FM SIGNAL GENERATION

• They are two basic methods of generating

frequency-Modulated signals:

Direct Method
Indirect Method
 DIRECT FM
• In a direct FM system the instantaneous frequency is
directly varied with the information signal.
• To vary the frequency of the carrier, use an
Oscillator whose resonant frequency can be varied
is determined by components
• The oscillator frequency is thus changed by the
modulating signal amplitude.

f i  f c  k f vm (t )
• For example, an electronic Oscillator has an output
frequency that depends on energy-storage devices.

• There are a wide variety of oscillators whose frequencies

depend on a particular capacitor value.

• By varying the capacitor value, the frequency of

oscillation varies.

• If the capacitor variations are controlled by vm(t), the

result is an FM waveform
 Direct Method of FM Generation

Baseband Wide-band
signal FM
Frequency Mixer Frequency Bandpass
VCO
Multiplier Multiplier Filter

Fixed
Oscillator
 INDIRECT FM
• Angle modulation includes frequency modulation FM
and phase modulation PM.
• FM and PM are interrelated; one cannot change without
the other changing. The information signal frequency
also deviates the carrier frequency in PM.
• Phase modulation produces frequency modulation.
Since the amount of phase shift is varying, the effect is
that, as if the frequency is changed.
• Since FM is produced by PM , the later is referred to as
indirect FM.
• The information signal is first integrated and then used to
phase modulate a crystal-controlled oscillator, which
provides frequency stability.
 INDIRECT FM

x(t )  Ac cos(2f c t   (t ))

 (t)  2k pm(t)

t
 (t)  2k f  m( )d
0
 Indirect Method of FM Generation
• Modulating wave first used to produce a narrowband
FM wave, then frequency multiplication is used to
increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
Indirect Method of FM Generation
 Armstrong modulator

Vm(t)
fm Balanced Frequency Down
Integrator modulator multiplier converter
(x n)

Phase Crystal oscillator

shifter

Vc(t)
fc
 Armstrong modulator
• For example: Let fm =15Hz and fc= 200kHz

At frequency deviation= 75kHz,it need a frequency

multiplication by a factor, n,
n=75000/15=5000;

So it need a chain of four triplers (34) and six doublers (26), ie:
n= (34) x (26)=5184, But,

n x fc=5000 x 200kHz=1000MHz

So, down converter with oscillating frequency=900MHz is

needed to put fc in the
FM band of 88MHz-108MHz
 FM Demodulation (General Principles)
• An FM demodulator or frequency discriminator is essentially a
frequency-to-voltage converter (F/V).

• An F/V converter may be realised in several ways, including for

example, tuned circuits and envelope detectors, phase locked
loops etc.

•Demodulators are also called FM discriminators.

•There are a wide variety of oscillators whose frequencies depend

on a particular capacitor value.
• If the input is FM, the output is m(t), the analog message signal.

•If the input is FSK, the output is d(t), the digital data sequence.
• In this case fIN is the independent variable and VOUT is the
dependent variable (x and y axes respectively).

•The ideal characteristic is shown below.

Vo is the output
when fIN = fc, the
nominal input
frequency.
 FM Demodulation(General Principles)
V
The gradient is called the voltage conversion factor
f
i.e. Gradient = Voltage Conversion Factor, K volts per Hz.
Considering y = mx + c etc. then
VOUT = V0 + KfIN is from the frequency modulator
since V0 = VOUT when fIN = fc then we may write

VOUT  V0  KVIN
where V0 represents a DC offset in VOUT.

This DC offset may be removed by level shifting or AC coupling, or

the F/V may be designed accordingly
 FM Demodulation(General Principles)

VOUT = KVIN.
If VIN = m(t) then the output contains the message signal m(t)
(FM signal has been demodulated)
 1
Often, but not always, a system designed so that K

K = 1 and VOUT = m(t)
FM Demodulation –General Principles.
 METHODS
Tuned Circuit – One method (used in the early days of FM) is to
use the slope of a tuned circuit in conjunction with an envelope
detector.

44
 Methods
• The tuned circuit is tuned so the fc, the nominal input
frequency, is on the slope, not at the centre of the tuned
circuits.

• As the FM signal deviates about fc on the tuned circuit

slope, the amplitude of the output varies in proportion to
the deviation from fc.

• Thus the FM signal is effectively converted to AM.

• This is then envelope detected by the diode etc to recover

the message signal.
 Foster-Seeley Discriminator

This gives the composite characteristics shown. Diode D2 effectively inverts the f2
tuned circuit response. This gives the characteristic ‘S’ type detector.
 Phase Locked Loops PLL
• A PLL is a closed loop system which may be used for FM
demodulation.
•PLL is a negative feedback system, which can be used for indirect
frequency demodulation.
• This important circuit finds application both in analog and digital
communication (similar to a synchronous demodulator)
•The loop comprises a multiplier, a low pass filter and VCO (V/F
converter as used in a frequency modulator).
 Phase Locked Loops PLL
• The input fIN is applied to the multiplier and multiplied with the
VCO frequency output fO, to produce  = (fIN + fO) and  = (fIN – fO).

• The low pass filter passes only (fIN – fO) to give VOUT which is
proportional to (fIN – fO).

• If fIN  fO but not equal, VOUT = VIN, fIN – fO is a low frequency (beat
frequency) signal to the VCO.
• This signal, VIN, causes the VCO output frequency fO to vary and move
towards fIN.
• When fIN = fO, VIN (fIN – fO) is approximately constant (DC) and
fO is held constant, i.e locked to fIN.

• As fIN changes, due to deviation in FM, fO tracks or follows fIN.

VOUT = VIN changes to drive fO to track fIN.

• VOUT is therefore proportional to the deviation and contains

the message signal m(t).
 NOISE AND PHASE SHIFT
• The noise amplitude added to an FM signal
introduces a small frequency variation or phase shift,
which changes or distorts the signal.
• Noise to signal ratio N/S
N Frequency deviation produced by noise

S Maximum allowed deviation
• Signal to noise ratio S/N
S 1

N N
S
• Noise is essentially amplitude variations. An FM signal, on
the other hand, has a constant carrier amplitude.

• Because of this, FM receivers contain limiter circuits that

restrict the amplitude of the received signal.

• Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are

effectively clipped off. This does not hurt the information
content of the FM signal. Because of the clipping action of
the limiter circuits, noise is almost completely eliminated.
 INTERFERENCE
• A major benefit of FM is that interfering signals on the same
frequency will be effectively rejected.
• If the signal of one is more than twice the amplitude of the other,
the stronger signal will "capture" the channel and will totally
eliminate the weaker, interfering signal.
• This is known as the capture effect in FM.
• In FM, the capture effect allows the stronger signal to dominate
while the weaker signal is eliminated.
• However, when the strengths of the two FM signals begin to be
nearly the same, the capture effect may cause the signals to
alternate in their domination of the frequency.
• Despite the fact that FM has superior noise rejection qualities, noise
still interferes with an FM signal. This is particularly true for the
high-frequency components in the modulating signal.
• Since noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it contains a
considerable number of harmonics and other high-frequency
components.

• These high frequencies can at times be larger in amplitude

than the high-frequency content of the modulating signal.

• This causes a form of frequency distortion that can make the

signal unintelligible.

• To overcome this problem Most FM system use a technique

known as Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.
 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis.
The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase
the high-frequency components during the transmission so that they
will be stronger and not masked by noise
• At the transmitter the modulating signal is passing through a simple
network which amplifies the high frequency component more the
low-frequency component. The simplest form of such circuit is a
simple high pass filter.

• The pre-emphasis circuit increases the energy of the higher content of

the higher-frequency signals to become stronger than the high-
frequency noise component. This improves the signal-to-noise ratio.

• To return the frequency response to its normal level, a de-emphasis

circuit is used at the receiver. This is a simple low-pass filter

• The de-emphasis circuit provides a normal frequency response.