use equation number (ii). Let
us discuss few simple cases.
(i) Electric field due to a Curved surface Plane surface

Fig. 18.47
point charge q Here, S = area of curved surface =(2prl )
E
The electric field due to a r and qin = net charge enclosing this cylinder = ll
point charge is every where ll
\ E (2 prl ) =
radial. We wish to find the e0
electric field at a distance r from
the charge q. We select l
Fig. 18.45 \ E=
Gaussian surface, a sphere at 2 pe0 r
distance r from the charge. At every point of this sphere the
20

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structure. An atom consists of a small, relatively massive

particles called electrons. An electron has a mass of ● Electric Dipole

positive charge, and an electron has a negative charge. A ● Capacitance

equals the magnitude of the charge on the electron. The

the value, e =1.6 ´ 10 -19 C

2 Objective Physics Volume 2

(i) Charging by Rubbing stand

The simplest way to experience electric charges is to (a) (b)

charge on rubbing is simple. All material bodies contain ++

force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign and

closer to the comb. Hence, there is a net attraction between C2

4 Objective Physics Volume 2

1 æ N - s2 ö 2 (2) The electric force is an action reaction pair, i.e., the

1. In few problems of electrostatics Lami’s theorem is very F1 F F

2. Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q2 are r1

g Similarly, electric force on q2 due to charge q1 is

How to Proceed Charge q2 will attract q3 y q3

= magnitude of force between q1 and q2 ´ [(0 – 0.5) $i + (0 – 0.87) $j + (0 – 0) k$ ]

Therefore, net force on q1 is,

Similarly, = (0.45 $i – 2.349 $j) ´ 10–2 N

magnitude and direction of vector separately.

= are suspended from a common point by two insulating strings

F2 sin 120° (ii) electric force and

Method 2. In this method let us assume a co-ordinate

6 Objective Physics Volume 2

Fe The electric field is a vector quantity and its direction

Electric Field Due to a Point Charge

obtained in general terms from Coulomb’s law. First note

A charged particle cannot directly interact with q0

and this electric field exerts a force on any other charge q + E

of charge in which its electrical effects can be observed is

positively charged line charge and towards the line charge

charged ring of total charge q on its axis is given by,

8 Objective Physics Volume 2

Substituting the values, we have

= (–38.42 $i – 230.52 $j – 38.42 k$ )

Electric Field Lines

As we have seen, electric charges create an electric + q q +

strength of the field at various places. Field lines, a

“An electric field line is an imaginary line or curve (c) (d)

point. The relative closeness of the lines at some place

6. The electric field lines can never form closed loops

Wa® b = Ua – Ub = – (Ub – Ua) = – DU …(i) æ1 1ö qq0

decreases. So, whenever the work done by a conservative qq0 æ 1 1 ö

particle is thrown upwards, the work done by gravity is

10 Objective Physics Volume 2

For example electric potential energy of four point 1 é q3 q2 qq qq ù

Solution In this problem,

Substituting the proper values with sign in Eq. (ii), we get

Example 18.15 Two point charges are located on the x-axis,

As we have discussed in Article 18.5 that an electric

consideration. ( Wa – b )electric force ( Wb – a )external force

strength E is a vector quantity while the electric potential V or Va = =

Example 18.17 The electric potential at point A is 20 V q0 = – 1.6 ´ 10–19 C

12 Objective Physics Volume 2

= (– 1.6 ´ 10–19 ) [(20) – (– 40)] 1 q q0

1 qi Example 2. A charge q is uniformly distributed over the

the system is made. +

the square is zero as all the charges are at same distance

and at a distance r from the centre of ring on its axis would 1 q

Example 18.19 Three point charges q1 = 1 mC , q2 = – 2 mC 1 q

Fig. 18.26 which gives r = 0.25 m.