HANDBOOK

ON
CONCRETE

AFCONS INFRASTRUCTURE LIMITED

PREPARED BY: Mr. V.S.Kulkarni.

 INDEX
PAGE
SR.NO. TITLE
NO.
SECTION- I
Cement Concrete.
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Desirable Properties of Concrete.
1.3 Ingredients of Concrete.
1.3.1 Hydraulic Cement.
1.3.2 Water
1.3.3 Aggregate/Filler.
1.3.4 Admixture.
1.3.5 Mineral Admixture.
1.4 Types Of concrete.
1.5 Hot & Cold Weather Concreting.
1.6 Mix Design of Concrete.
1.6.1 Mix Design - ACI Method.
1.6.2 Mix Design - IS Method.
1.7 Cracks & Shrinkage in Concrete.
1.8 Compaction Of concrete.
1.9 Formwork.
1.10 Curing of Concrete.
1.11 Common Field Problems, Causes & Prevention.

SECTION II
Inspection & Test for Verious Concerete Ingradients
2.1 Physical Properties of Cement as per IS.Standards.
2.2 Chemical Properties of Cement as per IS.Standards.
2.3 Physical Properties of Cement as per ASTM & BS.Standards.
2.4 Chemical Properties of Cement as per ASTM & BS.Standards.
2.5 Specification of Fly ash as per IS,BS & ASTM.Standards.
2.6 Specification of GGBFS as per IS,BS & ASTM.Standards.
2.7 Specification of water as per IS,BS & ASTM.Standards.
2.8 Specification of Micro Silica as per IS,BS & ASTM.Standards.
2.9 Typical Concrete Mixes.

SECTION III
List of tests on Cement,Aggregete & Concrete.
3.1 U-Box test to determine Filling Ability of SCC
3.2 L-Box Test for SCC.
 SECTION – I
CEMENT CONCRETE
 CEMENT CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION: Concrete is obtained by mixing cement, fine aggregate, coarse

aggregate and water in required proportions. The mixture when placed in forms and
allowed to cure becomes hard like stone. The hardening is caused by chemical action
between water and the cement due to which concrete grows stronger with age.
Concrete is made up of two components, aggregates and paste. Aggregates are
generally classified into two groups, fine and coarse, and occupy about 60 to 80
percent of the volume of concrete. The paste is composed of cement, water, and
entrained air and ordinarily constitutes 20 to 40 percent of the total volume.
In properly made concrete, the aggregate should consist of particles having
adequate strength and weather resistance and should not contain materials having
injurious effects. The quality of the concrete is greatly dependent upon the quality of
paste, which in turn, is dependent upon the ratio of water to cement content used, and
the extent of curing. For quality concrete, a proper proportion of water to cement is
essential.

Concrete Ingredients’

Nominal Constituents of Normal Vs Self Compacting Concrete (By volume

Desirable Properties of Concrete
Durability: Concrete is able to endure severe weather conditions such as freezing
and thawing, wetting and drying, heating and cooling, chemicals, deicing agents, and
the like. An increase of concrete durability will enhance concrete resistance to severe
weather conditions

Weather Resistance: Concrete resists to deterioration caused by freezing and

thawing, wetting and drying, and heating and cooling.

Erosion Resistance: Concrete resists to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic,

and wind blasting.

Chemical Resistance: Concrete resists to deterioration caused by de-icing salts, salt

water, sulfate salts, Resistance to carbonation.

Water Tightness: Concrete resists to water infiltration, Permeability & chloride ion
penetration.

Workability: The property of the concrete that determines its capacity to be placed
and consolidated properly and be finished without harmful segregation.
Suggested ranges of workability of concrete as per IS 456-2000 & measured in
accordance with IS 1199.
Placing Condition Degree of Slump(mm)/
Workability Workability.
Blinding concrete, Shallow section, Compaction
Pavement using paver. Very Low Factor 0.75 to 0.8.
Mass Concrete, Light Reinforced Section Slump
in slab & beams, walls, columns, floors, 25 to 75 mm
Low
hand placed pavements, canal lining &
footings.
Heavily reinforced section in slabs, Slumps
Medium
beams, columns. 50 to 100mm
Slipform & pumped concrete Slumps
Medium
75 to 100mm
Trench Fill, Insitu Piling High 100 to 150mm
Tremie Concrete Very High Flow

Strength: Concrete possesses a high compressive strength and is usually more

economical than steel and is non corrosive which can be made with locally available
Materials. Strength is measured in form of Mpa. Strength increases with age &
quantum depends upon grade, type of cement, curing & environmental conditions.
For concrete there mainly strengths are to be considered while design of concrete mix
1) Compressive Strength.
2) Flexural/Tensile Strength.
Economy
Proportioning should minimize the amount of cement required without sacrificing
quality. Quality depends on the amount of cement and the water-cement ratio. Hold
the water content to a minimum to reduce the cement requirement also use fly ash,
GGBFS & Microsilica as a mineral admixture which is waste from thermal power,
Steel Plant & glass factory which is cheaply available.

Ingredients in Concrete

I) Hydraulic Cement or Binder.

II) Water.

III) Aggregates/Filler.

IV) Admixtures & Mineral admixture.

I)Hydraulic Cement
Portland Cements and Blended Cements are hydraulic, since they set and harden to
form a stone-like mass by reacting with water. The raw materials used in the
manufacturing of cement consist of combinations of limestone, marl or oyster shells,
shale, clay and iron ore. The raw materials must contain appropriate proportions of
lime, silica, alumina, and iron components. Selected raw materials are pulverized and
proportioned in such a way that the resulting mixture has the desired chemical
composition. This is done in a dry process by grinding and blending dry materials, or
in a wet process by utilizing a wet slurry.

TEST REPORT AS PER IS: 8112.

Sr. REQUIREMENT AS PER
TEST RESULT
no. IS :8112
Chemical Test
1 Lime Saturation Factor 0.83 0.66 to 0.02
2 Al2O3 to Fe2O3 ratio 1.12 0.66 Min
3 Insoluble Residue, % 2.56 3.0 Max
4 Mg O, % 1.66 6.0 Max
5 So3, % 2.35 2.5 Max if C3A <5 & 3 Max
if C3A>5.
6 Loss on ignition, % 4.08 5 Max
7 Chlorides, % 0.005 Max-0.05 for PSC & 0.1
Other
Physical Tests
1 Standard Consistency (%) 31.5
2 Fineness M2/Kg (Blains) 292 225 - Min
3 Setting time
3a Initial (Min) 165 30 - Min
3b Final (Min) 260 600 - Max
4 Soundness
a Le chatlier Expansion (mm) 1 10 - Max
b Autoclave Expansion,% 0.12 0.8 - Max
5 Compressive Strength 24 Mpa 23 - Min
3 Day
7 Day 34 Mpa 33 - Min
28 Day 43 - Min

II) Water
Almost any natural water that is drinkable is suitable as mixing water for making or
curing concrete. However, water suitable for making concrete may not necessarily be
fit for drinking. The acceptance of acidic or alkaline waters is based on the pH scale
which ranges from 0 to 14. The pH of neutral water is 7.0 a pH below 7.0 indicates
acidity, and a pH above 7.0 indicates alkalinity. The pH of mixing water should be
between 4.5 and 8.5. Unless approved by tests, water from the following sources
should not be used:

1. Water containing inorganic salts such as manganese, tin, zinc, copper, or lead;
2. Industrial waste waters from tanneries, paint and paper factories, coke plants,
chemical and galvanizing plants, etc.
3. Waters carrying sanitary sewage or organic silt; and
4. Waters containing small amounts of sugar, oil, or algae.
The total water must conform to the acceptance corresponding codes & standards.

Test Carried out as per IS : 456 -2000.

Sr.No. TEST RESULTS REQUIREMENTS
Volume of 0.02N NaOH required to
1 Neutralize 100 ml sample of water using 1.32 5.0 - Max
phenolphthalein as indicator ml.
Volume of 0.02N H2So4 required to
2 Neutralize 100 ml sample of water using 21.79 25.0 - Max
mixed indicator ml.
3 Solid Contents mg/l.
a Organic 126 200 - Max
b Inorganic 186 3000 - Max
c Sulphate (So4) 0.14 400 - Max
2000/500 –
d Chlorides(Cl) 35.09
Plain/RCC
e Suspended matter 19 2000 - Max
5 PH Value 7.37 Not less than 6.0
III)Aggregates/ Filler for Concrete
Aggregates must conform to certain requirements and should consist of clean, hard,
strong, and durable particles free of chemicals, coatings of clay, or other fine
materials that may affect the hydration and bond of the cement paste. The
characteristics of the aggregates influence the properties of the concrete. Weak,
friable, or laminated aggregate particles are undesirable. Aggregates containing
natural shale or shale like particles, soft and porous particles, and certain types of
chert should be especially avoided since they have poor resistance to weathering.

Characteristics of Aggregates
Resistance to Freeze- Thaw: (Important in structures subjected to weathering)
The freeze-thaw resistance of an aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption,
and pore structure. Specifications require that resistance to weathering be
demonstrated by the magnesium sulfate test.

Abrasion Resistance: (Important in pavements, loading plat-forms, floors, etc.)

Abrasion resistance is the ability to withstand loads without excessive wear or
deterioration of the aggregate.

Chemical Stability: (Important to strength and durability of all types of structures)

Aggregates must not be reactive with cement alkalis. This reaction may cause
abnormal expansion and map-cracking of concrete.

Particle Shape and Surface Texture: (Important to the workability of fresh concrete) –
Rough textured or flat and elongated particles, due to their high surface area,
require more water to produce workable concrete than do rounded or cubical
aggregates.

Grading: (Important to the workability of fresh concrete) –

The grading or particle size distribution of an aggregate is determined by sieve
analysis.

Specific Gravity (Density):

The specific gravity of an aggregate is the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal
volume of water at a given temperature. Most normal weight aggregates have a
specific gravity ranging from 2.4 to 2.9. It is not a measure of aggregate quality. It is
used for certain computations in a mix design.

Deleterious Substances in Aggregates & Their Effects

1. Organic Impurities:
Affect setting time and hardening, and may cause deterioration.

2. Material finer than the (75μm) sieve:

Affect bond and increases water demand.
3. Lightweight Materials (coal, lignite):
Affect durability, and may cause pop outs and stains.

4. Soft Particles:
Affect durability and wear resistance.

5. Friable Particles:
Affect workability and durability, break up in mixing, and increase water demand.

6. Clay Lumps:
Absorb mixing water or cause pop outs.

TEST REPORT AGGREGATE As per IS:383-1970.

Sr.
TEST RESULT REQUIREMENTS
No.
1 Aggregate Impact Value, % 16 30 – For Wearing & 45- for
non wearing surface.
2 Aggregate Crushing value, % 18 30 – For Wearing & 45- for
non wearing surface.
3 Aggregate Abrasion Value, % 19 30 – For Wearing & 50- for
non wearing surface.
4 a Soundness % ( Na2So4) 0.4 12 - Max
4 b Soundness % ( MgSo4) 0.5 18 - Max
5 Alkali aggregate reactivity Limit is not Specified.
5a Reduction in alkalinity 47 Limit is not Specified.
(Millimoles/lit)
5b Dissolved silica concentration 4.2 Limit is not Specified.
(Millimoles/Lit)
5c Nature of aggregate Innocuous Limit is not Specified.
6 Specific Gravity 2.67 Limit is not Specified.
7 Water Absorption, % by weight. 0.3 Limit is not Specified.
8 Bulk Density, Kg/Lit. 1.48 Limit is not Specified.
9 Deleterious Materials,% by
weight.
a Coal & lignite Nil 1.0 - Max
b Clay lumps Nil 1.0 - Max
c Material finer than 75 micron. 0.11 3.0 - Max
d Total Deleterious materials 0.11 5.0 – Max.

IV)Admixtures & Mineral Admixtures for Concrete

Admixtures include all materials other than cement, water and aggregates that are
added to concrete. Admixtures can be broadly classified as follows:
1. Air-entraining admixtures.
2. Retarding admixtures.
3. Water-reducing admixtures.
4. Accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circum-stances)
5. Pozzolans/Mineral admixtures.
6. Workability agents.
7. Miscellaneous, such as permeability-reducing agents, gas forming agents,
and grouting agents
8. Water reducing and retarding admixtures.
9. Water reducing and accelerating admixtures (Used only in special circumstances).

Concrete should be workable, finishable, strong, durable, watertight, and Wear-

resistant. These qualities can often be obtained by proper design of the mix using
suitable materials without resorting to admixtures (except air-entraining admixtures).
There may be instances, however, when special properties such as extended time of
set, acceleration of strength, or a reduction in shrinkage may be desired. These may
be obtained by the use of admixtures. However, no admixture of any type or amount
should be considered as a substitute for good concreting practices. The effectiveness
of an admixture depends upon such factors as the type and amount of cement, water
content, aggregate shape, gradation and proportions, mixing time, slump, and the
temperature of the concrete and air. Trial mixes should be made to observe the
compatibility of the admixture with other admixtures and job materials as well as the
properties of the fresh or hardened concrete.

1) Air-Entraining Admixtures
An air-entrained concrete contains microscopic air bubbles that are distributed, but
not interconnected, through the cement paste. The air bubbles are small and invisible
to the naked eye. Visible entrapped air voids occur in all concrete and the amount of
entrapped air is largely a function of aggregate characteristics. Variations in air
content can be expected with variations in aggregate proportion and gradation, mixing
time, temperature and slump. Adequate control is required to ensure the proper air
content at all times. Since the amount of air-entraining agent per batch is small (110
to 300 ml per cubic meter of concrete), it is important to disperse the agent in the
plastic concrete to insure proper spacing and size of air voids, which are significant
factors contributing to the effectiveness of air-entrainment in concrete.

2) Retarding Admixtures
A retarding admixture is a material that is used for the purpose of delaying the setting
time of concrete. Retarders are used in concrete to:
1. Offset the accelerating affect of hot weather on the setting of concrete.
2. Provide time for difficult placing or finishing in such items as bridge decks or
large piers.
Most retarders also function as water reducers. They are frequently called “water-
reducing retarders.” Some retarders also entrain air in concrete. A retarded concrete
may lose slump faster than a non-retarded concrete. Because some retarders react
with certain air-entraining agents, they are introduced into the mixing water
separately. Acceptance tests of retarders with cements for each design mix and
cement content are necessary to determine whether the materials are compatible.

3)a. Water Reducing Admixtures

A water-reducing admixture is a material used for the purpose of reducing the
quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency. These
materials increase the slump of concrete for a given water content. For a given slump,
the water reduction possibly amounts to about 5%.
Many water-reducing admixtures may also retard the setting time of concrete.
Some also entrain air in concrete. An increase in strength can generally be obtained
with water-reducing admixtures if the water content is reduced and if the cement
content and slump are kept the same. A rapid loss in slump and a significant increase
in drying shrinkage can result from the use of some of these admixtures. Therefore,
trial batch tests should be made with job materials.

3) b. High Range Water Reducers

High range water reducing and retarding admixtures are water reducers which
permit large reductions in the water cement ratio, or provide large increases in the
consistency. This can be accomplished with relatively small dosages of the admixture.
It is possible to make no-slump concrete and produce a workable concrete. It is also
possible to take a normal specification concrete and increase the consistency to the
flowable range of greater than 8 inches (200 mm) of a slump. Because the slump
cone is limited in its ability to measure high slumps, the maximum slump should be
about 7 inches (175 mm).
These admixtures have a very limited time duration before the benefits of increased
consistency have been lost, which can create finishing problems. Caution should be
exercised in the use of these admixtures and the selection of applications where they
will provide a benefit. Trial batching is recommended prior to use.

4) Accelerating Admixtures
An accelerating admixture is used to accelerate the setting and the strength
development of concrete. The development of strength of concrete can also be
accelerated by:
1. Using Type III/Rapid Hardening Cement (high-early-strength cement);
2. Lowering the water cement ratio, or increasing the cement content; and
3. Curing at higher temperatures.
Most of the commonly used accelerators cause an increase in the drying shrinkage of
concrete. Calcium chloride is the most commonly used accelerating admixture.
Calcium chloride and other materials used as accelerators are not antifreeze agents.
When used in normal amounts, they will not reduce the freezing point of concrete by
more than a few degrees.
Calcium chloride should be added in solution form as part of the mixing water in
amounts not to exceed two percent by weight of cement. A greater amount can result
in placement problems and can be detrimental to concrete, since it may cause rapid
stiffening, increase drying shrinkage, and corrode reinforcement steel. The addition of
no more than two percent of calcium chloride has no significant corrosive effect on
ordinary steel reinforcement provided the concrete is of high quality.
Most commercial admixtures contain calcium chloride and are not recommended for
use in items such as:
1. Prestressed concrete,
2. Concrete with steel reinforcement, or
3. Concrete subject to alkali-aggregate reaction.
However, there are more and more admixtures available without calcium chloride,
which overcome the concerns with these items.
Virginia Specifications do not allow the use of an accelerator except in special
Circumstances.

5)Mineral Admixtures
Fly Ash, Granulated Iron Blast-Furnace Slag, Microsilica & Rice husk ash are the
mineral admixtures available for use in concrete. They may be used to replace a
portion of the cement in a concrete mix. This replacement is usually made for
economic reasons, but the quality of the mix can be maintained if certain precautions
are taken. Actually, some properties such as sulfate resistance and cement-alkali
reactions may be improved when mineral admixtures are used. The fly ash approved
for use as an admixture for concrete must meet certain chemical and physical
requirements. The type of fly ash available in this area has pozzolanic properties.
Pozzolans are siliceous materials which themselves possess little or no cementitious
value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react
with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having cementitious properties. Fly ash is
a residue collected from the exhaust gases of a coal burning boiler (usually from an
electrical power plant). Coal has in it certain minerals which cannot be burned, and
the very fine ash that goes up the exhaust stack is termed fly ash.
A portion of the residue is unburnt carbon, which tends to filter out the air
entraining agent. This reduction in air content can be further increased because of the
fineness of fly ash when compared to cement, and it is not uncommon for the air
content to be very low if the air entraining admixture dosage is not increased. The
properties listed above and the effect on air content make it necessary to monitor air
contents more frequently.
Granulated iron blast-furnace slag is a glassy, granular material formed when
molten blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled. The slag is composed of various silicates
and oxides similar to those in Portland cement, and as such it has some cementitious
properties of its own. It also has the finely divided silica, associated with pozzolans,
thereby functioning similar to the fly ash. It is permitted to replace a much higher
percentage of cement.
How Works Mineral Admixtures (Pozzolona) :
Fly ash, GGBFS, Microsilica are the most commonly used pozzolona with cement. A
Pozzolana is essentially a silicious material, which in itself -possessing no
cementitious properties, will in finely divided form and in presence of water react with
calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties. The hydration of cement is an exothermic reaction resulting
in formation of gel (binding material) & calcium hydroxide (free lime). The two
principle components of cement namely C3S and C2S react with water as follows: -
Primary Reaction - Cement and Water
2C3S + 6 H2O – C-S-H Gel + 3Ca(OH)2 Free lime
Secondary Reaction with Mineral Admixture
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 (Mineral Admixture)+ H2O – C-S-H Gel

The free lime generated as a result of hydration is water-soluble and tends to leach
out. This makes concrete porous and more vulnerable to further attack from water
and other chemicals. The reactive silica present in Mineral admixture converts free
lime into calcium silicate hydrates, which is insoluble in water and possesses
cementitious properties. It leads to further gain of strength at later ages in concrete.
The IS allows upto 35% replacement of cement by fly ash. The literature surveyed
reported that incorporating fly ash in concrete reduces the compressive strength at
early ages but there is a drastic increase in the compressive strength at later ages.
The early strength is reduced further if the percentage of replacement is increased.
But, on the other hand when the percentage of replacement is increased the water/
binder ratio gets reduced, thereby, increasing the later age compressive strength.
Also, it is observed that the later age strength of concretes having more than 40%
replacement of cement by fly ash suffers adversely though water/ binder ratio is
gradually reduced. For concretes with less than 40% replacement of cement, the
characteristic strength at 28 days is on higher side. Whereas, for concrete with 40%
replacement of cement, the 28 days compressive strength is at par with that of plain
concrete. The concrete with more than 40% replacement of cement show lesser 28
days strength but gains better strength at 90days or later.

Following are the various Mineral Admixtures:

A) Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS/GGBS).
B) Fly Ash.
C) Silica Fume / Micro Silica.
D) Rice Husk Ash.
E) Metakaoline.
A) Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS/GGBFS):
Blast furnace slag is a by-product from the manufacture of iron in a blast furnace.
The liquid iron blast furnace is lighter in weight than the main product which is iron in
a molten state. The blast furnace will naturally separate from the iron where it is
collected and cooled with large amount of cold water. This quenching process results
in the transformation of liquid into small sized particles having amorphous particles’
structure. Following an efficient drying process, the particles are ground to the desired
fineness and the material gain a cementitious property. The main chemical
composition of GGBFS is SiO2, Al2O3 and CaO. When GGBFS is added to concrete
in powered form it accelerates the pozzolanic reaction. The benefits of adding
powered. On its own, ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) hardens very
slowly and, for use in concrete, it needs to be activated by combining it with Portland
cement. A typical combination is 50 per cent GGBFS with 50 per cent Portland
cement, but % of GGBS anywhere between 20 and 80 per cent are commonly used.
The greater the percentage of GGBFS, the greater will be the effect on concrete
properties.
With the same content of cementitious material (the total weight of Portland
cement plus GGBFS), similar 28-day strengths to Portland cement will normally be
achieved when using up to 50% GGBS. At higher GGBFS % the cementitious content
may need to be increased to achieve equivalent 28-day strength. GGBS concrete
gains strength more steadily than equivalent concrete made with Portland cement.
For the same 28-day strength, a GGBFS concrete will have lower strength at early
ages but its long-term strength will be greater. The reduction in early-strength will be
most noticeable at high GGBFS levels and low temperatures. GGBFS in concrete can
be grouped as follows:

Improvement of fresh concrete properties

Increases cohesion
Reduces internal and external bleeding
Reduces risk of segregation
Reduces washout for under water concrete
Enables the production of self compacting concrete.

Improvement of hardened concrete properties:

The impacts GGBS addition on hardened concrete performance is as follows:
Increased tensile and flexure strength
Enables production of high performance concrete
Enhanced resistance to chloride attack, sulphate attack,
Acid attack and various other external chemical attacks
Enhanced resistance to chemical attacks such as alkali silica & carbonate
reaction.
Improved impermeability to liquids, gases and ions
Improved bonding between concrete and steel reinforcement
 Reduced risk of cracking due to thermal stresses.

TEST REPORT WITH 50:50 (GGBFS : OPC 53 Grade) -

Sr. TEST RESULT REQUIREMENT(IS)

No
1 Specific Gravity 2.84 Not Specified
2 Fineness- Blains Permeability m2/Kg. 495 Not Specified
3a % Compressive Strength 7 Day 90 Not Specified
3b 28 Day 85 Not Specified
4 Residue on 45micron sieve,% 13 Not Specified
5 Compressive Strength Mpa 25 Not Specified
3 Day
7 Day 34 Not Specified
28 Day 45 Not Specified
6 Initial setting Time 170 Not Specified
7 Final Setting Time 355 Not Specified
8 Moisture Content 2.1 Not Specified
9 Soundness (mm) 0.5 Not Specified

B) Fly Ash :
Fly ash, also known as pulverized fuel ash, is a residue resulting from the combustion
of ground or powdered or crushed bituminous coal or sub-bituminous coal (lignite).
About 80% of the total ash is finely divided and get out to boiler along with flue gases
and is collected by suitable technologies. It is sometimes referred as chimney ash and
hopper ash. The balance about 20% ash gets collected at the bottom of the boiler and
is taken out by suitable technologies and is referred as bottom ash. Fly ash is
collected and stored in dry condition. When fly ash alone or bottom ash or both mixed
in any proportion and conveyed in the form of water slurry and deposited in lagoon or
pond, it is termed as pond ash. Whereas if fly ash, alone or bottom ash or both mixed
in any proportion and conveyed or carried in dry form and deposited dry, it is termed
as mound ash.
Pulverized fuel ash is available in large quantities in the country as a waste product
from a number of thermal power station and industrial plants using pulverized or
crushed or ground coal or lignite as fuel for boilers. The effective use of pulverized
fuel ash as a Pozzolana in the manufacture of and for part replacement of cement, as
an admixture in cement, cement mortar and concrete, lime Pozzolana mixture and
products such as fly ash lime bricks, autoclave aerated concrete blocks, High
Strength concrete, High performance concrete etc, have been further established in
the country in recent years. Recent investigations of Indian pulverized fuel ashes
have indicated greater scope for their utilization as a construction material. Greater
utilization of pulverized fuel ash will lead to not only saving of scarce construction
materials but also assist in solving the problem of disposal of this waste product.
The use of fly ash in high performance concrete has been tried for long and
sufficient literature and data is available on the topic but very little research has been
done in India on this front. Moreover, the properties of fly ash available from various
sources and even from same source at different times are not constant. Therefore,
the results available on a particular fly ash in a particular country can not be fitted in
every where. Hence, there is a scope of studying the effect of varying percentages of
fly ash on various properties of different grades of concrete in India. Fly ash is most
commonly used as a pozzolona in concrete. Pozzolonas are silicious or calcious and
aluminous materials, which in a finely divided form and in presence of water, react
with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to produce cementitious compounds.
The spherical shape and particle size distribution of fly ash improves the fluidity of
flowable fill, thereby, reducing the demand of mixing water and contributing to long
term strength of high strength concrete with fly ash. The use of fly ash in HSC and
HPC has been studied by various researchers in past. The use of fly ash in concrete
has been encouraged all over the world. The benefits of incorporating fly ash in to
concrete have been demonstrated through extensive research and countless highway
and bridge construction projects. Benefits to concrete vary depending on the type of
fly ash, proportion used and other mix ingredients, mixing procedure, field conditions
and placement.
As per IS 456-2000 Amendment no.3 Annex. J for Self Compacted concrete (SCC)
we can replace mineral admixture 25 to 50% by weight of cement.

Application of Fly Ash:

1) Improvement in workability
With fresh concrete mixtures that show a tendency to bleed or segregate, it is well
known that incorporation of finely divided Flyash generally improves workability by
reducing the size and volume of voids. It will also enhance cohesiveness of freshly
made concrete. The small size and the glassy texture of fly ashes make it possible to
reduce the amount of water required for a given consistency. In a review paper on the
use of fly ashes it was reported in one case that a concrete made by substituting 30%
of cement with a Canadian flyash required 7% less water.

2) Durability to thermal cracking

Use of pozzolona results in lower heat of hydration hence reduces thermal cracking
and shrinkage. As a thumb rule the total heat of hydration produced by pozzolanic
reactions involving mineral admixtures (Fly ash) is considered to be half as much as
average heat produced by hydration of Portland cement. The Portland cement
replacement by fly ash has been practiced in the United States since the 1930s. In
mass concrete construction, where low cement contents and fly ash proportions as
high as 60 to 100 % by weight of cement are commonly employed with, the first
successful application was in 1948 for building the Hungary Horse dam, Montana
more than 2 million of concrete was used, some cement contained as much as 32%
of cement replaced by fly ash. Use of fly ash is particularly beneficial when concrete is
exposed to considerably higher than normal temperatures, because of high heat of
hydration and extremely hot weather conditions in tropical countries like India.
Compared to specimens cured in laboratory, field concrete with out the presence of
admixtures are likely to undergo a strength loss due to micro cracking on cooling, but
concrete containing mineral admixtures frequently show a gain of strength.

3) Durability to Chemical Attacks

The permeability of concrete is fundamental to determining the rate of mass transfer
related to destructive chemical actions such as attack by acidic and sulphate
solutions. The published literature contains sufficient evidence that in general the
incorporation of mineral admixtures in to concrete improves the resistance of material
to acidic sulphate water (moderate sulphate attack) and seawater. This is mainly due
to pozzolonic reaction, which is accompanied by a reduction in permeability and as
well as reduction in the calcium hydroxide content of the hydrated product. It has
been observed that reduction of Ca(OH)2 only marginally reduces the alkalinity of
concrete and pH value of concrete is sufficient to prevent rusting of steel. The chloride
ion which initiates rusting gets ‘fixed’ in concrete with pozzolana. This results in
reduction in chloride ion diffusion in concrete and thus delays corrosion of steel. Thus
use of fly ash as pozzolana enhances durability of concrete structures.

4) Environmental Considerations
Not only is the manufacture of Portland cement highly energy intensive it also is a
significant contributor of the green house gases. The production of every tone of
Portland cement contributes about one tones of CO2 into the atmosphere. Minor
amount of NO2 and CH4 are also released into the atmosphere. The total CO2
emissions per tone of cement range from about 1.1 tones of CO2 from the wet
process to 0.89 tones from a precalcination kiln. Hence every tone of cement
replaced by fly ash, saves the environment from release of approximately one tone of
CO2 in the atmosphere.
Some of the benefits of fly ash in concrete are (American Coal Ash Association).
Higher ultimate strength
Improved workability
Reduced bleeding, Shrinkage, Permeability, Heat of Hydration.
Increased resistance to sulphate attack
Lowered costs
Increased durability
TEST REPORT OF FLY ASH AS PER IS:3812.
Sr. REQUIREMENTS
TEST RESULT
No. IS-3812.
Chemical Tests
1 SiO2+Al2O3+Fe2O3, %by mass. 94.19 70 - Min
2 SiO2, %by mass 60.4 35 - Min
3 Reactive Silica, % by mass. 26.0 20 - Min
4 MgO, % by mass 0.462 5 - Max
5 So3, % by mass. 0.416 3 - Max
6 Na2O, % by mass 0.188 1.5 - Max
7 Total Chlorides Cl, % by mass. 0.025 0.05 - Max
8 Loss of ignition, % by mass 1.07 5 - Max
Physical Tests
1 Fineness ( Blains Permeability), m2/Kg 332 320 - Min
2 Lime Reactivity (N/mm2) 5 4.5 - Min
3 Soundness,% (Autoclave Expansion). 0.09 0.8 – Max.
4 Particle retained 45micron sieve, % 32.5 34 – Max.
5 Specific Gravity 2.01 -

C) Silica Fume /Micro Silica :

Silica Fume is very fine material, composed mostly of amorphous silica produced by
electric arc furnace as a by-product of the production of elemental silicon or Ferro-
silicon alloys.Microsilica is a mineral admixture composed of very fine solid glassy
spheres of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Most microsilica particles are less than 1 micron
(0.00004 inch) in diameter, generally 50 to 100 times finer than average cement or fly
ash particles.
In order to tailor or enhance concrete properties for specific applications,
amultitude of concrete additives is available on the market. Among these are also
pozzolans. According to ASTM C618, pozzolans are defined as “siliceous or siliceous
and aluminous material which, in itself, possesses little or no cementitious value but
which will, in finely divided form in the presence of moisture, react chemically with
calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing
cementitious properties”. Typical pozzolans are for example volcanic ashes, mineral
slag, fly ash, and silica fume.

Performance & Durability:

1)Pozzolanic action
Addition of microsilica to a concrete mix alters the cement paste structure. The
resulting paste contains more of the strong calcium-silicate hydrates and less of the
weak and easily soluble calcium hydroxides than do ordinary cement pastes.
Because the microsilica particles are so small—their average diameter is about 1⁄100
that of cement particles they disperse among and separate the cement particles. The
resulting fine, uniform matrix can give markedly higher compressive, flexural and
bond strength. Compressive strengths as high as 15,000 psi with ordinary aggregates
and 30,000 psi or more with special aggregates have been reported.

2)Freeze-thaw durability
The small microsilica particles are very good at infiltrating and plugging capillary
pores in concrete— making pores smaller and fewer and concrete more dense.This
gives the concrete good resistance to freezing and thawing.

3) Protection of reinforcement
Fortunately, microsilica—thanks to its pore-filling capabilities— reduces (in some if
not all cases) the rate of carbonation, decreases permeability to chloride ions,imparts
high electrical resistivity, and has little effect on oxygen transport. Therefore,
microsilica concrete can be expected to be strongly protective of reinforcement .

4) Sulfate resistance, reduced aggregate reactivity:

Probably because it has a finer pore structure and less calcium hydroxide, microsilica
concrete has improved resistance to sulfate attack. In addition, microsilica binds the
potassium and sodium oxide alkalies present in cement, thus reducing detrimental
effects with alkali-reactive aggregates.

5) Aids strength gain of fly ash concretes

Preliminary indications suggest that microsilica may be useful in controlling heat
generation in mass concrete. It has also been found useful in combination with fly
ash. Early-age strength development of concrete in which fly ash replaces cement
tends to be slow because fly ash is relatively inert during this period of hydration.
Adding microsilica, which is more reactive in early hydration, can speed the strength
development.

Benefits of Micro Silica / Silica Fume in concrete are:

1) Increased cohesiveness of the fresh concrete, which can lead to improved
handling characteristics.
2) curing can start earlier as there is no need to wait for bleed water to dissipate.
(Bleeding is a form of segregation where the solid components of the concrete
settle downwards, leaving water on the top surface. It continues until the cement
paste has stiffened enough to end the settling process).
3) High Early strength at 24 Hrs. ( In Excess 25N/mm2)
4) Compressive Strength excess 60 Mpa easily achieved.
5) Lower Permeability & greater resistance to abrasion & impact than conventional
concrete.
There is increasing demand for very high strength/high performance concretes, with
compressive strengths of 70– 80 N/mm2 and above, becoming more common.
This trend is likely to continue as specifications become more demanding and
minimizing whole life costs more significant.
 TYPES OF CONCRETE

1) Normal Concrete.
2) High Performance concrete.
3) Air Entrained Concrete.
4) Light Weight Concrete.
5) Self Compacted Concrete.
6) Shotcrete.
7) Roller Compacted Concrete.
8) Heavy Weight Concrete.
9) Mass concrete.

1.NormalConcrete:
The concrete in which common ingredients i.e. aggregate, water, cement are used is
known as normal concrete. It is also called normal weight concrete or normal strength
concrete. It has a setting time of 30 - 90 minutes depending upon moisture in
atmosphere, fineness of cement etc. The development of the strength starts after 7
days the common strength values is 10 MPa (1450 psi) to 40 MPa (5800 psi). At
about 28 days 95% of the total strength is attained.

Properties of Normal Concrete:

a. Its slump varies from 25 to 100mm
b. Density ranges from 2200 to 2600Kg/M3
c. It is strong in compression and weak in tension.
d. Air content 1 - 2 %.
Normal concrete is not durable against severe conditions e.g. freezing and thawing.

2) High Performance Concrete.............................................................................

Compressive strength of high Performance concrete mix is usually greater than 60
Mpa. High Performance concrete is made by lowering the water cement (W/C) ratio to
0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement, which might reduce the strength at the cement
aggregate bond. Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes
significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength
concrete applications where dense rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate
for the reduced workability in the high strength concrete mix, superplasticizers are
commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for
high strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the
loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate.
High Performance Concrete mix has the following main properties:
a.High strength.
b. High workability.
c. High durability.
d. Ease of placement.
e. Compaction without segregation.
f. Early age strength.
g. Long-term mechanical properties.
h. Low Permeability.
m. Long life in severe environments.

High strength concrete mix can be prepared with careful selection of ingredients and
optimization of mix design. High workability is attained by super plasticizers, they
lower the water cement ratio to 0.25 which is the amount required only for hydration
process. High durability is attributed to fly ash and silica fume which modify the e
mineralogy of the cement; it enhances the compatibility of ingredients in concrete
mass and reduces the CH amount. Fly ash also causes ball bearing effect increasing
workability. The admixtures are 20-25% fly ash of partial replacement of cement and
rest 70% is Ordinary Portland Cement.
Traditionally high performance concrete implied high strength concrete with higher
cement content and low water-to-cement ratio. But higher cement content leads to
autogenous and plastic shrinkage cracking and thermal cracking. At present durability
is also given importance along with strength.
Some special types of high performance concrete are as follows.
1) High strength concrete
2) High workability concrete
3) Self-compacting concrete
4) Reactive powder concrete
5) High volume fly ash concrete
6) Fiber reinforced concrete.

3)Air Entrained Concrete:

One of the greatest achievements in field of concrete technology is development of air
entrained concrete. It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and
thawing action. It is prepared by adding the air entraining admixture.
The air entrainment in concrete does the following functions:
It lowers the surface tension of water and thus bubbles are created. Secondly the air
entraining agents prevents coalescing i.e. the combining of bubbles. The diameter of
these bubbles ranges form 10 micrometer to 1000 micrometer and in entrapped air
the diameter of bubble is greater than 1mm.Air entraining agents OR air entrained
admixtures are used for the purpose of making entrained air in concrete.
Freezing & Thawing :
There are two phenomenon regarding the freezing and thawing action on concrete.
when water inside concrete mass freezes it expands 9-10% due to this increase in the
size it exerts pressure on its surrounding and thus creating a tensile force due to
which micro cracks appear in the concrete. Due to freezing these micro cracks
develop into fissures which results in disruption of concrete. When the air entrained
agents are present, extra amount of air is there as water expands these air bubble
provide them thin space and the exertion of pressure is prevented. Second is of
osmotic pressure: In a concrete structure there are two parts, frozen and unfrozen. As
the water content is higher in the frozen part, the osmotic pressure is developed and
water tends to flow towards the low water concentration part. If capillaries are not
available, the water develops cracks. Normal concrete can not sustain 3-4 cycles of
freezing and thawing where as the AEA concrete can sustain 100 cycles of it.

4) Light Weight Concrete:

The concrete which has substantially lower mass per unit volume then the concrete
made of ordinary ingredients is called lightweight concrete.

Properties & Use of Light Weight Concrete:

1) Density of light weight concrete is 240 to 1850 kg/m³.
2) Strength of light weight concrete blocks varies from 7 MPa - 40 MPa.
3) lightweight aggregate has better thermal properties, better fire ratings, reduced
shrinkage, excellent freezing and thawing durability, improved contact between
aggregate and cement matrix, less micro-cracking as a result of better elastic
compatibility, more blast resistant, and has better shock and sound absorption, High-
Performance lightweight aggregate concrete also has less cracking, improved skid
resistance and is readily placed by the concrete pumping method.
4) These type of concrete is used for load bearing cast in situ external walls for
building, Parapet wall, Road lining or reduce dead load . They are also used for
temporary structures because of low initial cost and can be reused as aggregate.

5) Self Compacted Concrete:

The concrete where no vibration is required. The concrete is compacted due to its
own weight. It is also called self consolidated concrete or free flowing concrete. It can
be also categorized as high performance concrete as the ingredients are the same,
but in this type of concrete workability is increased.
This self-consolidating concrete is characterized by:
1) Extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow
table, rather than slump (height).
2) No need for vibrators to compact the concrete.
3) Placement being easier.
4) No bleed water, or aggregate segregation.

Uses and Applications of Self Compacting Concrete:

1) It is used in location unreachable for vibrations. e.g. underground structure, deep
wells or at bottom of deep sea.
2) SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced
wear and tear on formwork.

6)Shotcrete:
Shotcrete concrete uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a frame or
structure. Shotcrete is mortar or concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically
projected at through a shortcrete nozzle with high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete
undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due to the force with which it
is projected from the nozzle.

Application :
1) It can be impacted onto any type or shape of surface, including vertical or overhead
areas.
2) Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates
the need for formwork.
3) It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling.
4) Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to limit the
amount of water entering a construction site due to a high water table or other
Subterranean sources.
5) This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for loose soil types
in construction zones.

Method of Application:

Wet Mix – All ingredients, including water, are thoroughly mixed and introduced into
the delivery equipment. Wet material is pumped to the nozzle where compressed air
is added to provide high velocity for placement and consolidation of the material onto
the receiving surface.
Dry Mix – Pre-blended dry or damp materials are placed into the delivery equipment.
Compressed air conveys material through a hose at high velocity to the nozzle, where
water is added. Material is consolidated on the receiving surface by the high-impact
velocity.

7) Roller compacted concrete:

Roller compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff
concrete placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The
concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using
large heavy rollers typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high
density and cures over time into a strong monolithic block. Roller compacted
concrete is typically used for concrete pavement. Roller compacted concrete dams
can also be built, as the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while
curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
8) Heavy weight Concrete:
The density of heavy weight concrete varies from 3360 kg/m3 to 3840 kg/m3.They can
however be produced with density up to 5820 kg/m3 using iron ore as both fine and
coarse aggregate. Heavyweight concrete uses heavy natural aggregates such as
barites or magnetite or manufactured aggregates such as iron or lead shot. The
density achieved will depend on the type of aggregate used. Typically using barites
the density will be in the region of 3,500kg/m3, which is 45% greater than that of
normal concrete, while with magnetite the density will be 3,900kg/m3, or 60% greater
than normal concrete. Very heavy concretes can be achieved with iron or lead shot as
aggregate, is 5,900kg/m3 and 8,900kg/m3 respectively.
Heavy Weight Concrete is mainly used in the construction of radiation shields
(medical or nuclear). Offshore, heavyweight concrete is used for ballasting for
pipelines and similar structures.

9) Mass Concrete:
Mass concrete is defined in ACI as “any volume of concrete with dimensions large
enough to require that measures be taken to cope with generation of heat from
hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to minimize cracking.” The
design of mass concrete structures is generally based on durability, economy, and
thermal action, with strength often being a secondary, rather than a primary, concern.
The one characteristic that distinguishes mass concrete from other concrete work is
thermal behavior. Because the cement-water reaction is exothermic by nature, the
temperature rise within a large concrete mass, where the heat is not quickly
dissipated, can be quite high. Significant tensile stresses and strains may result from
the restrained volume change associated with a decline in temperature as heat of
hydration is dissipated. Measures should be taken where cracking due to thermal
behavior may cause a loss of structural integrity and monolithic action, excessive
seepage and shortening of the service life of the structure, or be aesthetically
objectionable. Many of the principles in mass concrete practice can also be applied to
general concrete work, whereby economic and other benefits may be realized. Mass
concreting practices were developed largely from concrete dam construction, where
temperature-related cracking was first identified.
 Hot & Cold Weather Concreting

Hot Weather Concreting:

AS 1379 places a 35°C limit on the maximum concrete temperature at the time of
delivery.
However, when the air temperature rises above 30°C, it is usually recommended that
precautions be taken.
ACI 305 “Hot Weather Concreting” defines hot weathers as any combination of the
following
Conditions that tend to impair the quality of the freshly mixed or hardened concrete:
• High ambient temperature
• High concrete temperature
• Low relative humidity
• Wind speed
• Solar radiation

Potential concrete problems in hot weather are likely to include:

• Increased water demand
• Increased rate of slump loss
• Increased rate of setting
• Increased tendency for plastic-shrinkage cracking
• Increased difficulty in controlling entrained air content
• Decreased 28-day and later strengths
• Increased tendency for differential thermal cracking
• Greater variability in surface appearance
• Increased permeability.

Precaution to be taken to control potential concrete problems

Use concrete materials and proportions with satisfactory records in hot weather
Use cool concrete
Use a concrete consistency that permits rapid placement and effective
consolidation
Transport, place, consolidate, and finish with least delay
Protect concrete against moisture loss at all times, during placement and curing
period.

Following are the thumb rules can be used to reduce concrete temperature:
Thumb rule 1: For every 0.5°C (1°F) drop in concrete temperature desired, the mix
water temperature must be reduced by 2°C (3.6°F).
Thumb rule 2: For every 0.5°C (1°F) drop in concrete temperature desired, replace
2% of the total mix water with ice.
 Cold Weather concreting

ACI 306 “Cold Weather Concreting” defines cold weather concreting as a period when
for more than three consecutive days, the following conditions exist:
• The average daily air temperature is less than 5°C (40°F) and,
• The air temperature is not greater than 10°C (50°F) for more than one-half of any
24 hour period.
Even though not defined as cold weather, protection during spring and fall is required
during the first 24 hours to avoid freezing.

The objectives of cold weather concreting are to:

• Prevent damage to concrete due to freezing at early ages
• Assure that concrete develops the required strength for the safe removal of forms
• Maintain curing conditions that foster normal strength development without using
excessive heat
• Limit rapid temperature changes in the concrete to prevent thermal cracking
• Provide protection consistent with the intended serviceability of the structure for
every 10°C (18°F) reduction in concrete temperature, the times of setting of the
concrete double, thus increasing the amount of time that the concrete is vulnerable to
damage due to freezing. Concrete that is protected from freezing until it has attained
a compressive strength of at least 3.45 Mpa will not be damaged by exposure to a
single freezing cycle. Concrete that is protected and properly cured will mature to its
potential strength despite subsequent
exposure to cold weather & Newly placed concrete is saturated with water and should
be protected from cycles of freezing and thawing until it has attained a compressive
strength of at least 24Mpa.

Recommended Practices and Basic Principles

1. Prior to the pour, clearly define the cold weather concreting methods that will be
used.A pre-placement meeting with the contractor, specifier, producer,
laboratory and other interested parties is highly recommended.
2. Where a specified concrete strength must be attained in a few days or weeks,
protection at temperatures above 10°C (50°F) is required.
3. Temperature of the concrete determines the effectiveness of protection,
regardless of air temperature. Maintaining temperature records of concrete in
place is essential.
4. Must be strong enough to be windproof and weatherproof. Combustion heaters
must be vented to the outside to prevent carbonation.
5. Concrete should be properly air entrained if it will be saturated and exposed to
freezing and thawing cycles during construction.
6. All else being equal, lower slump and/or lower water/cement ratio mixes are
particularly desirable in cold weather for flatwork. This reduces bleeding and
decreases setting time.
7. The distance from the plant to the point of placement can have a severe effect
on the temperature of concrete.
8. While hot water improves setting time of cold weather concrete, after the first
few batches of concrete hot water heaters may not be able to maintain hot
water temperature. Later in the pour, concrete may be cooler than at the
beginning of the pour.
9. ACI 306 provides recommended temperatures for placement and protection of
concrete.
 MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their

relative amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength,
durability, and workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix
design. The proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required
performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If
the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The
property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to
be an index of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and
quantity of cement, water and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction
and curing. The cost of concrete is made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour.
The variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact that the cement is several
times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix as possible.
From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking
in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete
which may cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for
producing a minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by
the designer of the structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there
is no doubt that the quality control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality
control is often an economic compromise, and depends on the size and type of job.
The cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of
inadequate workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of
compaction with available equipment.

Requirements of concrete mix design

The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix
ingredients are :
a ) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting
equipment available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate
durability for the particular site conditions
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in
mass concrete.

TYPES OF MIXES
1) Nominal Mix :
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine
and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures
 adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal
circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the
variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely
in strength.

2)Standard Mixes :
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum
compressive strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are
termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10,
M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix
and the number to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of
grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions
(1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

3) Designed Mixes:
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the
mix proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum
cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of
mix proportions with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique
characteristics. The approach results in the production of concrete with the
appropriate properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve
as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the
prescribed performance.For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or
standard mixes (prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic
meter and by slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength
of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being
placed on the masses of the ingredients.

Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions

The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength
required at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement
ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and
cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of compaction. According to
Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely proportional to
the W/C ratio.

2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the
section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction
 to be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or
inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability so that full compaction
can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This also applies to the
embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the compacting
equipment available at the site.

3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions.
High strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the
situations when the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are
such that high durability is vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-
cement ratio to be used.

4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement
for a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with
increase in maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends
to increase with the decrease in size of aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate
should be as large as possible.

5. Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability
and water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used.
Very lean mix is not desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make
the concrete cohesive. The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-
cement ratio for the desired workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An
important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can
be achieved by mixing different size fractions.

6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results.
The variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix
ingredients and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and
testing. The lower the difference between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix
lower will be the cement-content required. The factor controlling this difference is
termed as quality control.
Mix Proportion designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is
in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a
concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are
in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate
and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass.
The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass.
METHODS OF MIX DESIGN OF CONCRETE

1) ACI Method.
2) Indian Standard Method.

1) ACI 211.1-91 METHOD

ACI 211.1-91, Reapproved 2002, states: "Concrete proportions must be selected to
provide workability, consistency, density, strength, and durability.”

DESIGN PARAMETERS

ACI 211.1-91, Reapproved 2002, states: "The procedure for selection of mix
proportions given below is applicable to normal weight concrete. Estimating the
required batch weights for the concrete involves a sequence of logical straightforward
steps. Some or all of the following specifications are required; maximum water-
cement or water-cementitious material ratio, minimum cement content, air content,
slump, maximum size of aggregate, strength, and admixtures."

1) SLUMP

Recommended slumps for various types of construction

Maximum Slump Minimum Slump
Types of construction
(mm) (mm)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 75 25
Plain footings, caissons, and
75 25
substructure walls
Beams and reinforced walls 100 25
Building columns 100 25
Pavements and slabs 75 25
Mass concrete 75 25

Slump values (From Above Table)

Maximum = mm.

Minimum = mm.

2) MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE

The nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate = mm.
3) MIXING WATER & AIR CONTENT

NON-AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
Approximate mixing water (kg/m3) for indicated nominal maximum sizes of
aggregate
12.5 37.5 150
Slump (mm) 9.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm
mm mm mm
25 to 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 to 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 to 175 243 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
More than 175 - - - - - - - -
Approximate amount of entrapped air in non-air-entrained concrete (%)
12.5 37.5 150
Slump (mm) 9.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm
mm mm mm
All 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.3 0.2

Water weight for non-air-entrained concrete (Above Table) = kg/m3

Amount of entrapped air (Above Table) = %

Volume of water = m3

Volume of air = m3

4) WATER-CEMENT RATIO

Relationship between water-cement or water-cementitious materials ratio and

compressive strength of concrete
Compressive strength at 28 days Water-cement ratio by weight
(MPa) (Non-air-entrained concrete)
40 0.42
35 0.47
30 0.54
25 0.61
20 0.69
15 0.79

Compressive strength at 28 days = MPa

 Water-cement ratio (Above Table) =

Important! Check the maximum permissible water-cement ratio from the Table
below and revise the water-cement ratio entered in the box above accordingly.

Maximum permissible water-cement or water-cementitious materials ratios

for concrete in severe exposure
Structure wet
Structure exposed
continuously and
Type of Structure to sea water or
exposed to frequent
sulfates
freezing and thawing
Thin section (railings, curbs,
sills, ledges, ornamental work)
0.45 0.40
and sections with less than 25
mm cover over steel
All other structures 0.50 0.45

Specific gravity of the cement =

Weight of cement = kg/m3

Solid volume of cement = m3

5) COARSE AGGREGATE

Volume of oven-dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete for

different fineness moduli of fine aggregate
Nominal
maximum size
2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
of aggregate
(mm)
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
150 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81
 Nominal maximum size of aggregate = mm

Unit weight of coarse aggregate = kg/m3

Fineness modulus of fine aggregate =

Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete =

Specific gravity of coarse aggregate =

Weight of coarse aggregate = kg/m3

Solid volume of coarse aggregate =

6) FINE AGGREGATE

Specific gravity of fine aggregate =

Weight of fine aggregate = kg/m3

Solid volume of fine aggregate = m3

7) ADJUSTMENT FOR MOISTURE IN AGGREGATE

Design mix water = kg/m3

Free water in coarse aggregate = %

Free water in fine aggregate = %

The degree of absorption of coarse aggregate = %

The degree of absorption of fine aggregate = %

Net mix water = kg/m3

Wet weight of coarse aggregate = kg/m3

Wet weight of fine aggregate = kg/m3

If water reducer (chemical admixture) used in the mix?

 Percent of reduction in water (as given by the manufacturer) due to
applied dosage of water reducer = %

Adjusted mix water = kg/m3

Weight of water reducer = kg/m3

8) SUMMARY OF MIX DESIGN

Compressive strength at 28 days = MPa

Slump:

Maximum = mm

Minimum = mm

Nominal maximum size of aggregate = mm

Water-cement (or water-cementitious materials) ratio =

Concrete type is

Air content = %

Unit weight of coarse aggregate = kg/m3

Ingredients of Concrete Mixture

Coarse Fine Pozzolanic Water
Water Cement
Aggregate Aggregate Materials Reducer
kg/m3 kg/m3
kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3
3) MIXING WATER & AIR CONTENT

AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE
Approximate mixing water (kg/m3) for indicated nominal maximum sizes of
aggregate
12.5 37.5 150
Slump (mm) 9.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm
mm mm mm
25 to 50 181 175 168 160 150 142 122 107
75 to 100 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
150 to 175 216 205 197 184 174 166 154 -
More than 175 - - - - - - - -
Recommended averages of total air content (%) for level of exposure
Level of 12.5 37.5 150
9.5 mm 19 mm 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm
Exposure mm mm mm
Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate
6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Exposure
Severe
7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
Exposure

Water weight for air-entrained concrete = kg/m3

Amount of entrapped air = %

Volume of water = m3

Volume of air = m3
MIX DESIGN AS PER INDIAN STANDARD METHOD (IS - 456 & IS - 10262)

1) Determination of Target means strength (Fck).

Fck = fck+1.65 x s
fck - Characteristics Strength
s - Standard deviation from IS: 456 - 2000 table no.8.

Table no.8 (IS-456)

Assumed Standard
Grade of concrete
deviation (s)
M10, M15 3.5 N/mm2
M20, M25 4 N/mm2
M30,M35,M40,M45,M50 5 N/mm2

2) Select Water Cement ratio from Table 5 of IS 456-2000.(Given Below)

Exposure Plain Concrete Reinforcement Concrete

Min Max Min Min Max Min

Cement W/C Grade Cement W/C Grade
(kg/m3) Ratio Concrete (kg/m3) Ratio Concrete
Mild 220 0.6 NS 300 0.55 M20

Moderate 240 0.6 M15 300 0.5 M25

Severe 250 0.5 M20 320 0.45 M30

Very
260 0.45 M20 340 0.45 M35
Severe

Extreme 280 0.4 M25 360 0.4 M40

As per IS: 2911 (Part I /Sec.2). Minimum Cement Content in piling work is
400kg/m3.
 No Exposure Conditions

1 Mild
Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive
conditions, except those situated in coastal area.
2 Moderate Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst
wet Concrete exposed to condensation and rain, Concrete
continuously under water, Concrete in contact or buried under
nonaggressive soil/ground water, Concrete surfaces sheltered
from saturated salt air in coastal area.
3 Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting and
Severe drying or occasional freezing whilst wet or severe condensation.
Concrete completely immersed in sea water Concrete exposed to
coastal environment.
4
Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes
Very
or severe freezing conditions whilst wet Concrete in contact with
Severe
or buried under aggressive sub-soil/ground water.
5
Extreme Surface of members in tidal zone Members in direct contact with
liquid/ solid aggressive chemicals.

3) Select Water Content –

a) From maximum size of aggregate take maximum water content
From table no.2 of IS 10262-2009.
b) Estimate water content according to IS 10262-2009. cl.4.2.
c) Water reducing admixture can be used to reduce water content up to 20 to
30%.
Table No.2
Nominal Max. Size Max. Water Content
Aggregate
10 mm 208
20mm 186
40mm 165
4) Cement content –
From assumed water cement ratio & total water content calculate cement
content & same will tally with min & max cement content.

5) Determination of Coarse & fine Aggregate –

From maximum size of coarse aggregate and zone of fine aggregate
determine the volume of fine aggregate to be used from IS 10262- 2009. Of
table no.3
a) Combination of different Coarse Aggregate Fractions –
The coarse aggregate used shall confirm IS 383. Coarse aggregate of different
size may be combined in suitable proportion so as overall grading confirming
table 2 of IS-383.

Table no.3 (IS 10262-2009).

Aggregate Volume of Coarse agg. Per unit volume of Total
Size agg.
Max Agg. Size Zone IV Zone III Zone II Zone I
10 0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44
20 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
40 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69

6) From known specific Gravity of various ingredients determine the mass of each
ingredient separately/independently by using unit volume method. Necessary
adjustment of moisture content to be done before prepare summery. Calculate the
content of coarse and fine aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the
following relations:

Where V = absolute volume of concrete (1m3)

 Sc = specific gravity of cement
W = Mass of water per cubic meter of concrete, kg
C = mass of cement per cubic meter of concrete, kg
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic meter of
concrete, respectively, kg, and

Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse
aggregates, respectively

7) Prepare summery of ingredients in kg required to make 1 m3 concrete mix

production by making necessary adjustments.
8) From above summery of mix design does the trial mix, check unit weight,
Cohesiveness, workability, temperature of mix.
9) Take workability test at regular interval to find out slump retention.
10) Cast 9 no’s of cubes of size 150mm to find out 3, 7 & 28 days compressive
strength.
28 Days strength will gives characteristics strength of mix.

FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING AS PER IS: 456-2000.

Quantity of concrete in work(m3) Number of Samples
1-5 1
6 - 15 2
16 - 30 3
31 - 50 4
Four plus one additional each
51 - Above 50m3.
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA AS PER IS: 456-2000.
The mean strength determined from any group of 4 consecutive test results complies
with appropriate limit in column (2) & any individual test result complies with
appropriate limit column 3.

INDIVIDUAL
MEAN OF THE GROUP OF FOUR NON TEST
SPECIFIED OVERLAPING CONSECUTIVE TEST RESULTS IN
GRADE RESULT IN N/MM2 N/MM2

(1) (2) (3)

M15 >/= fck +0.825xestablished standard

deviation (rounded off to nearest >/= fck - 3
or
0.5N/mm2) N/mm2
above
or
fck + 3 N/mm2 Whichever is greater.

Proportion for Nominal Mix Concrete as per IS 456-2000.(Table no.9)

Quantity of
Total Quantity of Dry
Grade of Proportion of water per 50kg
aggregate by mass per
Concrete FA to CA of cement (Max),
50kg of Cement.(kg)
kg
M10 480 Generally 1:2 but 34
M15 320 subject to an 32
upper limit of
M20 250 1:1.5 & lower limit 30
1:2.5
For fine Aggregate zone II, The proportion shall be 1:1.5, 1:2 and 1:2.5 for Max size of
aggregate 10, 20&40mm respectively.
 Things to remember during Concrete Mix Design

Good quality concrete starts with the quality of materials, cost effective designs is
actually a by-product of selecting the best quality material and good construction
practices. Following are 9 Things to remember during Concrete Mix Design and
Concrete Trials.

1) ACI 211.1, SP-23, IS: 10262, IS: 456 & Other standards only serves as guide,
initial design must be confirmed by laboratory trials & plant trials, adjustment on
design shall be done during trial mixes. Initial design on paper never final design.
2) Always carryout trial mixes using the material for actual use.
3) Consider always Factor of safety more than one.
4) Before proceeding to plant trials always confirm the source of materials to be same
as the one used in the laboratory trials.
5) Check calibration of batching Plant & weigh balances used for weigh ingredients.
6) Carry out full tests of fresh concrete at the batching plant, specially the air content
yield which is very important in commercial batching plant.
7) Correct quality control procedures at the plant will prevent future concrete problem.
8) Check & verify Strength development, most critical stage is the 3 & 7 day strength.
9) Technical Knowledge is an advantage for batching plant staff, even if you have
good concrete design but uncommon or wrong procedure are practiced it will
eventually result to failure.
 CRACKS & SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE

CRACK: Cracking in the concrete is a well documented problem. Cracking

contributes to the deterioration of concrete structure and allows the ingress of water to
the reinforcement, which may lead to corrosion. Cracking increases the maintenance
costs, reduces the service life, and may result in disruptive and costly repairs.
Experience shows that a combination of shrinkage and thermal stresses causes most
concrete cracking.

SHRINKAGE: Shrinkage is a reduction in volume, and in concrete, it is mainly caused

by the loss of water. In most cases, shrinkage is measured by monitoring longitudinal
strain. When tensile stresses due to restrained volume contraction exceed the tensile
strength of concrete, the shrinkage leads to cracking, which is called shrinkage
cracking. Shrinkage is classified based on the causes of volume change and the state
of concrete.

Shrinkage can be classified in following ways:

1) Plastic shrinkage: Is the shrinkage that occurs due to loss of moisture from fresh
concrete. This loss may in be in form of surface evaporation or moisture loss to the
subgrade, for slabs on the ground. The loss of moisture leads to the formation of
menisci. These menisci generate negative capillary pressures, which cause a volume
reduction in the cement paste. Because the loss of moisture is concentrated at the
exposed surfaces, the volume contraction is uneven. Differential volume changes
produce tensile stresses in concrete, which may result in the formation of cracks in
the plastic concrete. This type of cracking generally appears in random patterns and
is shallow.

2)Autogenous Shrinkage/Chemical shrinkage: Is a volume change that occurs

without moisture loss to the surrounding environment. It occurs when water in cement
paste is consumed by the hydration reactions, and results due to self desiccation of
the concrete. This type of shrinkage mainly occurs in the mixes with low water-cement
(w/c) ratios and may be increased by the use of reactive pozzolans. For the concretes
with w/c ratios of 0.42 and greater, autogenous shrinkage is normally small and can
be considered as a part of drying shrinkage.
3)Drying shrinkage: Occurs due to the loss of moisture from hardened concrete.
Among the different types of shrinkage, drying shrinkage usually results in the largest
volume change. Moisture loss causes volume changes based on three mechanisms
that result in changes in capillary stress, disjoining pressure, and surface free energy.
Capillary stress occurs between relative humidities of 45 and 95 percent, when a
meniscus forms in the pore water within pores in cement paste.

4) Carbonation shrinkage: Occurs as the result of chemical reactions between

hardened cement paste and carbon dioxide. It is believed that CO2 reacts with
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) inducing a decrease in its calcium-silica (C/S) ratio
with a concomitant water loss. Carbonation shrinkage is a function of relative humidity
and is greatest around 50 percent relative humidity. Carbonation shrinkage, although
not very significant itself, can add to the effect of drying shrinkage and thereby lead to
cracking.
A) Number of factors affects the shrinkage of concrete.

a)Effect of water-cementitious material ratio and paste content:

Shrinkage is normally controlled by the cement paste constituent of concrete. The
cement content and water content of a concrete mix, along with the water-
cementitious material (w/cm) ratio have a great influence on shrinkage of concrete.
Hindy conducted a study of the drying shrinkage of concrete. The results indicated a
reduction in shrinkage of concrete with lower w/cm ratio. The shrinkage of the
concrete with the lower w/cm ratio was lower than the concrete with higher w/cm ratio
under each of the different curing conditions.

b) Effect of fineness of cement:

The fineness of the cement also affects the shrinkage of concrete. The rate of
hydration of Portland cement depends on the surface area of the clinker particles;
finer cements develop strength more rapidly. The finer pore structure of finer cements
leads to higher early age shrinkage in concrete. The concrete with the finest Portland
cement developed a high early age (3 to 5 days) shrinkage stress, but was sufficiently
strong to withstand it without cracking (cracking occurred at an age of 40 days). The
results of the creep tests indicated an increase in creep with the use of finer cements.

c) Effect of Aggregate:
The volume and type of aggregates in the concrete mix is another factor that affects
the shrinkage of concrete. Aggregates restrain the shrinkage of cement paste. Hence
an increase in aggregate volume and the commensurate reduction in the volume of
cement paste will lead to a reduction in shrinkage. Also it was observed that
concretes containing aggregate with higher elastic moduli tended to restrain the
shrinkage of paste, and produced concretes with lower shrinkage. Concrete made
with dolomite (the aggregate with highest elastic modulus) exhibited the lowest
shrinkage, whereas the concrete made with siltstone (the aggregate with lowest
elastic modulus) showed the highest shrinkage.

d) Effect of superplasticizers:
ACI Committee 212 reports that superplasticizers may increase concrete drying
shrinkage at a given w/cm ratio and cement content. If there is any simultaneous
reduction in cement content and w/cm ratio, when the superplasticizer is used, less
shrinkage may be expected than the concrete made with no superplasticizer.
OTHER CAUSES OF CRACKS IN CONCRETE:

1) Constructional Effect: In many Construction sites properly designed formwork is

not used. Formwork is made in an adhoc manner. Such formwork may fail to maintain
their rigidity & firmness when wet concrete is placed and vibrated. Sinking, bending,
settlement or lack of rigidity of formwork may cause cracks or deformation in plastic
concrete, after compaction which may go unnoticed.

2) Delayed Curing: Fundamental requirement for good concrete is to maintain

uninterrupted hydration, especially at early age, when the hydration process is faster.
If young concrete dries up fast due to fast sun, drying wind & lower relative humidity,
the top surface of concrete is devoid of enough water for continuous hydration
process. This results in plastic shrinkage cracks. Similarly insufficient of curing is
major cause of lack of strength & durability of concrete structures.

3) Early Frost Damage: At low temperature, the rate of hydration is slow. The
hydration process stops at about -100c. Till such low temperature hydration process
through slow, continues. Freshly mixed concrete must not be exposed to freezing
conditions to protect same from disruptive action of ice lens. Ice lens will assume
about nine percent more volume resulting cracks get produced.

4)Unsound Material : Cement or aggregate is considered unsound when they cause

unacceptable extent of volume change in hardened concrete or mortar which cause
cracks & affect durability. E.g. Now a day’s crush sand is being used more often in
large works & this practice will grow. Unless proper care is taken crushed sand is
likely to contain considerable amount of dust (less than 75mic.). The excess dust is
harmful from many points of view & more important being that it causes in concrete.
 COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

Compaction is the process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete
and packs the aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete.
It increases significantly the ultimate strength of concrete and enhances the bond with
reinforcement. It also increases the abrasion resistance and general durability of the
concrete, decreases the permeability and helps to minimize its shrinkage-and-creep
characteristics. Proper compaction also ensures that the formwork is completely filled
-i.e. there are no pockets of honeycombed material and that the required finish is
obtained on vertical surfaces. When first placed in the form, normal concretes,
excluding those with very low or very high slumps will contain between 5% and 20%
by volume of entrapped air. The amount varies according to the type of mix and its
slump, the placement method, form size, and the amount of reinforcing steel used.
The aggregate particles, although coated with mortar, tend to arch against one
another and are prevented from slumping or consolidating by internal friction.

TYPES OF COMPACTION
A) Hand Compaction
1) Rodding
2) Ramming
3) Tamping
B) Compaction by Vibration
1) Internal Vibrator
2) External Vibrator
3) Table Vibrator
4) Platform Vibrator
5) Surface Vibrator

A) Hand compaction:
1) RODDING: Hand compaction of concrete is adopted in case of unimportant
concrete work of small magnitude. Sometimes, this method is also applied in such
situation, where a large quantity of reinforcement is used, which cannot be normally
compacted by mechanical means. Hand compaction consists of rodding, ramming or
tamping. When hand compaction is adopted, the consistency of concrete is
maintained at a higher level. The thickness of the layer of concrete is limited to about
15 to 20 cm. Rodding is nothing but poking the concrete with about 2 meter long, 16
mm diameter rod to pack the concrete between the reinforcement and sharp corners
and edges. Rodding is done continuously over the complete area to effectively pack
the concrete and drive away entrapped air. Sometimes, instead of iron rod, bamboos
or cane is also used for rodding purpose.

2) RAMMING: Ramming should be done with care. Light ramming can be permitted in
unreinforced foundation concrete or in ground floor construction. Ramming should not
be permitted in case of reinforced concrete or in the upper floor construction, where
concrete is placed in the formwork supported on struts. If ramming is adopted in the
above case the position of the reinforcement may be disturbed or the formwork may
fail, particularly, if steel rammer is used.

3)TAMPING : Tamping is one of the usual methods adopted in compacting roof or

floor slab or road pavements where the thickness of concrete is comparatively less
and the surface to be finished smooth and level. Tamping consists of beating the top
surface by wooden cross beam of section about 10 cm x 10 cm. Since the tamping
bar is sufficiently long it not only compacts, but also levels the top surface across the
entire length.

B) Compaction by Vibrator:
It is pointed out that the compaction by hand, if properly carried out on concrete with
sufficient workability, gives satisfactory results, but the strength of the hand
compacted concrete will be necessarily low because of higher water cement ratio
required for full compaction. Where high strength is required, it is necessary that stiff
concrete, with low water/cement ratio be used. To compact such concrete,
mechanically operated vibratory equipment, must be used. The vibrated concrete with
low water/cement ratio will have many advantages over the hand compacted concrete
with higher water/cement ratio.

1) INTERNAL VIBRATOR: All the vibrators, the internal vibrator is most commonly
used. This is also called, "Needle Vibrator", "Immersion Vibrator", or "Poker Vibrator".
This essentially consists of a power unit, a flexible shaft and a needle. The power unit
may be electrically driven or operated by petrol engine or air compressor. The
vibrations are caused by eccentric weights attached to the shaft or the motor or to the
rotor of a vibrating element. Electromagnet, pulsating equipment is also available. The
frequency of vibration varies up to 12,000 cycles of vibration per minute. An average
frequency of 3500 to 5000 has been normally used. The needle diameter varies from
20 mm to 75 mm and its length varies from 25 to 90 cm.
Internal vibrators should be vertically dropped into the concrete, allowed to vibrate in
place (5-15 seconds for wet mixes or up to 2-3 minutes for stiff mixes) and then
removed. The withdrawal should be at a somewhat quicker rate than its placement.
Vibrators should not be used to transport concrete laterally. An internal vibrator
should slightly penetrate into the previous lift to ensure an adequate bond, as noted in
Figure & Care should be taken to avoid touching or damaging the formwork.
 Correct Method Incorrect Method

Characteristics & Application of internal Vibrator as per ACI 309R-05.

Dia. Of Recommd Average Radius Rate of

Head Frequency Amplitud of concrete
(mm) (Hz) e (mm) action placeme Application
(mm) nt
(m3/hr.)
High slump concrete in very thin
members & confined places. May be
75 -
20 - 40 150 - 250 0.4 - 0.8 1- 4 used to supplement larger vibrators
150
where reinforcement or ducts cause
congestion in forms.
Concrete of 100-150mm slump in thin
125 - wall, slab, column, beam, precast pile,
30 - 65 140 - 210 0.5 - 1.0 2-8
250 along const. joint. May be used
supplement of large vibrators.
Concrete slump < 80mm in normal
175 -
50 – 90 130 - 200 0.6 - 1.3 6 - 20 construction. E.g. Wall, floors, beam,
350
column in buildings.
Mass & Structural Concrete (0-50mm
300 - slump) deposited in quantities up to 3m3
75 - 150 120 - 180 0.8 - 1.5 11- 31
500 in relatively open forms of heavy
construction.
125 - 400 - Mass concrete in gravity dams, large
90 - 140 1-2 19 - 38 piers, massive walls, etc.
175 600

2)EXTERNAL or FORMWORK VIBRATOR : Formwork vibrators are used for

concreting columns, thin walls or in the casting of precast units. The machine is
clamped on to the external wall surface of the formwork. The vibration is given to the
formwork so that the concrete in the vicinity of the shutter gets vibrated. This method
of vibrating concrete is particularly useful and adopted where reinforcement, lateral
ties and spacers interfere too much with the internal vibrator. Use of surface vibrator
will produce a good finish to the concrete surface. Since the vibration is given to the
concrete indirectly through the formwork, they consume more power and the
efficiency of external vibrator is lower than the efficiency of internal vibrator.

3) VIBRATION TABLE: Vibration tables, external-form vibrators, drop tables, and

other specialized equipment is unique to the precast industry and are commonly
used. Vibration tables are rigid decks mounted on flexible supports which operate at
3,000 to 6,000 vibrations per minute

4) PLATFORM VIBRATOR: Platform vibrator is nothing but a table vibrator, but it is

larger in size. This is used in the manufacture of large prefabricated concrete
elements such as electric poles, railway sleepers, prefabricated roofing elements etc.
Sometimes, the platform vibrator is also coupled with jerking or shock giving
arrangements such that a thorough compaction is given to the concrete.

5) SURFACE VIBRATOR: Surface vibrators are sometimes known as, "Screed Board
Vibrators". A small vibrator placed on the screed board gives an effective method of
compacting and leveling of thin concrete members, such as floor slabs, roof slabs and
road surface. Mostly, floor slabs and roof slabs are so thin that internal vibrator or any
other type of vibrator cannot be easily employed. In such cases, the surface vibrator
can be effectively used. In general, surface vibrators are not effective beyond about
15 cm. sometimes; the concrete is vibrated by using vibratory roller moved on the
surface. Vibrating roller is used for compaction of thin road slabs.

HEIGHT OF CONCRETE LAYER

Concrete is placed in thin layers consistent with the method being used to place and
vibrate the concrete. Usually concrete shall be placed in a thickness not more than 60
cm and on initial placing in thickness not more than 15 cm. The superimposed load
increasing with the height of the layer will favor the action of the vibrator, but as it is
also the path of air forced upwards, it may trap air rising up by vibration. Very deep
layers (say more than 60 cm) should, therefore, be avoided although the height of
layer can also be one meter provided the vibrator used is sufficiently powerful. Height
of concrete shall also be governed by the formwork design.
Cold Joints in Concrete:
If freshly placed concrete is left too long before the next layer is placed on top or
alongside, the layers may not bond properly, resulting in a weak ‘cold joint’. To help
prevent this, place concrete in the sequence shown. Don’t let concrete harden
appreciably before it is covered by the next layer and always re-vibrate before placing
the adjacent fresh material. If void formers are to be surrounded by concrete, drill
small holes at regular intervals in the former soffit to let air escape.

DURATION OF VIBRATION
New filling shall be vibrated while the concrete is plastic, preferably within one hour.
The duration of vibration in each position of insertion is dependent upon the height of
the layer, the size and characteristics of the vibrator and the workability of the
concrete mix. It is better to insert the vibrating head at a number of places than to
leave it for a long time in one place, as in the latter case, there is a tendency for
formation of mortar pocket at the point of insertion of the vibrator. The vibrator head
shall be kept in one position till the concrete within its influence is completely
consolidated. Vibration shall be continued until the coarse aggregate particles have
blended into the surface but have not disappeared. The time required to effect
complete consolidation is readily judged by the experienced vibrator operator through
the feel of the vibrator, resumption of frequency of vibration after the short period of
dropping off of frequency when the vibrator is first inserted. Doubt about the adequacy
of vibration should always be resolved by further vibration; well proportioned concrete
of the correct consistency is not readily susceptible to over-vibration.
 FORMWORK

“ A mould or box into which wet concrete can be poured and compacted so that it will
flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or mould.”

Forms shall not be released until the concrete has achieved a strength of at least
twice the stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of
formwork. The strength referred to shall be that of concrete using the same cement
and aggregates and admixture, if any, with the same proportions and cured under
conditions of temperature and moisture similar to those existing on the work. While
the above criteria of strength shall be the guiding factor for removal of formwork, in
normal circumstances where ambient temperature does not fall below 15°C and
where ordinary Portland cement is used and adequate curing is done, following
striking period may deem to satisfy the guideline given below Table ( IS : 456-2000).

Min. Period before

TYPE OF FORMWORK
striking formwork.
a Vertical Formwork to column, wall, beams 16 – 24 hrs

b Soffit formwork to slab (props to be refixed). 3 Days

c Soffit formwork to beam (props to be refixed) 7 Days

1)Span up to 4.5m 7 Days

d Props to slab
2)Span over 4.5m 14 Days

Props to beam 1) Spanning up to 6m 14 Days

e
& arches 2) Spanning over 6m 21 Days
 CURING

Curing is the maintaining of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in

concrete during its early stages so that desired properties may develop. Curing is
essential in the production of concrete that will have the desired properties. The
strength and durability of concrete will be fully developed only if it is cured. When
Portland cement is mixed with water, a chemical reaction called hydration takes
place. The extent to which this reaction is completed influences the strength and
durability of the concrete. Freshly mixed concrete normally contains more water than
is required for hydration of the cement; however, excessive loss of water by
evaporation can delay or prevent adequate hydration. The surface is particularly
susceptible to insufficient hydration because it dries first. If temperatures are
favorable, hydration is relatively rapid the first few days after concrete is placed;
however, it is important for water to be retained in the concrete during this period, that
is, for evaporation to be prevented or substantially reduced. With proper curing,
concrete becomes stronger, more impermeable, and more resistant to stress,
abrasion, and freezing and thawing. The improvement is rapid at early ages but
continues more slowly thereafter for an indefinite period.

METHODS OF CURING:
1) Ponding and Immersion : On flat surfaces, such as pavements and floors,
concrete can be cured by ponding. Earth or sand dikes around the perimeter of the
concrete surface can retain a pond of water. Ponding is an ideal method for
preventing loss of moisture from the concrete; it is also effective for maintaining a
uniform temperature in the concrete. The curing water should not be more than about
11°C (20°F) cooler than the concrete to prevent thermal stresses that could result in
cracking. Since ponding requires considerable labor and supervision, the method is
generally used only for small jobs.

2) Fogging and Sprinkling: Fogging (Fig. 12-4) and sprinkling with water are
excellent methods of curing when the ambient temperature is well above freezing and
the humidity is low. A fine fog mist is frequently applied through a system of nozzles
or sprayers to raise the relative humidity of the air over flatwork, thus slowing
evaporation from the surface. Fogging is applied to minimize plastic shrinkage
cracking until finishing operations are complete. Once the concrete has set sufficiently
to prevent water erosion, ordinary lawn sprinklers are effective if good coverage is
provided and water runoff is of no concern. Soaker hoses are useful on surfaces that
are vertical or nearly so.
 Fogging

3)WET COVERING : Fabric coverings saturated with water, such as burlap, cotton
mats, rugs, or other moisture-retaining fabrics, are commonly used for curing. Treated
burlaps that reflect light and are resistant to rot and fire are available. The
requirements for burlap are described in the Specification for Burlap Cloths Made
from Jute (AASHTO M 182), and those for white burlap-polyethylene sheeting are
described in ASTM C 171 (AASHTO M 171).

4) Impervious Paper
Impervious paper for curing concrete consists of two sheets of kraft paper cemented
together by a bituminous adhesive with fiber reinforcement. Such paper, conforming
to ASTM C 171 (AASHTO M 171), is an efficient means of curing horizontal surfaces
and structural concrete of relatively simple shapes. An important advantage of this
method is that periodic additions of water are not required. Curing with impervious
paper enhances the hydration of cement by preventing loss of moisture from the
concrete.
5) Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds: Liquid membrane-forming compounds
consisting of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and other materials can be used to
retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete. They are the most practical
and most widely used method for curing not only freshly placed concrete but also for
extending curing of concrete after removal of forms or after initial moist curing.
However, the most effective methods of curing concrete are wet coverings or water
spraying that keeps the concrete continually damp. Curing compounds should be able
to maintain the relative humidity of the concrete surface above 80% for seven days to
sustain cement hydration.

6) STEAM CURING : Steam curing is advantageous where early strength gain in

concrete is important or where additional heat is required to accomplish hydration, as
in cold weather. Two methods of steam curing are used: live steam at atmospheric
pressure (for enclosed cast-in-place structures and large precast concrete units) and
high-pressure steam in autoclaves (for small manufactured units). Only live steam at
atmospheric pressure will be discussed here. A typical steam-curing cycle consists of
(1) An initial delay prior to steaming,
(2) A period for increasing the temperature,
(3) A period for holding the maximum temperature constant, and
(4) A period for decreasing the temperature. A typical atmospheric steam-curing cycle
is shown in Fig.
 COMMON FIELD PROBLEMS, CAUSES & PREVENTIONS

PROBLEM CAUSE PREVENTION/CORRECTION.

Insufficient fines in mix. Increase % of fines Cement, Fly ash.

Excess
Bleeding Excess mix Water Reduce Water content.

High Slump Reduce water content

Segregation Over Vibration Don’t vibrate concrete if flowable.

Lack of homogeneity of
Reduce CA proportion in mix.
mix.
High Concrete
Use Cool water or Ice, sprinkle water
temperature /High
on aggregate pile.
Rapid Set ambient temperature.
Transit Mixer waiting in Mixer waits shaded area, sprinkle
sun water outside drum.
Plastic Rapid evaporation of
Fog Spray on surface at the time of
Shrinkage water from the surface
finish. Induce water gain on surface.
Cracking from wind & low humidity.

Confirm accuracy of scale, sp.

Incorrect batching.
Low Yielding Gravity of aggregate.

Waste Concrete Account of Spillage.

Inadequate spacing or Keep adequate spacing or depth as

Shrinkage depth of concrete joints. per specification or drawings.
Cracks
Excessive Shrinkage of Reduce water in concrete mix. Cure
concrete immediately after finishing.
Insert vibrator more frequently,
Honeycomb Inadequate vibration vibrate more near form surface.
Check gradation of aggregate.
High Slump Concrete Reduce water content
Hairline Excessive or Early Don’t trowel or overwork a wet
surface toweling surface.
cracking Rapid drying of a wet Provide immediate cure after
surface finishing.
 SECTION - II
INSPECTION & TESTING PLAN
FOR VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS.
 PHYSICAL PRORERTIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENTS AS PER INDIAN STANDARDS

Requirements as per IS Standards:

Sl.
TYPE OF CEMENT Soundness Setting Time Compressive Strength
No Reference FINENESS
Le-Chatlier
Standard. (m2/kg) min
(Max) Innital(Min) Final(Max) 1 Day(min) 3 Day(min) 7 Day(min) 28 Day(min)

1 33 Grade OPC IS : 269 225 10 30 600 NS 16 22 33

2 43 Grade OPC IS : 8112 225 10 30 600 NS 23 33 43

3 53 Grade OPC IS : 12269 225 10 30 600 NS 27 37 53

4 Sulphate Resisting Cement IS : 12330 225 10 30 600 NS 10 16 33

5 Portland Pozzolana Cement IS : 1489 300 10 30 600 NS 16 22 33

6 Rapid Hardning Cement IS : 8041 325 10 30 600 16 27 NS NS

7 Slag Cement IS : 445 225 10 30 600 NS 16 22 33

8 High Alumina Cement IS : 6452 225 5 30 600 30 35 NS NS

9 Super Sulphated Cement IS : 6909 400 5 30 600 NS 15 22 30

10 Low Heat Cement IS : 12600 320 10 60 600 NS 10 16 35

11 Masonery Cement IS : 1366 10 90 1440 NS NS 2.5 5

12 IRS-T-40 Cement. IRS T - 40 370 5 60 600 NS NS 37.5 NS

NS: Not Specified.

 CHEMICAL PRORERTIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENTS AS PER IS STANDARDS
Requirements as per IS Standards:
Sl.
TYPE OF CEMENT Insoluble
No Reference Lime Saturation Alumina Iron Magnesia (%) Sulphuric Loss of ignation
Residue (%)
Standard. Factor(%) Ratio (%) min Max Anhydride (%)Max
Max

0.66 min 2.5% if C3A < 5

1 33 Grade OPC IS : 269 0.66 4 6 5
1.02 max 3% if C3A > 5
0.66 min 2.5% if C3A < 5
2 43 Grade OPC IS : 8112 0.66 3 6 5
1.02 max 3% if C3A > 5
0.8 min 2.5% if C3A < 5
3 53 Grade OPC IS : 12269 0.66 3 6 4
1.02 max 3% if C3A > 5
0.66 min
4 Sulphate Resisting Cement IS : 12330 NS 4 6 2.5 % Max 5
1.02 max
x+(4(100-
5 Portland Pozzolana Cement IS : 1489 NS NS 6 3 % Max 5
x)/100)
0.66 min 2.5% if C3A < 5
6 Rapid Hardning Cement IS : 8041 0.66 4 6 5
1.02 max 3% if C3A > 5

7 Slag Cement IS : 445 NS NS 4 8 3 % Max 5

8 High Alumina Cement IS : 6452 NS NS NS NS NS NS

9 Super Sulphated Cement IS : 6909 NS NS 4 10 6 % Min NS

2.5% if C3A < 5

10 Low Heat Cement IS : 12600 NS 0.66 4 6 5
3% if C3A > 5
0.8 min
12 IRS-T-40 Cement IRS T-40. 0.66 2 5 3.5 % Max. 4
1.02 max

NS: Not Specified.

 PHYSICAL PRORERTIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENTS AS PER ASTM & BS STANDARDS
Requirements as per ASTM & BS Standards:
Sl. False set Soundness
TYPE OF CEMENT % Air Setting Time (min) Compressivs Strength (N/mm2)
No Reference FINENESS Final Auto Clave
Content
Standard. (m2/kg) min Penetration Expantion
(Max) Innital(Min) Final(Min) 3 Day(min) 7 Day(min) 28 Day(min)
(Min % ) (Max)
1 ASTM C 150 Type 1 ASTM C 150 280 12 50 0.8 45 375 Max 12 19 28
2 ASTM C 150 Type 2 ASTM C 150 280 12 50 0.8 45 375 Max 10 17 28
3 ASTM C 150 Type 3 ASTM C 150 NS 12 50 0.8 45 375 Max 24 NS NS
4 ASTM C 150 Type 4 ASTM C 150 280 12 50 0.8 45 375 Max NS 7 17
5 ASTM C 150 Type 5 ASTM C 150 280 12 50 0.8 45 375 Max 8 15 21
6 ASTM C 150 Type IP ASTM C 150 NS NS 50 0.8 45 420 Max 13 20 25

Requirements as per BS Standards:

Sl.
TYPE OF CEMENT Compressive Strength(N/mm2) & Setting Time
No Soundness
Reference FINENESS TYPE OF
Le Chatlier
Standard. (m2/kg) min CEMENTS Strength Inn. Setting
(Max) mm 2 Day(min) 7 Day(min) 28 Day(min)
Class time(min)

Portland
1 CEMENT I EN 197-1 NS <10 32.5 N >75 NS 16 >32.5 & < 52.5
cement
Portland-
2 CEMENT II EN 197-1 NS <10 composite 32.5 R >75 >10 NS >32.5 & < 52.5
cement
Blastfurnace
3 CEMENT III EN 197-1 NS <10 42.5 N >60 >10 NS >42.5 & < 62.5
cement
Pozzolanic
4 CEMENT IV EN 197-1 NS <10 42.5 R >60 >20 NS >42.5 & < 62.5
cement
Composite
5 CEMENT V EN 197-1 NS <10 52.5 N >45 >20 NS > 52.5
cement

52.5 R >45 >30 NS >52.5

NS: Not Specified.

 CHEMICAL PRORERTIES OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENTS AS PER ASTM & BS STANDARDS
Requirements as per ASTM & BS Specifications:
Sl. Silicon Aluminum Magnesium Tricalcium Dicalcium Tricalcium
TYPE OF CEMENT Ferric oxide Sulfur trioxide Loss on Insoluble
No Reference dioxide oxide oxide silicate silicate aluminate
(Fe2O3), (SO3),D max, ignition, residue,
Standard. (SiO2), min, (Al2O3), (MgO), (C3S),E (C2S),E min, (C3A),E max,
max, % % max, % max, %
% max, % max, % max, % % %
C3A<8% - 3
1 ASTM C 150 Type 1 ASTM C 150 NS NS NS 6 C3A>8% -3.5
3 0.75 NS NS NS

C3A<8% - 3
2 ASTM C 150 Type 2 ASTM C 150 20 6 6 6 C3A>8% -NA
3 0.75 NS NS 8

C3A<8% - 3.5
3 ASTM C 150 Type 3 ASTM C 150 NS NS NS 6 C3A>8% -4.5
3 0.75 NS NS 15

C3A<8% - 2.3
4 ASTM C 150 Type 4 ASTM C 150 NS NS 6.5 6 C3A>8% -NA
2.5 0.75 35 40 7

C3A<8% - 2.3
5 ASTM C 150 Type 5 ASTM C 150 NS NS NS 6 C3A>8% -NA
3 0.75 NS NS 5

Requirements as per EN- 197-1 Specifications Table no.3:

Sr. CEMENT TYPE CEM I & III CEM I, II.IV.V CEM III CEM I, II.IV.V CEM I,II,III,IV,V CEM IV
No
STENGTH CRITERIA ALL 32.5 N, 32.5R, 42.5N ALL 42.5 N, 52.5R, 52.5N ALL ALL
_ _ _
1 Loss of Ignation <5 NA NA

_ _ _
2 Insoluble Residue <5 NA NA

3 Sulphate Content (So3)
4 Chloride Content
5 Pozzolinicity
N- Regular Early Strength
_
3.5 4 4 NA
NA
_ _ _ _ _
0.1% Max
_ _ _ _ _
Satisfies the test
R- High Early Strength NS: Not Specified.
 SPECIFICATION OF FLY ASH USE IN CEMENT & CONCRETE AS PER IS, ASTM & BS STANDARDS
Requirements as per ASTM C 618, IS 3812, BS 3892 Specifications:
ITEM AASHTO M 295 & ASTM C 618. EUROPEAN SPECIFICATION POZZALANA ( IS 3812-1) ADMIXTIRE ( IS 3812- 2)

N F C EN 450 EN 197-1 BS- 3892 Siliceous Calcareous Siliceous Calcareous

1 SiO2 ( Min) NS NS NS NS NS NS 35 25 35 25

Reactivity /Soluble
2 NS NS NS 25 25 NS 20 20 NS NS
Residue ( Min)
Sio2 + Al2O3 +
3 70 70 50 NS NS NS 70 50 70 50
Fe2O3 ( Min) %

4 MgO (Max) % 5 5 5 NS NS NS 5 5 5 5

5 LOI Max % 5 5 5 5 to 7 5 to 7 7 5 5 5 5
Total Alkalis (Max) %
6 1.5 1.5 1.5 NS NS NS 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Na2O
Sulphuric Unhydride
7 4 5 5 3 to 3.5 NS 2 to 2.5 3 3 5 5
So3 ( Max) %

8 Free CaO ( Max) 30 Total 30 Total 30 Total 1 1 NS NS NS NS NS

Total/Reactive CaO
9 NS NS 10 10 10 NS NS NS NS NS
(Max)
Fineness, 45Micron,
10 34 34 34 40 NS 12 34 34 50 50
(Max) %
Fineness
11 NS NS NS NS NS NS 320 320 200 200
(Blains m2/Kg)
Cement Ractivity
12 75 75 75 75 NS 80 80 80 NS NS
28 Days
Lime Reactivity
13 NS NS NS NS NS NS 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
( N/mm2)
Soundness
14 NS NS NS 10 NS NS NS NS NS NS
Le Chatlier(mm)
Soundness Autoclave
15 0.8 0.8 0.8 NS NS NS 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
%

16 Chloride (%) Max NS NS NS 0.1 NS NS 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

NS: Not Specified.
 SPECIFICATION OF GGBFS IN CEMENT & CONCRETE AS PER ASTM & BS STANDARDS

Requirements as per ASTM C 989, BS 6699 Specifications:

Sr. ITEM ASTM C 989
IS 12089 BS 6699
No. GRADE 80 100 120

1 Fineness (m2/Kg) min NS NS NS NS 275

Fineness (45 mic pass) Max % 20 20 20 NS NS

2 Air Content of Slag Morter (max) % 12 12 12 NS NS

Soundness
3 NS NS NS NS 10
LeChatlier (mm) max

4 Innetial setting Time (min) NS NS NS NS > OPC

5 Insoluble Residue (% mass) max NS NS NS NS 1.5

6 Magnesia Content (% mass) max NS NS NS MgO < 17 14

7 Sulphide Sulpher (% mass) max 2.5 2.5 2.5 2 2

8 Sulphite Content (% mass) max 4 4 4 NS 2.5

9 Loss of Ignition (%mass) max NS NS NS NS 3

10 Mangenese Content (%mass) max NS NS NS MnO < 5.5 2

11 Chloride Content max NS NS NS NS 0.1

12 Moisture Content max NS NS NS NS 1

Glass Content% by optical

13 NS NS NS NS 67 min
microscospy

Compressive strength (7 days)

14 NS NS NS NS 12
Mpa min
Compressive strength (28 days)
35 35 35 NS 32.5
Mpa min

15 Chemical Modulli

a)Cao+MgO+Sio2 Min NS NS NS NS 66.7

b)CaO+MgO/SiO2 NS NS NS NS >1

c)CaO/SiO2 NS NS NS NS < 1.4

Total Activity index ( 7 Days) min (

16 NS 70 90 NS NS
Individul Sample )
Total Activity index ( 28 Days) min (
70 90 110 NS NS
Individual sample )

Total Alkali (Na2O + 0.65K2O) 0.6 to 0.9 0.6 to 0.9 0.6 to 0.9 NS NS

17 (Cao+MgO+Al2O/3)/(SiO2+2Al2O3) NS NS NS >1 NS

(Cao+MgO+Al2O)/(SiO2) NS NS NS >1 NS
NS: Not Specified.
 SPECIFICATION OF WATER USE IN CONCRETE AS PER IS, ASTM & BS STANDARDS

Requirements as per ASTM , IS , BS Specifications:

Sr. ITEM ASTM EUROPEAN SPECIFICATION INDIAN STANDARDS

No.
C 94 EN 1008 IS 456

1 PH Value NS >4 >6

Prestress - 500mg/lit
Prestress - 500mg/lit Reinforced - 500mg/lit
2 Chlorides Reinforcemend concrete -
Other - 1000 mg/lit Other - 2000 mg/lit
1000gm/lit.Other - 4500 mg/lit.

3 Sulphates ( So4) Max 3000 ppm 2000 mg/Lit. 400 mg/lit

4 Alkali (Sodium Oxide) Max 600 ppm 1500 mg/Lit. 600 mg/lit

5 Sugar (max) NS 100 mg/Lit. NS

6 Phosphates (P2O5) max NS 100 mg/Lit. NS

7 Nitrates(No3) max NS 500 mg/lit. NS

8 Lead NS 100 mg/Lit. NS

9 Zinc NS 100 mg/Lit. NS

10 Comp. St. Controlled (7Day) 90% 90% 90% (28 Days)

11 Sodium Chloride (Nacl) NS 100 mg/Lit. NS

12 Odor NS Unobjectionable Unobjectionable

13 Turbidity (NTU) NS NS 10

14 Total Dissolved Solids 5000 ppm NS NS

15 Total Hardness as CaCo3 NS NS 600 mg/lit

16 0.02 N NaOH Consumed NS NS 5 ml

17 0.02 N H2So4 Consumed NS NS 25 ml

18 Suspended Matter (max) NS NS 2000 mg/lit.

200 & 3000 mg/lit

19 Organic & Inorganic ( max) NS NS
Respectively.
NS: Not Specified.
 SPECIFICATION OF MICROSILICA USE IN CONCRETE AS PER ASTM & IS STANDARDS

Requirements as per ASTM C 1260 & IS 15388 Specifications:

ITEM ASTM C 1260 BS EN 13263 IS 15388

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS

1 SiO2 ( Min) % 85 85 85

2 Moisture ( Max) % 3 NS 3

3 LOI Max % 6 4 4

4 Total Alkalis (Max) % Na2O NS NS 1.5

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

1 Fineness, 45Micron, (Max) % 10 NS 10

2 Fineness (Blains m2/g) 15 >15 & < 35 15

3 Cement Ractivity 7 Days 85 28 Days - 100% 85

4 Lime Reactivity ( N/mm2) Min NS NS 4.5

5 Soundness Autoclave % (Max) NS NS 0.8

6
NS: Not Specified.
 TYPICAL CONCRETE MIXES

High Self
MIXES Bandra
Normal Performance compacted Pune Hoover
Shotcrete. JJ Flyover. Dahej Jetty. Hood Canal Warli
Concrete. Concrete concrete. Flyover. Dam
INGRADENTS(Kgs) Outfall.
(HPC). (SCC).

CEMENT (OPC) 420 359 399 465 500 425 192 475 371 135

FLY ASH(F)/GGBFS(G) 0 71-G 100-F 0 0 60-F 254-G 119-F 59-F 315-G

MICRO SILICA 0 18 0 0 50 36 34 0 30 0

FINE AGGREGATE 743 556 814 596 682 745 691 743 801 878

COARSE AGGREGATE 928 1094 882 1082 1146 1184 1229 899 997 990

WATER 168 157 175 186 148 125 154 184 151 149

HRWRA (L) 6.3 4.3 4 6.97 8.25 10.42 5.3 1.93 3.09 6.7

ADMIXTURE 2 0 0 2.5- VMA 5%- Accl. 0 0 0 0.77 0

W/C Ratio. 0.4 0.36 0.35 0.4 0.27 0.24 0.32 0.31 0.33 0.33

STRENGTH - (Mpa) 30 50+ 50+ 35+ 86 79 55 83 76 M45

SLUMP/FLOW.(MM) 130 150 400- flow. 130-200. NA 80 100 NA NA 80

 SECTION - III
LISTS OF VARIOUS TESTS CONDUCTED ON
CEMENT, AGGREGATE & CONCRETE.
 LIST OF TEST

SR. REFERENCE
TEST
No CODE.

CEMENT

1 Consistency of Cement. IS: 4031 Part 4

2 Initial & Final setting time of Cement IS: 4031 Part 5

3 Fineness of Cement. IS: 4031 Part 1 &2

4 Soundness of Cement. IS: 4031 Part 3

5 Compressive Strength of cement. IS: 4031 Part 8

6 Determination of Heat of Hydration. IS: 4031 Part 9

7 Determination of Density IS: 4031 Part 11

8 Determination of Drying Shrinkage of cement. IS: 4031 Part 10

9 Chemical Analysis of cement. IS: 4032

AGGREGATE

1 Gradation / Sieve Analysis. IS: 2386- Part 1

2 Determination material finer than 75 micron. IS: 2386- Part 1

3 Determination of Flakiness index. IS: 2386- Part 1

4 Determination of Elongation index. IS: 2386- Part 1

5 Determination of Angularity number. IS: 2386- Part 1

6 Determination of clay & fine Silt by sedimentation method. IS: 2386- Part 2

7 Determination of Specific Gravity & Water absorption. IS: 2386- Part 3

8 Determination of bulk density & voids. IS: 2386- Part 3

SR. REFERENCE
TEST
No CODE.

9 Determination of necessary adjustment for bulking of fine aggregate. IS: 2386- Part 3

10 Determination of surface moisture in fine aggregate IS: 2386- Part 3

11 Determination of Aggregate Crushing value. IS: 2386- Part 4

12 Determination of Aggregate Impact Value. IS: 2386- Part 4

13 Determination of Aggregate Abrasion Value. IS: 2386- Part 4

14 Determination of Soundness of Aggregate. IS: 2386- Part 5

15 Petrographic Examination of rock. IS: 2386- Part 8

CONCRETE

1 Determination of Compressive Strength of concrete. IS:516

2 Determination Flexural Strength of concrete. IS:516

IS: 5816 /
3 Determination of Splitting Strength of concrete.
DIN 1048 Part 5.
4 Slump test on fresh concrete. IS:1199

5 Compaction factor test on fresh concrete. IS:1199

6 Determination of consistency of concrete. IS:1199

7 Determination of Density of concrete. IS:1199

8 Determination of air content in fresh concrete. IS:1199

9 Water Permeability test on Concrete. DIN: 1048 part 5

10 Rapid Chloride Penetration test on concrete. (RCPT). ASTM C1202.

11 Rebound Hammer test (NDT). IS:13311 Part 2

12 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test (NDT). IS: 13311 part 1

 U- BOX TEST FOR DETERMINATION OF FILLING ABILITY OF THE MIXES FOR SCC

As shown in Figure , an opening with a sliding gate is fitted between the two sections.
Reinforcing bars with normal diameters of 13 mm are installed at the gate with centre-
to-centre spacing of 50 mm. This creates a clear spacing of 35 mm between the bars.
Concrete filled in the left hand box is allowed to pass through this obstacle and to fill
the right hand box. More will be the height of filling in the right hand box more will be
the filling ability of the SCC mix.
PROCEDURE:
1. The apparatus is set on firm ground, ensuring that the sliding gate can open freely
and then be closed.
2. The inside surfaces of the apparatus are moistened, any surplus water is removed.
3. The left hand compartment of the apparatus is filled with about 20 liters of concrete.
4. After allowing concrete filled in the left hand compartment to stand for 1 minute, the
sliding gate is then opened by lifting it up and concrete is allowed to flow upwards into
the right hand compartment
5. After the concrete has come to rest, the height of the concrete is measured in both
compartments at two places and the mean heights (say H1 as mean height in the left
compartment and H2 as mean height in the right compartment) are calculated.
6. The 'filling height' is then calculated as H1- H2., the whole U box test is also
performed within 5 Minutes.
Interpretation of result
If the concrete flows as freely as water, at rest it will be horizontal, so H1 - H2 = 0.
Therefore the nearer this test value, the ‘filling height’, is to zero, the better the flow
and passing ability of the concrete.
 L- BOX TEST METHOD FOR SCC.
This test, based on a Japanese design for underwater concrete, has been described
by Petersson.
The test assesses the flow of the concrete, and also the extent to which it is subject to
blocking by reinforcement.

Procedure
1) About 14 liter of concrete is needed to perform the test, sampled normally.
2) Set the apparatus level on firm ground, ensure that the sliding gate can open freely
and then close it.
3) Moisten the inside surfaces of the apparatus, remove any surplus water & fill the
vertical section of the apparatus with the concrete sample. Leave it to stand for 1
minute.
4) Lift the sliding gate and allow the concrete to flow out into the horizontal section.
Simultaneously, start the stopwatch and record the times taken for the concrete to
reach the 200 and 400 mm marks.
5) When the concrete stops flowing, the distances “H1” and “H2” are measured.
Calculate H2/H1, the blocking ratio. The whole test has to be performed within 5
minutes.
Interpretation of result
If the concrete flows as freely as water, at rest it will be horizontal, so H2/H1 = 1.
Therefore the nearer this test value, the ‘blocking ratio’, is to unity, the better the flow of
the concrete. The EU research team suggested a minimum acceptable value of 0.8.