I.

Fundamentals of Electronics
Electronic devices are components for controlling the flow of electrical currents for the
purpose of information processing and system control. Prominent examples include transistors
and diodes. Electronic devices are usually small and can be grouped together into packages called
integrated circuits. The purpose of electronic components includes motion control and
information processing.

Basic Components in Electronics

In electronics, fundamental components serve as the building blocks of electronic circuits.

Resistors control the flow of electrical current and are crucial for voltage division, signal shaping,
and current limiting. Capacitors store and release electrical energy, providing filtering, timing, and
energy storage functions in circuits. Inductors are energy storage devices that resist changes in
current, often used in transformers, filters, and coils. Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow
current to flow in one direction, making them vital for converting AC to DC, protecting against
reverse voltage, and generating light in LEDs. Transistors are the workhorses of electronics, serving
as amplifiers and switches.

Semiconductor

Semiconductors like silicon and germanium have a unique conductivity profile, where their
electrical properties can be precisely controlled. This property underpins the operation of
electronic devices like diodes and transistors. A p-n junction, for example, is a fundamental
concept in semiconductor physics, and it plays a central role in diode behavior. Knowledge of
semiconductor behavior is critical for designing and analyzing electronic circuits, as it enables
control and manipulation of electrical current.

Figure 1. P-N Junction

Function of Diode

Diodes are semiconductor devices that have a one-way traffic rule for electrical current.
They allow current to flow in one direction (forward-biased) and block it in the other (reverse-
biased). This unique property makes diodes indispensable in electronics. In rectification, diodes
convert AC into DC, which is essential for power supplies. Diodes are also used for signal clamping,
voltage regulation, and protection against reverse voltage. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light
when forward-biased, making them crucial for indicators, displays, and lighting applications.
Understanding diode behavior is fundamental to various electronic applications.

Figure 2. Diode in forward and reverse bias

Signal Processing in Electronics

Signal processing is a fundamental aspect of electronics that encompasses the

manipulation and analysis of electrical signals. Analog signal processing involves techniques such
as amplification and filtering, essential for applications like audio amplification and RF circuitry.
Digital signal processing (DSP) is the conversion of analog signals into digital form for precise
manipulation using algorithms. DSP underpins modern communication systems, multimedia
processing, and digital control systems. Filters, including low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass
filters, are used to modify signal frequency content, while modulation and demodulation
techniques are crucial in communication systems. Signal analysis, error correction, and handling
noise and interference are key aspects of signal processing, ensuring the reliable extraction of
meaningful information from signals.
II. Radio Transmitters
A radio transmitter is an electronic device that generates and emits radio frequency (RF)
signals or electromagnetic waves, often carrying encoded information, into the surrounding
environment or through a communication channel. It is a fundamental component in wireless
communication systems and broadcasting.
Radio transmitters typically consist of several key components, including an oscillator to
produce the carrier signal, a modulator to impress information onto the carrier signal, and
amplifiers to increase the signal's power to a level suitable for transmission. The transmitter's
signal is then propagated through space via an antenna, allowing it to be received and decoded
by a compatible radio receiver. Radio transmitters are used in various applications, such as radio
broadcasting, television broadcasting, mobile phones, two-way radios, and wireless data
transmission systems, playing a vital role in modern communication technology.

AM Transmitter

The amplitude modulation technique is used in AM transmitters, here the amplitude of the
carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal, keeping its frequency
and phase constant. In AM Transmitter, the AM signal is transmitted by a transmitter. The
information is contained in its amplitude variation. AM transmitter is used in radio & TV
broadcasting.

Types of AM Transmission:

Low-Level Modulation Transmitters

Figure 3. Low-Level Modulation Transmitters

The RF oscillator produces the carrier signal. The RF oscillator is stabilized in order to
maintain the frequency deviation within the prescribed limit. The carrier frequency is equal to the
transmitter frequency. Usually, the transmitter operates on assigned frequencies or channels.
Crystal provides the best way to obtain the described frequency with good stability. The LC
oscillators cannot be used because they have low-frequency stability. The carrier signal from the
crystal oscillator is applied to the modulator with a modulating signal. At the output of the
modulator, we get the AM wave.

The modulating signal is obtained from a source such as a microphone and applied to a
buffer processing unit. The buffer is a class A amplifier that isolates the AF source from the rest of
the high-power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level. The amplified modulating signal is
applied to the modulator along with the carrier. At the output of the modulator, we get the AM
wave. The AM signal is then amplified using a chain of linear amplifiers to raise the power level.

The linear amplifier can be a class A, AB, or B type amplifier. The linear amplifier is used in
order to avoid the waveform distortion in AM waves. The amplitude-modulated signal is then
transmitted using a transmitted antenna.

The AF modulating signal is passed through an audio processing unit before applying it
to the modulator. This block carries out some form of “speech processing" in the form of filtering
and amplitude control. The weak signals are amplified automatically with a higher gain and strong
signals are amplified with a smaller gain. This will bring all the signals to a sufficient level.

High-Level Modulation Transmitters

Figure 4. High-Level Modulation Transmitters

The crystal oscillator produces the required carrier signal. The class A amplifier following
the oscillator acts as a buffer that isolates the oscillator from the high-power circuit. The output
of this class A amplifier is applied to a class C power amplifier. It raises the power level of the
carrier to an intermediately high value. The AF modulating signal is applied to the audio
processing unit which processes this signal as discussed in the previous section.

COMPARISON BETWEEN LOW-LEVEL AND HIGH-LEVEL MODULATION

Low-Level Modulation High-Level Modulation

Power Level Modulation is carried out at a low Modulation is carried out at high power
power level.
Amplifier Need fewer stages. Need more amplifier stages.
Stages
Power After modulation linear amplifiers can Nonlinear amplifiers can also be used.
efficiency only be used. This gives lower power This leads to higher power efficiency.
efficiency.
Power losses Power losses in amplifiers are higher, Power losses are less, the cooling
the cooling problem is severe problem is not severe.
Applications Used as higher power broadcast Used in TV transmitters.
transmitters.

Table 1. Comparison between Low-Level and High-Level Modulation

FM Transmitter

In FM frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating
signal keeping its amplitude constant. The FM transmitter can be used in radio, TV sound
broadcasting & and police wireless transmission. In an FM transmitter, the FM signal is transmitted
by a transmitter. The information is contained in its frequency variation.

FM transmitters are versatile and have various applications, from broadcasting music from
a smartphone to a car radio to providing audio for home stereo systems. They modulate an audio
signal onto an FM carrier wave, allowing it to be received and played by FM radios tuned to the
corresponding frequency. FM transmitters are often compact and portable, making them useful
for personal audio broadcasting and in-car entertainment systems.

In the Philippines, the usual band and bandwidth range for FM radio broadcasting follows
international standards. FM radio broadcasting in the Philippines operates in the VHF (Very High
Frequency) band. The specific frequency range and bandwidth may vary, but the standard FM
broadcasting band in the Philippines typically falls within the 87.5 MHz to 108.0 MHz range. The
bandwidth of FM radio stations in the Philippines adheres to the international standard of
approximately 200 kHz. This means that the usable frequency range for each FM station is about
100 kHz on either side of its assigned frequency, allowing for stereo audio transmission. For
providing high quality reliable music the maximum frequency deviation allowed is 75KHz, with a
maximum modulating signal frequency of 15 KHz.

III. Communication Receivers

A communication receiver is an electronic device or system designed to receive, decode,
and process signals or information transmitted via various communication channels. It is used for
the reception of telegraph and short-wave telephone signals. Receivers play a critical role in
communication systems by capturing and converting transmitted signals, such as radio waves,
electromagnetic waves, or electrical signals, into a format that can be understood, interpreted,
and used by humans or other electronic devices. Communication receivers are used in various
applications, such as radio and television reception, wireless communication, satellite
communication, and more.

Figure 5. Communication Receiver

The primary functions of a communication receiver typically include signal reception,

demodulation (if the signal is modulated), filtering, amplification, and often decoding or
demodulation of the information carried by the received signal. The output of a communication
receiver is usually in the form of audio, video, or data that can be presented to the user or used
for further processing. The design and capabilities of a receiver can vary widely depending on the
specific communication technology and the type of information it is intended to receive.

A communication receiver consists of various components and stages that collectively

perform these functions, which are integral parts of the receiver. These functions and stages are
not separate types of receivers but rather the essential processes that a communication receiver
goes through to receive, process, and deliver information:

Reception of Signals - This refers to the process of capturing incoming signals or data from
various sources, such as radio waves or electrical impulses, which is the initial step in a
communication receiver's operation.

Signal Amplification - Signal amplification involves boosting the strength of the received signal,
ensuring that even weak or distant signals are sufficiently strong for further processing.

Filtering - Filtering is the method used to select specific frequencies or data from the received
signal while eliminating unwanted frequencies or noise, thereby improving signal quality.

Downconversion (Frequency Conversion) - Downconversion is the technique of shifting the

frequency of the received signal to a lower intermediate frequency (IF), simplifying subsequent
processing and signal extraction.

Demodulation - Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information, whether it's
audio, video, or data, from the received signal based on the modulation scheme used in the
communication system.

Signal Processing - Signal processing involves further enhancement or extraction of specific data
from the demodulated signal. In digital systems, it can include error correction, data decoding,
and encryption/decryption.

Output - The output stage of a communication receiver is where the processed information, such
as audio, video, or data, is delivered and made available for use by a display, speaker, or data
terminal.

IV. Analog Pulse Modulation

Analog Pulse Modulation (APM) is a type of modulation technique used in electronics and
telecommunications to transmit analog signals over a digital or discrete communication channel.
It involves encoding an analog signal into a pulse train, where the characteristics of the pulse train,
such as the amplitude, width, or position of the pulses, represent the variations in the original
analog signal.

Analog Pulse Modulation is commonly used in applications where continuous analog

signals need to be transmitted over digital communication systems, such as in audio transmission,
instrumentation, and control systems. However, it's important to note that APM is susceptible to
noise and may require careful demodulation techniques to accurately recover the original analog
signal.
There are several common types of Analog Pulse Modulation, including:

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) - It is the simplest form of pulse modulation. In PAM, the
amplitude of the pulses varies in accordance with the instantaneous value of the analog signal.
Higher amplitudes correspond to higher signal values, while lower amplitudes represent lower
signal values. The amplitude of a constant width, constant position pulse (carrier signal) is varied
according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. Basically, the modulating signal is sampled
by the digital train of pulses and the process is based on the sampling theorem.

Figure 6. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) - modulation in which the amplitude of pulses is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) – It is also known as Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM). In PWM,
the width or duration of the pulses is adjusted to encode the analog signal. A higher signal value
results in a wider pulse, while a lower signal value leads to a narrower pulse. The technique of
varying the width of the constant amplitude pulse proportional to the amplitude of the
modulation signal. Either the leading edge, trailing edge or both may be varied by the modulating
signal.

PWM gives better signal-to-noise performance than PAM. PWM has an advantage when
compared with PPM, that is its pulse is of varying width and therefore of varying power content.
PWM still works if synchronization between transmitter and receiver fails, whereas PPM does not.
Figure 7. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) - modulation in which the duration of pulses is varied
in accordance with the modulating signal

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) - PPM encodes the analog signal by varying the position in
time at which the pulses occur. The time intervals between pulses represent different signal values.
When the position of a constant-width and constant-amplitude pulse within a prescribed time
slot is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating signal. It has the advantage of
requiring constant transmitter power output, but the disadvantage of depending on transmitter-
receiver synchronization. PPM has less noise due to amplitude changes, because the received
pulses may be clipped at the receiver, thus removing amplitude changes caused by noise.

Figure 8. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) - modulation in which the temporal positions of the
pulses are varied in accordance with some characteristics of the modulating signal.