EE Com 314

Chapter 4:
Frequency Modulation
Chapter 4: Frequency Modulation
 4.1. FM Fundamentals
 4.2. Frequency Modulators
 4.3. Phase Modulators
 4.4. Frequency Demodulators
 4.5. Double Sideband System
 4.6. Single-Sideband System
 4.7. Envelope Detection
 4.8. FM Generation
4.1. FM Fundamentals
FM Fundamentals
 In FM, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the
carrier frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
 The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by
the modulating signal is known as the frequency
deviation fd.
 The frequency of the modulating signal determines the
frequency deviation rate, or how many times per
second the carrier frequency deviates above and below
its center frequency.
FM Fundamentals
 Frequently, the modulating signal is a pulse train or
series of rectangular waves, e.g., serial binary data.
 In modulating signals that has two amplitudes, the kind of
modulation produced is called frequency-shift keying
(FSK), is widely used in the transmission of binary data in
Bluetooth headsets, wireless speakers, and many forms
of industrial wireless.
EXAMPLE
A transmitter operates on a
frequency of 915 MHz. The
maximum FM deviation is 12.5
kHz. What are the maximum and
minimum frequencies that occur
during modulation?
Principles of Phase Modulation
 When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency
carrier is varied in accordance with a modulating signal, the
resulting output is a phase modulation (PM) signal.
 Example of their application is a modulator circuit whose
basic function is to produce a phase shift, i.e., a time
separation between two sine waves of the same frequency
 The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase
modulator occurs when the modulating signal is changing
most quickly.
Relationship Between the Modulating
Signal and Carrier Deviation

 In PM, carrier frequency deviation is proportional to both the

modulating frequency (slope of modulating voltage) and the
amplitude
 In FM, frequency deviation is proportional only to the
amplitude of the modulating signal, regardless of its frequency.
Converting PM to FM
 To make PM compatible with FM, the deviation produced
by frequency variations in the modulating signal must be
compensated for.
 This can be done by passing the intelligence signal through
a low-pass RC network. This is called a frequency-
correcting network, predistorter, or 1/f filter, causes the
higher modulating frequencies to be attenuated.
 The result is an output that is the same as an FM signal.
The FM produced by a phase modulator is called indirect
FM.
Phase-Shift Keying
 The process of phase-modulating a carrier
with binary data is called phase-shift
keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK).
 The PSK signal has a constant frequency,
but the phase of the signal from some
reference changes as the binary modulating
signal occurs
Modulation Index and Sidebands
 In FM, only those sidebands with the largest
amplitudes are significant in carrying information.
Sidebands containing less than 2 percent of the
total power have little overall effect on the
intelligibility of the signal.
Modulation Index
fd = frequency deviation
fm = modulating frequency
mf = modulation index
Example
What is the deviation ratio of TV
sound if the maximum deviation
is 25 kHz and the maximum
modulating frequency is 15
kHz?
FM Signal Bandwidth
 As stated previously, the higher the modulation index in
FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands and the
wider the bandwidth of the signal.

fm = modulation index
N = number of signifi cant sidebands in the signal
 Using Carson’s Rule
This rule recognizes only the power in the most signifi cant
sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the
carrier
Noise and Phase Shift
 Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,
automotive ignition systems, and any power line switching
that produces transient signals. Such noise is typically
narrow spikes of voltage with very high frequencies.
 Maximum phase shift

 Frequency shift a particular shift produces

Noise and Phase Shift
Preemphasis
 Noise can interfere with an FM signal, and
particularly with the high-frequency
components of the modulating signal. Since
noise is primarily sharp spikes of energy, it
contains a lot of harmonics and other high-
frequency components.
 To overcome this problem, most FM systems
use a technique known as preemphasis
that helps offset high-frequency noise
interference. At the transmitter, the
modulating signal is passed through a simple
network that amplifies the high- frequency
components more than the low-frequency
components. The simplest form of such a
circuit is a simple high-pass filter.
Deemphasis Circuit

 To return the frequency response to its

normal, “flat” level, a deemphasis circuit, a
simple low-pass filter

 The combined effect of preemphasis and

deemphasis is to increase the signal-to-
noise ratio for the high- frequency
components during transmission so that
they will be stronger and not masked by
noise
FM vs AM
Advantages of FM Disadvantages of FM
 Noise Immunity  Excessive Spectrum
 Capture Effect Use
 Transmitter  Circuit Complexity
Efficiency
4.2.
Frequency Modulators
Frequency Modulators
 A frequency modulator is a circuit that alters the carrier
frequency based on a modulating signal.
 When using an LC oscillator, the carrier frequency is
determined by the values of inductance and capacitance in a
tuned circuit, allowing frequency adjustment by varying either
inductance or capacitance. In the case of a crystal oscillator,
where the frequency is fixed by the crystal, slight variations
can be achieved by connecting an external capacitor to the
crystal. The varactor, also known as a voltage variable
capacitor, is commonly employed in such circuits. It is a
semiconductor junction diode operated in reverse-bias
mode, serving to change capacitance in response to the
modulating signal.
 Imagine you have a radio and you want to change the station smoothly without any sudden jumps.
A frequency modulator is like the magic behind that. It's a circuit that helps in smoothly changing
the radio frequency based on the signal it receives.
 There are two main types of circuits it works with:
1. LC Oscillator: Think of this like tuning a guitar string. The frequency is determined by the values
of inductance and capacitance in a circuit. So, to change the frequency, you can adjust either the
inductance or capacitance, like tightening or loosening a guitar string.
2. Crystal Oscillator: This is like having a really precise tuning fork. The frequency is fixed by a
crystal, but you can make small adjustments by adding a little external help, like using a tiny
adjustable capacitor. It's like tuning your guitar just a tiny bit by turning a knob.
 Now, the cool part is that in both cases, there's a special component called a varactor. It's like a tiny
gadget that can change its behavior based on an electrical signal. This varactor helps in smoothly
adjusting the frequency based on the signal it receives, making sure your radio tunes in smoothly to
different stations.
Types of Frequency Modulators
 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO): This type of modulator
changes its output frequency in response to a varying input
voltage. VCOs are often used in frequency synthesizers and
phase-locked loops.
 Phase Modulator (PM): In phase modulation, the phase of the
carrier signal is varied according to the modulating signal. Phase
modulation is closely related to frequency modulation, and in
fact, PM can be translated into frequency modulation.
 Direct FM Modulator: This modulator directly varies the
frequency of the carrier signal based on the input signal. It's a
straightforward method of frequency modulation.
Types of Frequency Modulators
 Indirect FM Modulator: In this type, the frequency of the
carrier signal is first converted to phase modulation, and then the
phase modulation is translated into frequency modulation. This
approach is often used in practical implementations.
 Varactor Modulator: varactors are semiconductor devices that
can change their capacitance in response to a varying voltage.
Varactor modulators use these components to modulate the
frequency of the carrier signal.
 Digital Frequency Modulator: In digital systems, frequency
modulation can be achieved using digital signal processing
techniques. Digital frequency modulators convert digital signals
into analog signals with a modulated frequency.
Types of Frequency Modulators
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): While not a traditional
frequency modulator, FSK is a digital modulation technique
where the frequency of the carrier signal is switched between two
discrete values based on the input digital data.
 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL): While not a modulator in the
traditional sense, a PLL can be used to generate frequency-
modulated signals. The PLL locks onto an input frequency and
can be modulated by adjusting the input to the voltage-controlled
oscillator within the loop.
4.3. Phase Modulators
Phase Modulators
 Varactor Diode Phase Modulator: Similar to how a
varactor diode can be used in frequency modulation, it
can also be employed in phase modulation. By changing
the capacitance of the varactor diode in response to the
modulating signal, the phase of the carrier signal is
modulated.
 Analog Phase Modulator: This type of phase modulator
directly varies the phase of the carrier signal in
accordance with the modulating signal. It can use analog
electronic components to achieve this modulation.
Phase Modulators
 Digital Phase Modulator: In digital communication
systems, phase modulation can be implemented
digitally using digital signal processing techniques.
Digital phase modulators convert digital signals into
analog signals with modulated phase.
 Phase-Shift Keying (PSK): While PSK is often
associated with digital modulation, it's worth
mentioning in the context of phase modulation. In PSK,
the phase of the carrier signal is directly manipulated
based on the digital input, commonly using discrete
phase shifts to represent different digital symbols.
4.4. Frequency Demodulators
Frequency Demodulators
 also known as frequency detectors or discriminators,
are circuits or devices that extract the original information
signal from a frequency-modulated carrier wave.
 The goal of a frequency demodulator is to recover the
modulating signal that was used to modulate the carrier
frequency.
Common Types of Frequency Demodulators
 Frequency-to-Amplitude Conversion (FAM): In this method, the
frequency-modulated signal is converted into an amplitude-modulated
signal. This can be achieved using devices such as resonant circuits
or filters that respond differently to various frequencies. The output is
then rectified to recover the original modulating signal.
 Zero Crossing Detector: This type of demodulator detects the points
at which the frequency-modulated signal crosses zero amplitude. The
time between these zero crossings corresponds to the frequency of
the original modulating signal.
 Phase-Locked Loop (PLL): While PLLs are often used for frequency
synthesis, they can also be employed as frequency demodulators.
The PLL locks onto the carrier frequency and produces an output
signal that represents the frequency variations, allowing the extraction
of the modulating signal.
Common Types of Frequency Demodulators
 Quadrature Detector: In quadrature demodulation, the frequency-
modulated signal is mixed with two signals that are 90 degrees out of
phase with each other. This produces two output signals that are
proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the original signal,
from which the modulating signal can be derived.
 Envelope Detector: While more commonly associated with
amplitude modulation, an envelope detector can be used for frequency
demodulation as well. The carrier frequency is removed, leaving the
variations in amplitude caused by the frequency modulation.
 Phase Discriminator: This demodulator measures the phase
difference between consecutive cycles of the frequency-modulated
signal. The rate of change of this phase difference is proportional to
the frequency of the original modulating signal.
4.5.
Double Sideband System
4.6
Single-Sideband System
SSB and DSB in FM?
 Frequency Modulation (FM) typically does not use the concepts of
double sideband (DSB) or single sideband (SSB) in the same way as
amplitude modulation (AM). FM is inherently a wideband
modulation technique that employs the entire frequency spectrum.
 In FM, the modulating signal (such as an audio signal) causes the
frequency of the carrier signal to vary, producing sidebands around the
carrier frequency. The sidebands are not separate entities like in AM;
instead, they are continuous and extend infinitely in both directions
from the carrier frequency.
 The frequency spectrum of an FM signal looks like a series of
sidebands with decreasing amplitude as you move away from the
carrier frequency. Unlike AM, where you can distinctly identify upper
and lower sidebands, FM's sidebands are not separated, and both sides
of the carrier contribute to conveying the modulating information
SSB and DSB in FM?
The key characteristics of FM modulation include:
1. Wide Frequency Spectrum: FM signals have a wider bandwidth
compared to AM signals. The amount of frequency deviation is
directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
2. Frequency Deviation: The extent to which the carrier frequency
varies is known as frequency deviation and is directly related to
the amplitude of the modulating signal. The greater the amplitude
of the audio signal, the wider the frequency deviation.
3. Constant Amplitude: Unlike AM, where the amplitude varies
with the modulating signal, the amplitude of an FM signal
remains constant. The information is encoded in the frequency
variations.
SSB and DSB in FM?
 While FM doesn't have a DSB or SSB structure in
the same way as AM, there is a related concept known as
Narrowband FM (NBFM) and Wideband FM (WBFM).
 In NBFM, the frequency deviation is kept relatively small,
resulting in a narrower bandwidth.
 WBFM, on the other hand, involves larger frequency
deviations, leading to a wider bandwidth.
 The choice between NBFM and WBFM depends on the
application and the desired trade-off between bandwidth
efficiency and signal quality.
4.7. Envelope Detection
Envelope Detection
 Envelope detection in the context of Frequency Modulation
(FM) involves extracting the original modulating signal
(message signal) from the FM-modulated carrier wave.
 In FM, the information is encoded in the variations of the
carrier frequency, and the envelope of the modulated
waveform does not directly represent the original message
signal.
 Process:
1. Frequency-to-Amplitude Conversion
2. Amplitude Demodulation
3. Envelope Detection
4. Low-Pass Filtering
Envelope Detection
 It's important to note that envelope detection in FM is not as
straightforward as in Amplitude Modulation (AM) because the
information is encoded in the frequency variations rather than
the amplitude. Envelope detection in FM is often used in
scenarios where a simple and cost-effective demodulation
method is acceptable, such as in certain communication
systems or receivers.
 However, envelope detection in FM has limitations. It may
introduce distortion, and the recovered signal may not be
as faithful to the original message signal, especially in the
presence of noise. More sophisticated demodulation
techniques, such as phase-locked loop (PLL) demodulation or
quadrature demodulation, are often preferred for high-quality
FM demodulation in applications where accuracy and fidelity
4.8. FM Generation
FM Generation
 refers
to the process of creating an FM signal,
where the frequency of a carrier wave is
modulated by a varying input signal.
 There are different methods and circuits used for
generating FM signals, and one common approach
involves using a voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO).
 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO): A VCO is an
oscillator whose output frequency can be controlled by an
input voltage. The VCO serves as the carrier signal source in
an FM system.
FM Generation
 Mathematical Representation: The frequency
modulation process can be mathematically represented
by the equation:
Homework – ½ crosswise long bondpaper
 1.The input to an FM receiver has an S/N of
3.8. The modulating frequency is 2.5 kHz.
The maximum permitted deviation is 4 kHz.
What are (a) the frequency deviation caused
by the noise and (b) the improved output
S/N?
 2.Name at least five places where FM is still
used.